W

ASTEWATER TREATMENT
1. Introduction
At present there is a scarcity of good quality water and it will e !ore of a pro" le! in the future #1$. Sewage is the spent water supply of a co!!unity. %ecause of infiltration of groundwater into loose"&ointed sewer pipes' the total a!ount of water treated !ay e(ceed the a!ount consu!ed. The higher the per capita consu!ption of water' the wea)er #!ore dilute$ is the sewage' which is also affected y industrial wastes. Sewage flow is greater during daylight hours and *aries little in large cities' whereas in !any s!all co!!unities' the late"night flow is al!ost all groundwater. %ecause of large equip!ent and land require!ents' capital costs for wastewater"treat!ent plants are high. A collection syste! that con*eys oth sanitary and stor! flows !ust e designed to deal with high pea) flows at the treat!ent plant+ detention asins are usually pro*ided in order to s!ooth the flow into the plant and reduce the sudden pea) flow. In the a sence of such precautions' it !ay e necessary to y"pass a portion of the flow. ,egislation in the -nited States has added se*eral new para!eters to the require!ents for effluent per!its. .ara!eters to e considered' depending on the plant location' are ioche!ical o(ygen de!and #%/0$' total suspended solids #TSS$' che!ical o(ygen de!and #1/0$' *olatile organic co!pounds #2/1$' prior" ity pollutants' aquatic to(icity' hea*y !etals' nitrogen' and phosphorus. Wastewater treat!ent technologies differ fro! each other in ter!s of their principles' scope of application' speed and econo!y.

3. Waste Mini!i4ation
Reduction and recycling of waste are ine*ita ly site" and plant"specific' ut a nu! er of generic approaches and techniques ha*e een used successfully across the -nited States to reduce !any )inds of industrial wastewaters. 5enerally' waste !ini!i4ation techniques can e grouped into four !a&or categories6 in*entory !anage!ent and i!pro*ed operations' !odification of equip!ent' production process changes' and recycling and reuse. Such techni" ques can ha*e applications across a range of industries and !anufacturing pro" cesses' and can apply to ha4ardous as well as nonha4ardous wastes.

Many of these techniques in*ol*e source reduction' the preferred option in the -.S. En*iron!ental .rotection Agency7s #E.A7s$ hierarchy of waste !anage" !ent techniques. /thers deal with on" and off"site recycling. The est way to deter!ine how these general approaches can e designed to fit a particular co!" pany7s needs is to conduct a waste !ini!i4ation assess!ent. In practice' waste !ini!i4ation opportunities are li!ited only y the e(tent of the ingenuity of the generator. In the end' a co!pany loo)ing carefully at o*erall returns of waste !ini!i4ation !ay well conclude that the !ost feasi le strategy would e to use a co! ination of source reduction and recycling pro&ects. Waste !ini!i4a" tion approaches as de*eloped y the E.A are shown in Ta le 1.

8ir)"/th!er Encyclopedia of 1he!ical Technology. 1opyright 9ohn Wiley : Sons' Inc. All rights reser*ed.

The si( !a&or ways of reducing pollution are as follows6 #1$ Recirculation. In the paper oard industry' white water fro! a paper !a" chine can e put through a sa*eall to re!o*e the pulp and fi er and then e recycled to *arious points in the paper"!a)ing process. 2ol. ; 1leanWASTEWATER WASTEWATER #3$ Segregation. strea!s are separated for direct discharge. 1oncen" trated or to(ic strea!s are separated for separate treat!ent. #;$ 0isposal. In !any cases' concentrated wastes can e re!o*ed in a se!idry state. In the production of )etchup' the )ettle otto!s after coo)ing and preparation of the product are usually flushed to the sewer. The total dis" charge %/0 and suspended solids can e !ar)edly reduced y re!o*al of this residue in a se!idry state for disposal. In reweries' the secondary storage units ha*e a sludge in the otto! of the *ats that contains oth %/0 and suspended solids. Re!o*al of this as a sludge rather than flush" ing to the sewer will reduce the organic and solids load to treat!ent. #<$ Reduction. It is co!!on practice in !any industries' such as reweries and dairies' to ha*e hoses continuously running for clean"up purposes. The use of auto!atic cutoffs can su stantially reduce the wastewater *olu!e. #=$ The use of drip pans to catch products' in cases such as a dairy or ice" crea! !anufacturing plant' instead of flushing this !aterial to the sewer' considera ly reduces the organic load. A si!ilar case e(ists in the plating industry where a drip pan placed etween the plating ath and the rinse tan)s will reduce the !etal dragout. #>$ Su stitution. The su stitution of che!ical additi*es of a lower pollutional effect in processing operations' eg' su stitution of surfactants for soaps in the te(tile industry. Water reuse is usually a question of the tradeoff etween the costs of raw water and the costs associated with treat!ent for reuse and for discharge. If io" logical treat!ent is to e e!ployed' se*eral factors !ust e considered. These are an increase in concentration of organics' oth degrada le and nondegrada le. This !ay ha*e a negati*e effect in ter!s of final effluent to(icity. An increase in te!perature or total dissol*ed solids !ay ad*ersely affect the perfor!ance of the iological process.

