Modeling of Nonlinear Components for Harmonic Studies

G. W. Chang and Y. Liu, Senior Members, IEEE

Abstrucf-This paper presents an overview of major power electronic types and conventional devices with nonlinear voltagecurrent characteristics of harmonic sources for the power system harmonic analysis. The power electronic switching types of harmonic sources to he reviewed include static power converters, static var compensators, and cycloconverters. Harmonic sources with nonlinear voltage-current characteristics include iron-core reactors, transformers, rotating machines, and arc furnaces. The generating characteristics and modeling methods of these sources are reviewed and summarized in this paper. Index Terms-Static power converter, Static var compensator, Cycloconverter, Transformers, Reactors, Rotary machines, Arc furnaces I. INTRODUCTION

HE purpose of harmonic studies is to quantify the distortion in voltage andor current waveforms at various locations in a power system. The need for a harmonic study may he indicated by excessive measured distortion in existing
systems or by installation of harmonic producing equipment. One important step in harmonic studies is to characterize and to model harmonic-generating sources. In general, major harmonic soorces can be categorized as 1) Devices that generate harmonics during their switching processes. The most commonly seen are power electronic devices: 2) Devices that generate harmonics due to their nonlinear voltage-current characteristics; 3) Hybrid devices that include both types of aforementioned devices; and 4) Devices such as rotating machines that harmonics are generated because of nonsinusoidal flux distribution in the stator and the harmonic interaction between the stator and field windings. Among those sources of the first category, three-phase power electronic devices play a significant role in generating harmonics. Commonly Seen three-phase power electronic devices include static converters that are often used in HVDC links and motor drives, static var compensators, and cycloconverters. These devices are sensitive to supply voltage distortion and unbalance. Typical harmonic sources of the second category are transformers, reactors, AC arc furnaces, and fluorescent lamps with electromacnetic ballasts. Harmonics generated from transformers and reactors occur when the ;ore flux

enters the saturated region of the magnetization curve driven by over-excitation. AC arc furnaces generate both integer- and inter-harmonics during their electrode striking, melting and refining stages of operation. The harmonics generated are dynamic and random in nature. The fluorescent lamps with electromagnetic ballasts are among the most important and efficient lighting devices. The current waveform of a fluorescent lamp is highly non-sinusoidal due to its luminous discharge mechanism and due to its magnetic ballast which is mainly an iron core. Therefore, such lighting loads generate significant amount of odd harmonics during their operations. For the third category of harmonic sources, it consists DC arc furnaces and fluorescent lamps with electronic ballasts. The harmonics produced by a DC arc furnace concentrates at orders of (6h21). h = 0, 1, 2, .... However, inter-harmonics are also generated due to the stochastic nature of the arc. The electronic ballast for fluorescent lamp employs high frequency switching to achieve greater flexibility in power conversion. Due to the large amount of different types of electronic ballasts, the harmonics produced by a fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast vary dramatically. In general, these harmonics are of all orders with even harmonics being of small magnitudes. The harmonic sources of the fourth category mainly include synchronous machines and induction motors. The mechanism of harmonic generation in synchronous machines is unique. It cannot be described by using either machine's nonlinear voltagecurrent characteristics or the power electronic switching model. Only the salient pole synchronous machines operated under unbalanced conditions can generate harmonics with sufficient magnitudes. For the cases of saturation-caused harmonic generation from rotating machines, the nonlinear voltageatrent characteristics can be used. The interactions between induction motors and harmonic voltages/currents are more complex than that of a synchronous machine. Therefore, the modeling of an induction motor can be very complex. The induction motor is either represented by equivalent harmonic impedance or by a three-phase coupled matrix in harmonic analysis. 11. THREE-PHASE POWER ELECTRONIC DEVICES
A. Six-Pulse Line-Commutated Converters

of E I ~ ~ ~u" g ~ i~ ~e ~ eIrNational i~~, G . w.chang is with the Chug Cheng University, Chia-Yi, 621 TAIWAN (e-mail: wchang@ee.ccu.edu.lw). Y. Liu is with the D e p m n t of E l d c a l and Computer Engineering, VBginiaTech, Blacksburg,V A 24061 USA (e-mil: Yilu@vt.edu).

