Nutrition

Nutrients:
Biological molecules are often called organic molecules since many of them were discovered in living organisms. These compounds all contain carbon atoms, along with other elements. Carbon atoms bond strongly to other carbon atoms, so organic molecules can be large and show a wide variety of chain and ring structures, with many carbon atoms bonded together. Organisms need organic molecules to: Provide energy to drive life processes Provide raw materials for the growth and repair of tissues.

Hydrolysis is the breakdown of large molecules to smaller ones by the addition of water whereas condensation is when large molecules are built up from smaller ones by the removal of water. Nutrition is the taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw materials of energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them. It supplies living organisms with the molecules that they need. There are four main groups of organic chemicals used by living things: Carbohydrates Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates. An example of one is glucose. It is soluble so it is easily transported in blood and dissolves in the cytoplasm of the cell. Monosaccharides are

the main source of energy for many cells.

Polysaccharides are formed from many molecules of monosacharides. For example, starch and glycogen are two polysaccharides both made of many thousands of glucose molecules. They are insoluble thus making them good stores of energy and can from important structures such as cellulose cell walls.

To test for starch, a carbohydrate, a few drops of iodine solution are added to the unknown solution and the mixture is gently shaken. A deep blue-black colour is a positive result.

Carbohydrates can be found in rice, potatoes, wheat and cereals in the form of starch. Its main function in humans is an energy source. Glucose is oxidised in respiration to release energy for active transport, cell division, muscle contraction and the manufacture of large biological molecules. Excess carbohydrate can be stored as glycogen and as fat.

Lipids Lipids are formed by the condensation of three molecules of fatty acid and one molecule of glycerol. Fats and oils are insoluble in water, thus making them excellent stores of energy. They also form barriers between watery environments, such as between a cell and its surroundings.

The emulsion test is undertaken to find out whether a solution contains lipids. As fats and oils are insoluble in water, ethanol is used instead. It is added to mixture and gently shaken. The mixture is then poured into an equal volume of water and if a lipid is present, a milky-white emulsion is formed.

Meat and animal foods (eggs, milk and cheese) are rich in saturated fats and cholesterol. Plant sources such as sunflower seeds and peanuts are rich in unsaturated fats. Fats and oils are an important source of energy and are especially valuable as an energy store. They also provide insulation and can make steroid hormones.

Proteins Proteins are made up of long chains of subunits called amino acids, joined together in particular sequences which are coded for by genes. Some are long and thin, such as keratin (found in hair and nails), whilst others are more egg shaped like haemoglobin (found in red blood cells).

To test for protein, a few drops of Biuret reagent are added to the solution and the mixture is gently shaken. A purple colour is a positive result.

Protein can be obtained from meat, fish and eggs. One of the best sources of protein is the soya bean. This contains very little fat and is suitable for people with health problems. Proteins have many functions including: Catalysts (enzymes) Transport molecules (eg. haemoglobin) Structural materials (eg. muscles) Hormones (eg. insulin) Antibodies

Vitamins and minerals are essential for the body to be able to use the other nutrients efficiently. However, they are only needed in a small amount. Here are some of them: Vitamin C Found in citrus fruits; it can protect cells from ageing. If there is a lack of vitamin C, respiration is affected so energy supplies are reduced. Scurvy can also occur. Vitamin D Found in liver, dairy products, eggs and fish liver oil; it can be made by the body but only if there is plenty of sunlight. If there is not enough vitamin D in the body, a person may get rickets.

Iron A mineral. Found in red meat, liver and some leafy vegetables. It is added to food when metal utensils are used in cooking. If there is not enough iron in the body, a person can get anaemia.

Calcium A mineral. Found in milk, cheese and fish. A shortage of calcium in the body can cause rickets, weak bones and teeth, poor clotting of blood and spasms.