; 2ol.

;. 1haracteri4ation of Wastewaters
A co!prehensi*e analytical progra! for characteri4ing wastewaters should e ased on rele*ance to unit treat!ent process operations' the pollutant or pollu" tants to e re!o*ed in each' and effluent quality constraints. The qualitati*e and quantitati*e characteristics of waste strea!s to e treated not only ser*e as a asis for si4ing syste! processes within the facility' ut also indicate strea!s ha*ing refractory constituents' potential to(icants' or iostats. Such strea!s are not a!ena le to effecti*e iological treat!ent' as indicated y the character" i4ation results' and require treat!ent using alternati*e processes.

It should e recogni4ed that the total *olu!e of wastewater as well as the che!ical analyses indicating the organic and inorganic co!ponents are required' ac)ed y statistical *alidity' efore the conceptuali4ing of the o*erall treat!ent plant design can egin. The asic para!eters in wastewater characteri4ation are su!!ari4ed in Ta le 3. ;.1. Industrial Wastewater ?low. The design flows for industrial co!" ple(es generally consist of the following6 #1$ ase process flows resulting fro! nor!al production operations+ #3$ sanitary sewage+ #;$ conta!inated stor! run" off+ #<$ other sources' eg' e(traordinary du!ps' tan) draining' and allast dis" charge. The ase flow and sanitary contri ution can e !easured in open channels or closed conduits using a *ariety of !ethods' such as auto!atic !eter" ing de*ices' weirs' or less sophisticated de*ices. 1are should e ta)en to ensure flows are !easured during wor)day and wee)end operations' different wor) shifts' and o*er a sufficiently long period of ti!e to reflect statistical relia ility. Since the !id"1@ABs' conta!inated stor! runoff has eco!e an o &ect of increasing concern within industrial co!ple(es. Stor! flow is inter!ittent and unpredicta le in nature. The le*el of flow and degree of conta!ination not only *aries within an installation+ it has its own geo!etric characteristics' which influence patterns of surface runoff. ;.3. 0efinition of Wastewater 1onstituents. .ara!eters used to characteri4e wastewaters can e classified as organic and inorganic analyses. The organic content of wastewater is esti!ated in ter!s of o(ygen de!and using ioche!ical o(ygen de!and #%/0$' che!ical o(ygen de!and #1/0$' or total o(ygen de!and #T/0$. Additionally' the organic fraction can e e(pressed in ter!s of car on' using total organic car on #T/1$. It should e understood that these para!eters do not necessarily !easure the sa!e constituents. Speci" fically' they reflect the following6 #1$ %/06 iodegrada le organics in ter!s of o(ygen de!and+ #3$ 1/06 organics a!ena le to che!ical o(idation as well as cer" tain inorganics' such as sulfides' sulfites' ferrous iron' chlorides' and nitrites+ #;$ T/06 all organics and so!e inorganics in ter!s of o(ygen de!and+ and #<$ T/16 all organic car on e(pressed as car on. It is i!portant to identify *olatile organic car on #2/1$ and the presence of specific priority pollutants' in addition to the total organic content. The organic characteristics of *arious industrial wastewaters are shown in Ta le ;. The inorganic characteri4ation schedule for wastewaters to e treated using iological syste!s should include those tests which pro*ide infor!ation concern" ing #1$ potential to(icity' such as hea*y !etal' a!!onia' etc+ #3$ potential inhi" itors' such as total dissol*ed solids #T0S$ and chlorides+ #;$ conta!inants requiring specific pretreat!ent such as pC' al)alinity' acidity' suspended solids' etc+ and #<$ nutrient a*aila ility. Aquatic to(icity is a per!it require!ent on all discharges. Aquatic to(icity is generally reported as an ,1=B the percentage of wastewater which