In general, a three-phase line-commutated converter can be simply represented by a harmonic c-nt Source or a model that takes into account the interaction between the ac source network and the converter dc system. Several techniques for modeling the converter can he categorized as the frequency-

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domain and the time-domain based models. The frequencydomain models are further divided into current source model, transfer function model, Norton-equivalent circuit model, harmonic-domain model, and three-pulse model. Timedomain models include representing the converter by a set of differential equations and the state-space model. Some of these models can be integrated in harmonic power flow analysis while the others are not. The most common technique for harmonic simulation is to treat the converter as known sources of harmonic currents or voltages with or without including phase angle information. The frequency-domain nodal equations for each harmonic are used to compute the network harmonic voltages via the system harmonic admittance or impedance matrix. The superposition is then applied to convert the solved values of all harmonic voltages into the time domain at each network bus. This model applies to both balanced and unbalanced converter systems. For harmonic studies involving one converter, the phase angles are ignored and only the magnitudes are used in the harmonic simulation. However, harmonic phase angles need to he included when multiple sources are considered simultaneously for taking the harmonic cancellation effect into account. The advantages of the current source method are that the solution can always he obtained directly and it is computationally efficient. The drawback of this method is that typical harmonic spectra are often used to represent the harmonic currents generated by the converter that ignores the interaction between the network and the converter. This prevents an adequate assessment of cases involving non-typical operating modes. Reference [ I ] presents a transfer function model based on the modulation theory that uses two transfer functions to relate the dc and ac sides of the converter. The two transfer functions can include the deviation terms of the firing angle and commutation overlap as well as effects of converter input voltage distortion or unbalance and harmonic contents in the output dc current. In [2]-[4] the authors propose efficient techniques by linearizing the interaction between the converter dc system and the ac network at different converter operating points of interests. The entire system is then solved via the harmonic coupling matrix equation to account for the interaction. In the iterative harmonic analysis, the converter is usually represented by a fixed harmonic current source at each iteration. For better convergence, the Norton equivalent can be used for the converter. Reference 151 propose a three-phase harmonic Norton-equivalent circuit model which is developed to represent the converters of HVDC links under both unbalanced and distorted input conditions. The authors also extended the method for modeling ac and dc motor drives. This model is suitable for various drive operating conditions [61. ~71. A harmonic-domain model that formulates a general set of non-linear equations describing the converter in steady state is developed in [SI. In the proposed method, it analyzes the converter by observing the converter passing through a sequence of twelve switching states describing its conduction and commutation patterns by means of complex harmonic

phasors for each state. The nonlinear mismatch equations representing switching states are then solved via Newton method. The converter response to an applied terminal voltage is characterized via convolutions in the harmonic domain. Because this model takes only one cycle of ac input voltage as the fundamental, and so only harmonics are analyzed. If necessary, this model can be extended to the steady state over several cycles that allow inter-harmonics to he solved and multiple-converter systems [9]-[ 1 I]. Reference [I21 proposes a 3-pulse model which includes the current path provided by the stray capacitance of the HVDC converter. Assuming ideal input voltages, the dc side voltage of the six-pulse converter is decomposed into two 3pulse voltage sources (upper and lower) explaining the generation of all odd harmonics plus those multiples of six. Based on the 3-pulse model, an analytic solution for describing the harmonic transfer in a HVDC converter with taking into account the effects of unbalanced and distorted input voltages is also shown in [ 131. In the time domain, a converter can he expressed as a set of differential equations or state equations that govern its performance. After solving these equations, the harmonic spectra of converter input currents are generally found by the use of Fourier method such as fast Fourier transform [141[16]. This device model usually can he integrated with frequency-donlain network model for harmonic power flow analysis or used in a time-domain simulation including the power system [17], [18]. Reference [19] presents a statespace model that includes the system frequency-dependent impedance with the converter which can he used in iterative harmonic analysis to improve convergence.