Water is extremely important to humans; in fact, in forms 70 % of the body. Humans lose 1.5 litres a day and must be replaced by water in the diet. A 10 % loss of the bodys water can cause death. It can be obtained in three ways: Drinks Food Metabolic processes

Dietary fibre is the indigestible part of food, largely cellulose from plant cell walls, which provides bulk for the faeces. Plenty of fibre in the diet stretches the muscles of the gut wall and helps pus the food along by peristalsis. A shortage of fibre can cause constipation and maybe even bowel cancer. The manufacture of yoghurt Yoghurt is milk that has been soured by fermentation of lactose and thickened by denaturation of protein. Here is how it is done: Note: Bold text denotes name of process, whilst italic text denotes what the milk is like after each process.

1. Homogenisation 2. Thick milk with a uniform distribution of fat globules. 3. Pasteurisation - heat at 90 C for 15-30 seconds, then cool to 45 C 4. Milk is now free from dangerous bacteria also thicker due to denaturation of casein (milk protein). 5. Incubation the culture of bacteria (Lactobacillus) kept at 45 C converts: Lactose lactic acid (milk sugar) 6. Soured, partially clotted milk with mildly acidic taste: natural yoghurt. 7. Cooling to 4 C halts reaction. Fruits/nuts may be added after they have sterilised. 8. The yoghurt is now a flavoured product for sale/consumption.

Plant Nutrition:
Plants require raw materials for building tissues and a source of energy. They manufacture everything they need out of simple ions and compounds by a process called photosynthesis. Exactly, Photosynthesis is the fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light. Photosynthesis can be summarised in these two equations: Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen 6CO2 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 6O2

Factors required for photosynthesis include: The availability of light Light provides the energy that drives photosynthesis. The light energy absorbed depends on the intensity of the light source, the wavelength of the light and the length of time that light is available. The presence of a pigment to absorb the light Plants can absorb and use light energy because they have a green pigment, chlorophyll, contained in chloroplast in some of their cells. It traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage. A supply of carbon dioxide and water Carbon dioxide concentration has a major influence on the rate of photosynthesis since it is the substrate that is in the shortest supply. A shortage of water closes stomata which limits carbon dioxide uptake.

A temperature suitable for enzyme activity. Temperature affects the rate of enzyme activity; a 10C can cause a doubling in the rate of enzyme activity (however the enzyme may become denatured). This is important in both leaves (enzyme directly involved in photosynthesis) and in roots (enzyme systems involved in active transport of mineral ions).

In an enclosed environment, such as a greenhouse, it is possible to control the factors affecting photosynthesis to get the maximum yield from a crop.

In order to photosynthesis efficiently, a leaf needs: A method for exchange of gases between the leaf and its surroundings. A way of delivering water to the leaf. A system for the removal of glucose so that it can be transported to other parts of the plant. An efficient means of absorbing light energy. Features of the leaf

Waxy cuticle: Reduces water loss. It is thicker on the upper surface since this surface is usually more exposed to the warming rays of sunlight.

Upper epidermis: A complete covering which is usually one cell thick. It is transparent to allow the free passage of light, and has the major function of preventing the entry of disease causing organisms such as bacteria and fungi.

Palisade mesophyll: Tall thin cells arranged in columns and separated by very narrow air spaces. Cells contain many chloroplasts, and the dense packing of these cells allows the absorption of the maximum amount of light energy.

Vein: The transport system in and out of the leaf. The xylem vessels deliver water and mineral salts, and the phloem sieve tubes carry away the organic products of photosynthesis, such as glucose.

Spongy mesophyll: These cells are rather loosely packed, and are covered with a thin layer of water. The air spaces between them aid the diffusion of gases through the leaf. The air spaces are saturated with water vapour so water diffuses out of the leaf.

These minute pores allow the entry of carbon dioxide and the exit of oxygen . It is closed when no carbon dioxide intake is needed (in the dark, for example).

Magnesium is absorbed from the soil as magnesium ions (Mg2+). Magnesium forms part of the chlorophyll molecule. Deficiency causes chlorosis the leaves turn yellow, usually from the bottom of the plant first. Nitrogen is absorbed from the soil as nitrate ions (No-3) or ammonium ions (NH4+). Because nitrogen is required for so many food molecules, especially proteins (including enzymes), deficiency causes severe symptoms. The whole plant is stunted, with a weak stem and yellowing, dying leaves. Excessive use of fertilisers can cause problems such as eutrophication.