causes the death of =BD of the test organis!s in a specified period ie' <A or @> h' or as a no o ser*ed effect le*el #N/E,$' in which the N/E, is the highest effluent concen" tration at which no unaccepta le effect will occur' e*en at continuous e(posure.
To(icity is also frequently e(pressed as to(icity units #T-$' which is 1BB di*ided y the to(icity !easured6

T- E in which the ,1=B

=B

1BB or N/E,

or the N/E, is e(pressed as the percent effluent in the recei*" ing water. Therefore' an effluent ha*ing an ,1=B of 1BD contains 1B to(ic units.
Effluent to(icity can also e defined as a chronic to(icity in which the growth or reproduction rate of the species is affected.

<. Wastewater Treat!ent and Recycling Technologies

Water treat!ent technologies are used for three purposes6 water source reduc" tion' wastewater treat!ent' and recycling. At present' unit operations and pro" cesses are co! ined to pro*ide what are called pri!ary' secondary' and tertiary treat!ent. .ri!ary treat!ent includes a *ery preli!inary physical purification process #filtration y ar screen' grit cha! er' etc$. Secondary treat!ent deals with che!ical and iological processes for treating wastewater. In the tertiary #ad*anced$ treat!ent process' wastewater #treated y pri!ary and secondary processes$ is con*erted into good quality water which can e used for different purposes such as drin)ing' industrial' and !edicinal. In the tertiary process' up to @B to @@D of the pollutants are re!o*ed' and water is safe for the specific use. In a co!plete water treat!ent plant' all three processes are co! ined to produce good and safe quality water #1$. 0espite *arious ad*anced technologies for water treat!ent and recla!a" tion' econo!ic' effecti*e' and rapid water treat!ent and recla!ation on a co!" !ercial le*el is still a challenging pro le!. .rior to water treat!ent and recla!ation' one should e aware of the qualitati*e and quantitati*e nature of water pollutants. Managing the re!o*ed pollutants #sludge$ should also e )ept in !ind. A syste!atic approach to water treat!ent and recycling technol" ogies in*ol*es understanding the technology which includes construction and operating cost' !aintenance' and !anage!ent of re!o*ed pollutants. A co!par" ison of these wastewater treat!ent and recla!ation technologies is presented in Ta le <. A detailed literature sur*ey of water treat!ent and recycling technolo" gies has een carried out through analytical' che!ical' water a stracts' and other &ournals' and a rief discussion of the! is presented here. Water treat!ent and recycling technologies are classified on the asis of their wor)ing principles. <.1. .hysical Technologies. Treat!ent and recycling technologies in*ol*ing physical forces are )nown as physical technologies. These include screening' filtration and centrifugal separation' !icro" and ultrafiltration' re*erse os!osis' crystalli4ation' sedi!entation and gra*ity separation' flotation' and adsorption. Screening' ?iltration' and 1entrifugal Separation. .ieces of cloth' paper' wood' cor)' hair' fi er' )itchen refuse' and fecal solids in wastewater are re!o*ed y screening. The !ain idea of screening is to re!o*e solid wastes fro! wastewater. 5enerally' screening is used as the *ery first step in a waste" water treat!ent plant. Screens of *arious si4es are used for this purpose' the si4e of the screen selected is ased on the si4e of the solids in the wastewater.