B. Stutic Vur Compensators

The static var compensator (SVC) is used as a voltage controller that dynamically conuols network voltages by adjusting the amount of reactive power supplied to or absorbed from the powcr system. Harmonic models of a TCR can he categorized in the frequency and the time domains. The frequency-domain models include current source model, Norton-equivalent model, and transfer function model. The time-domain models include state-space model and those conventional time-domain models that represent the TCRs as a set of differential equations. The harmonic contents of a TCR can he obtained with the use of discrete Fourier analysis for the given supply voltage, which produces the harmonic currents to he used as a current source model for the TCR. Reference [20] also proposes a similar model based on Fourier transform which corresponds to the real and imaginary pans of the harmonic current at each order. Reference 1211 also presents a Norton-equivalent model for the delta-connected TCRs when the input voltage is unbalanced and is used in a harmonic power flow analysis. It is assumed that no coupling between the Norton-equivalent circuits at different harmonics and the conduction angle of the TCR is known. A similar approach is shown in 1221 and 1231 which linearizes the nonlinear inductor of the three-phase delta-connected TCR as a harmonic-domain voltage-

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dependent Norton-equivalent circuit, where the asymmetrically gated control action is included. For improving computational efficiency, [24] presents a Nortonequivalent model of the three-phase TCR in Hartleys domain, where unbalances in input voltages, firing angles and inductances are taken into account. In [25] a transfer function model is used to compute the harmonics generated by a naturally commutated single-phase TCR in the complex conjugate phasor space is proposed, where the coupling of harmonics in TCR switching circuit through the system impedance is taken into account. Reference [ 2 6 ] also presents a transfer function model that uses Walsh transformation for computing the three-phase TCR input current harmonics. In the model the TCR transfer function is the developed harmonic admittance matrix consisted of Walsh Norton-equivalent admittance and TCR admittance matrix without including the supply system Thkvenin equivalent. A more efficient solution is expected than that obtained by using Fourier series or Hartley series. In 1271 the authors develop a three-phase TCR transfer function model to compute the TCR current harmonics in the frequency domain, where the transfer function is the switching function that relates the supply line voltage and the reactor voltage. The TCR current harmonics are then computed in the frequency domain. Reference [25] also introduces a state-space model for a single-phase SVC that includes a fixed capacitor in parallel with the TCR, where the power system is represented by its Thevenin equivalent. Using the linear system theory, the periodic time-varying system can be solved and the resonant condition of the circuit is also identified. Another timedomain TCR model is proposed in [28], where two antiparallel thyristors are replaced by two time-varying resistors. An equivalenf resistance is then used to represent these resistors. The equivalent resistance becomes zero when any of the thyristors is conducted. Then, the TCR state equation of TCR current is efficiently solved by the use of a novel Newton method for speeding the convergence of the TCR current. A TSC model is proposed in [291 with two thyristors in anti-parallel and the capacitor to be switched. Besides, a series inductance is considered as well as a small resistance. The thyristor gating control is based on the switching-on cycle, switching-on angle, swtching-off cycle and switchingoff angle variables. In addition, two general time-domain SVC models based on the nodal analysis that integrated in EMTP to predict possible harmonic interactions between the SVC and its supply system are also proposed in [30] and [31]. In both models efficient initialization methods are used to improve the solutions.

includes sidebands of the characteristic harmonics. The sideband frequencies vary with the output frequency of the cycloconverter, resulting in a frequency spectrum that changes as the motor speed is adjusted. Since the harmonic frequencies generated by a cycloconverter depend on its changed output frequency, it is very difficult to eliminate them completely. Also, there are little literature on the subject of harmonic analysis and modeling of a cycloconverter under abnormal operations, such as input voltage unbalanced or distorted or non-sinusoidal load currents. Up to date, the timedomain and current source models are commonly used for modeling harmonic characteristics of cycloconverters [32]-[34]. The harmonic currents injected into a power system by cycloconverters still present a challenge to both researchers and industrial engineers. 111. NONLINEAR MAGNETIC CORE AND ARCING SOURCES
A. Transformers and Reactors