Animal Nutrition:
The total of the molecules or nutrients that a person needs is called the diet. A balanced diet provides all the nutrients, in the correct amounts, needed to carry out the life processes. If the diet does not provide all the nutrients in the correct proportion, a person may suffer from malnutrition. A balanced diet should contain the correct proportions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins and minerals, water and dietary fibre. Nutrition in animals involves a sequence of processes. Here are them in order: 1. Ingestion: The taking in of substances (eg. food, drink) into the body through the mouth. 2. Digestion: The break-down of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water-soluble molecules using mechanical and chemical processes.

a. There are two types of digestion, mechanical digestion, where the teeth and tongue break the food into small pieces, and chemical digestion, where enzymes break down the food to small, soluble molecules. 3. Absorption: The movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood. 4. Egestion: The passing out of food that has not been digested, as faeces, through the anus. In humans and many other animals, these processes take place in the alimentary canal (sometimes called the gut). It is a specialised tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. The alimentary canal contains highly specialised organs whose functions are related to those five processes. Here are some of the more important ones: The Alimentary Canal Ingestion: 1. Mouth here food enters the alimentary canal. It is converted to a bolus of food produced by teeth, tongue and saliva during mastification (food is cut up by the teeth and
the pieces are mixed with saliva from the tongue) ready for swallowing.

2. Salivary glands three pairs, produce saliva and pour it into the mouth through salivary ducts. 3. Epiglottis flap of muscle which closes the entry to the trachea during swallowing. 4. Oesophagus muscular tube which helps food move to stomach by peristalsis.

Digestion: 5. Liver produces bile, which helps to neutralise acidic chyme and also emulsifies fats. Important in assimilation. 6. Stomach muscular bag which stores food for a short time, and mixes food for a short time, and mixes food with acidic digestive juices to form the creamy liquid called chyme. 7. Pancreas produces pancreatic juice (contains enzymes, mucus, and hydrogencarbonate which neutralises acidic chyme) which is poured into the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. 8. Duodenum first part of the small intestine, where semi-liquid food is mixed with pancreatic juice and bile. Absorption: 9. Ileum longest part of the small intestine, where digested food is absorbed into the blood and lymphatic system. 10. Large intestine (wider than the small intestine) The colon is part of the small intestine. It reabsorbs water from gut contents; also absorbs some vitamins and minerals. 11. Rectum stores faeces before expelling them at a convenient time. 12. Anus exit for faeces; defaecation is controlled by two anal sphincters.

The teeth play an important part in mastication. It should be no surprise that: The structure of a tooth is closely related to its function. There are different types of teeth adapted to deal with all types of food.

Human teeth and their function The structure and function of a human tooth are shown below:

This type of tooth is known as a molar, found towards the back of the jaw. Enamel the hardest tissue in the body. Produced by tooth-forming cells and made of calcium salts. Once formed, enamel cannot be renewed or extended. Cement similar in composition to dentine, but without any canals. It helps anchor the tooth to the jaw. Pulp cavity contains: Tooth-producing cells Blood vessels Nerve endings which can detect pain.

Dentine forms the major part of the tooth. Harder than bone and made of calcium salts deposited on a framework of collagen fibres. The dentine contains a series of fine canals which extend to the pulp cavity.

Gum usually covers the junction between enamel and cement. The gums recede with age.

Periodontal membrane bundle of collagen fibres, anchoring the cement covering of the tooth to the jawbone. The tooth is held firmly but not rigidly. The periodontal membrane has many nerve ending which detect pressures during chewing and biting.

A diet that provides too much energy can not only cause obesity, but also dental decay. Much of this energy rich food will be in the form of refined sugars. These sugars may also be used by bacteria in the mouth to carry out their own life processes. To prevent dental decay, here are some steps to take: Eating food with a low sugar content. Regular and effective brushing of teeth at least twice a day to prevent the build up of plaque. If brushing is not convenient, finishing a meal with a crisp vegetable or fruit, followed by rinsing with water.