?iltration is a *ery si!ple physical process in which insolu le conta!inants are re!o*ed y passing the water through a setup of pores of different si4es' depending on the presence of solid conta!inants. It is used to re!o*e suspended solids' greases' oils' and acteria. 2arious types of filters such as !e! ranes and cartridges' !ade of sand' gra*el and other granular !aterials are used. The fil" tration technique is applica le elow 1BB !gF, suspended solids and 3= !gF, oil and grease. These constituents can e reduced up to @@D. ?iltration is used for oth water treat!ent and recycling. Water produced y filtration is used in adsorption' ion e(change' or !e! rane separation processes. .ota le water is also produced y filtration #;'<$. In centrifugal separation' suspended noncolloidal solids #up to 1 !$ are sepa" rated fro! water y centrifugal forces. Wastewater is placed in centrifugal de*ices and rotated at different speeds' and the solids #sludges$ are separated and discharged. The e(tent of separation of suspended solids depends on their densities and the speed of the centrifuge. The applications include source reduc" tion and separation of oils and greases. The different types of centrifuges a*aila le and in use are solid" owl' as)et type' directflow' and countercurrent flow #;'<$. Micro" and -ltrafiltration. .articles and other !icro es fro! B.B< to 1 ! are re!o*ed y !icrofiltration pro*ided that the total suspended solids do not e(ceed 1BB !gF,. The filters used are in the for! of cartridges. 1o!!ercially a*aila le cartridges are !ade of cotton' wool' rayon' cellulose' fi erglass' poly" propylene' acrylics' nylon' as estos' and fluorinated hydrocar on poly!ers. These are arranged in as tu ular' disc' plates' spiral' and hollow fi er for!s. The life of cartridges *aries fro! = to A years depending upon the concentration of dissol*ed solids. .rere!o*al of suspended solids is an i!portant factor in the life of cartridges. The operating pressure in this process ranges fro! 1 to ; ar. Applications include re!o*al of solids and !icro es. Water purified y this tech" nique is used for the food and drin) industries' soft drin)s' phar!aceuticals' photofil! processing' swi!!ing pools' and drin)ing #<'=$. It has also een used as a wastewater source reduction technique. -ltrafiltration is a low"pressure !e! rane separation process that re!o*es high !olecular weight !aterials' colloids' pyro(enes' !icroorganis!s' and suspended solids fro! wastewater. -ltrafiltration !e! ranes are !anufac" tured fro! a wide *ariety of poly!ers' and !inerals in the range of B.BB= to B.1B !. The !e! ranes are !ade of polysulfonates' polyacrylonitriles' polya" !ides' .20?' and 4irconiu! o(ides. To achie*e the required filtration' !e!" ranes are arranged in tu ular' disc' plates' spiral' and hollow fi er for!s. The life of !e! ranes *aries fro! = to A years and !ay e increased as discussed a o*e #<$. Re*erse /s!osis. Re*erse os!osis #R/$' also )nown as hyperfiltration' is a classical !ethod of purification that ca!e into e(istence since the ad*ance" !ent of se!iper!ea le !e! ranes. At present' it has recei*ed great attention as the est water recycling technique. The separation and concentration of a dis" sol*ed species is achie*ed due to the hydraulic gradient across the se!iper!e" a le !e! rane. .ressure greater than os!otic pressure is applied for the process. The !ost co!!only used !e! ranes are !ade of cellulose' nylon' poly" ether' polyethyl urea' polyphenyl o(ides' phenylenes' and polya!ide. To achie*e the required filtration' !e! ranes are arranged in tu ular' disc' plate' spiral'

and hollow fi er for!s. The partition coefficients of solutes etween water and the !e! rane play an i!portant role in re!o*ing water pollutants. The free energy of interaction etween water and !e! rane sites is also responsi le for the R/ process. The pC' pressure' si4e' and !olecular weight of the solute and ti!e of operation are considera le factors in R/. R/ has een used as a separation and concentration technique at !acro" and !icrole*els for re!o*ing large' nonpolar' ionic' and to(ic su stances. -p to A= G @@D total dissol*ed solids #T0S$' organic dissol*ed !atter #/0M$' and ac" teria can e re!o*ed y this !ethod. It has een used for treating wastewater fro! sanitary wastes' !unicipal leachates' petroche!icals' electroplating' te(" tiles' coal' gasification' pulp and paper' steel' and electronic industries #='>$. It re&ects 1BBD of acteria' *iruses' and other !icro es' and' therefore' it is used to prepare ultrapure water for phar!aceuticals' !edicines' and electronics. In addition' it has een used for source reduction. R/ is today7s !ost econo!ical process for pota le water production fro! saline water. The life of R/ !e! ranes is 3 G = years' depending on the nature of the was" tewater treated. The flu( and the quality of the per!eate !ay decrease o*er a long period of ti!e due to !e! rane fouling fro! hu!ic acids' acterial sli!es' or scales that !ay accu!ulate on the R/ !e! ranes. .henols also clog the !e! ranes. To increase the efficiency and life of R/ syste!s' pretreat!ent is necessary to !ini!i4e the concentration of colloidal and dispersed solids. .hysi" coche!ical coagulation with li!e has een used to !ini!i4e colloids' tur idity' dispersed oil phases' !etal ions' and suspended !atters. Sodiu! hydro(ide solu" tion #pC @ G 11$ has een used to clean R/ !e! ranes in case of silica and sulfate fouling #H'A$. Silica can also e re!o*ed fro! !e! ranes y ion retarding resins that ha*e high affinity for strong acids' together with con*ersion of the wea) acid ISi#/C$<J into !uch stronger acid