For these types of components, harmonics are generated from the magnetic core saturation, which begins when the core flux driven by over-excitation enters the non-linear region of the magnetization curve. The harmonics generated depend not only on the saturation level of the magnetic core, but also on the structure and configuration of the component. Several models used for harmonic analysis include the equivalent circuit model, the harmonic-domain model, the duality-based model, and the timedomain (differential equation) model. A transformer can be represented by a resistance in series with an assembly consisting of a leakage inductance and a resistance in parallel which core saturation can he included. In such model, the core losses can be represented by a piecewise linear v-i curve or a constant value and the nonlinear excitation inductance is often modeled by a two-slope inductance or more precisely by a multi-slope piecewise curve

[35]-[38].
The harmonic-domain representation of transformers is of special interests in recent years [39]-[42]. The harmonic domain is based on a linearization process around a particular operation point. In this frame of reference the harmonic coupling, phase unbalance and winding connections are explicitly represented. This linearization process allows the representation of nonlinear saturation of the transformer. In detailed models of multilimh power transformers the core geometry, saturation at different regions of the magnetic core and winding connections are taken into account and explicitly represented in a Norton harmonic equivalent. The electromagnetic behavior of the transformer at harmonic frequencies and the harmonic interaction occurred between generation and transmission systems can be analyzed as well. Duality-based models are necessary to represent multilegged transformers because a simple Tee model cannot represent their complex core topology accurately [431, [441. The equivalent circuit of such a model is derived from the duality between magnetic and electric circuits. The circuit parameters are derived from experimental data. Nonlinear inductance is used to model the core saturation.

C. Cycloconverters
A cycloconverter is a frequency changer that directly converts ac power at one input frequency to output power at a different frequency without the requirement of a dc link, where the output frequency is usually limited to one-third of the input frequency for reducing the output harmonics. The cycloconverter generates very complex frequency spectrum that

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Time-domain models represent a transformer as a set of ordinary differential equations [451-[47]. The equations describe the relationships between winding voltages, winding currents, winding resistance, winding turns, magneto-motive forces, mutual fluxes, leakage fluxes, and reluctances. Saturation, hysteresis, and eddy current effects can be well modeled. Numerical integration algorithms are used to solve the equations. Among these models, the one represented in a matrix form is of special interest, where saturation effects are modeled by connecting the piecewise nonlinear inductance across the winding closest to the core.

B. Rotating Machines The origins of harmonics generated by synchronous machines include non-sinusoidal flux distribution, frequency conversion process, and saturation of the excitation circuit. For balanced harmonic analysis, a synchronous machine is often modeled by an approximated inductance represented by the direct and quadrature sub-transient inductance at each harmonic order or represented by a more complex one, such as the three-phase coupled matrix model that considers saturation effects [46], [48]. A frequency-dependent three-phase equivalent circuit model that counts for the frequency conversion process, the saturation effects and the machines load flow constraints has been proposed in [49]. These models are useful for analyzing specialized operating conditions where the harmonics from the machine are of primary concern. The reactions of an induction motor to harmonic voltages and currents are more complex than that of a synchronous machine. For system harmonic analysis, the motor is either modeled as impedance for balanced systems, or as a threephase coupled matrix for unbalanced systems. The balanced equivalent impedance can be derived from the following equivalent models: generalized double-cage model, frequency-dependent T model, equivalent T model, subtransient reactance model, and simplified model. In these models, for each harmonic order of concerns, the equivalent circuit can be obtained by multiplying h with each of its reactance component [50]-[53]. All of the above models yield almost the same equivalent impedance except the frequency dependent T model, which considers the skin effect as well as the saturation of rotor tips at high frequencies [54]. To include saturation, nonlinear reactance can be used for time domain solutions. For unbalanced system harmonic analysis, the three-phase coupled matrix that composed by the zero and positive sequence impedances can be used.

C. Arc Furnaces
Arc furnaces are commonly encountered in steel plants. Due to the uncontrolled nature of the steel melting process, current harmonics generated by arc furnaces are unpredictable and random. Due to current chopping and igniting in each half cycle of the supply voltage, arc furnaces generate a wide range of harmonic frequencies. Though an arc furnace can be modeled simply as an inductor and a resistor in series, many more complex models

were proposed to better represent its harmonic characteristics. These models include nonlinear resistance model, current source model, voltage source model, frequency-domain model, and time-domain (power balance) model. Among these models, nonlinear resistance model and major harmonic voltage source model are simple but cannot represent the stochastic characteristic of an arc furnace. Current source model and amplitude modulated voltage source model can simulate the arc furnace statistically correct. Nonlinear time varying models and power balance models are new ways of arc furnace modeling. Frequency domain model is for steadystate iterative harmonic analysis. When the typical v-i curve of an arc furnace is linearly simplified, the arc furnace can be represented as an equivalent circuit, where a positive resistor is in parallel with a negative resistor which is in series with a current-controlled switch L.551. It is a primitive model and does not consider the time variation behavior of arc furnaces. Typically an arc furnace is modeled as a current source. The source current can he represented in Fourier series, where the Fourier coefficients may change randomly every period [56]. The voltage source model for arc furnaces is a Thkvenin equivalent circuit. The equivalent impedance is the furnace load impedance (including the electrodes). The voltage source is modeled in different ways. One way is to form it by major harmonic components that are known empirically. This method may lose the stochastic characteristics of arc furnaces, like the nonlinear resistance model does. A more proper way is to account for the stochastic characteristics of the arc furnace and model the voltage source as square waves with modulated amplitude. A new value for the voltage amplitude is generated after every zero-crossings of the arc current when the arc must restrike. Several methods have been proposed to generate the amplitude value for each half cycle of the arc current [57], [%I. References [591 and [601 propose a nonlinear time varying voltage source model, where the arc voltage is defined as a function of the arc length. The time variation of the arc length is modeled with deterministic or stochastic laws, and both laws can be applied to a balanced and an unbalanced arc furnace. Reference [61] proposes a nonlinear time varying resistance model that random fluctuation in arc resistance is considered, where furnace operation is described by three basic states of open circuit, short circuit and normal operation. Reference [43] also presents a model the arc resistance is randomly varying at a periodical manner for DC furnace. A recently proposed time varying resistance model relates the reference arc furnace resistance via a positive resistance and a negative resistance to the short-term power consumed by the arc furnace. The static model depends only on the active power and v-i characteristics of the arc furnace while the dynamic model has time variations [62]. In the frequency domain, the arc furnace is modeled as parallel harmonic current sources 1631, 1641. In 1651, a threephase arc furnace model is proposed in the frequency domain for steady state iterative harmonic analysis (IHA). The model describes the arc furnace in two operation modes: the discontinuous operation mode and the continuous operation

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mode. The time-domain power balance model describes the arc furnace with an ordinary differential equation, where the is the arc radius. For both time-domain and frequency-domain models, Newton techniques can he used for the fast computation of the periodic steady-state solution [66].

IV. CONCLUSIONS
the F~~ an accurate power system harmonic adequate models of harmonic sources are required. In this paper, characteristics and modeling of major harmonic sources are reviewed. Conventionally, the balanced and nondistorted input 10 the harmonic sources is assumed, and the current source model is sufficient for the representation ofthe harmonic source. However, under the non-ideal input situations, non-characteristic harmonics are generated and more advanced harmonic models may be necessary for harmonic penetration studies. As described in the . paper, _ many methods for modeling harmonic sources in the frequency and the time domains have been proposed, where the non-linearity and stochastic nature of harmonic sources aTe properly modeled.

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VI. BIOGRAPHES
Gary W. Chang (S92-M94-SM01), received his Ph.D. &gee from the University of Texas at Austin in 1994. Hc was with Siemns Power T&D of USA hom 1995 to 1998. Currently. he is an Associate Professor of the D e p m n t of Electrical Engineering at National C h u g Cheng University, Taiwan. His areas of research interest include power systems optimization, h m n i c s , and power quality. DT.Chang is a member of Tau Beta Pi and a registered professional engineer in the State of Mimes-. He chairs the IEEE Task Force on H m n i c s Modeling & Simulation.

Yilu Liu is a Professor of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. She received the BS degree from Xian Jiaotong University, China. in 1978, and MS and PhD degrees from The Ohia State University in 1985 and 1989, respectively. Her areas of research interest include power system transients. power quality. and power system e q u i p modeling and diagnoses. Dr. Liu is a recipient of the 1993 National Science Fwodation Young Investigator Award and the 1994 Residential Faculty Fellow Award.

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