#C3Si?>$. %acterial inhi itor solutions are cir" culated #to chec) the acterial growth$ into the R/ tu ules or discs efore stop" ping the process for a long period #H$. .henolics !ay e re!o*ed fro! R/ !e! ranes y circulating hydrogen pero(ide solution.

1rystalli4ation. In this process' solu le constituents are re!o*ed y rais" ing their concentrations to the point where they start to crystalli4e. This is done either y e*aporation' y lowering the te!perature of the water' or y adding other sol*ents. It is useful for treating wastewater that has high concentrations of T0S' including solu le organics and inorganics. 0uring the process' other con" stituents such as icar onate' a!!onia' and sulfite !ay rea) down and !ay e con*erted into *arious gases and' therefore' crystalli4ation so!eti!es !ay e used for pC control. The treated water fro! this process is of high quality. 1rys" talli4ation is generally used for wastewater released fro! cooling towers' coal and gas fired oilers' paper' and dyeing plants. It is also used for source reduc" tion. The co!!only used de*ices for crystalli4ation include forced circulation' draft tu e affle' surface cooled crystalli4ers' and fluidi4ed suspension #='@$. Sedi!entation and 5ra*ity Separation. In this process' suspended solids' grit' and silt are re!o*ed y allowing water to re!ain undistur edFse!i" distur ed for different ti!e periods. The suspended solids settle y gra*ity #;'<$. The ti!e period depends on the si4e and density of the solids. 2arious types of tan)s are designed for this purpose. So!e che!icals such as alu! are used to ad&ust pC and aug!ent the process. 5ra*ity separation can reduce oil

concentrations and suspended solids up to @@D and >BD' respecti*ely. 5enerally' sedi!entation is carried out prior to a con*entional treat!ent process. It is a *ery useful !ethod for treating effluents fro! the paper and refinery industries. Water treated in this process is used for industrial water supply' water for ion e(change' and !e! rane processing. The technique is also used for source reduction. ?lotation. This technique re!o*es suspended solids' oils' greases' and io" logical solids y adhering the!' to air or gas u les #;'<'1B$. The solids thus adhered to gas or air u les for! agglo!erates' which in turn accu!ulate at the water surface and are re!o*ed. So!e che!icals such as alu! and acti*ated silica help in the flotation process. 1o!pressed air is allowed to pass through water' which helps in the flotation process. So!e wor)ers ha*e also used electro" flotation as an effecti*e process for water treat!ent and recycling. -p to H=D and @@D of suspended solids and oilFgrease are re!o*ed' respecti*ely' y this process. ?lotation requires water tan)s of different si4es. ?lotation is a co!!on and essential co!ponent of a con*entional water treat!ent plant. It is a *ery effec" ti*e technique for treating wastewater fro! the paper and refinery industries. Adsorption. Adsorption #;'<'11$ is a surface pheno!enon defined as the increase in concentration of a particular co!ponent at the surface or interface etween two phases. Adsorption efficiency depends on a nu! er of para!eters such as pC' te!perature' concentration of pollutants' contact ti!e' particle si4e of the adsor ent' and nature of adsor ents and pollutants. Suspended particles' oils' and greases reduce the efficiency of the process and' therefore' pre"filtration is required. It is considered a uni*ersal water treat!ent and recla!ation process ecause it can e applied to re!o*e solu le and insolu le organics' inorganics' and iological solids. 0ifferent types of adsor ents are used in the adsorption process. The !ost co!!only used adsor ents are acti" *ated car on' fly ash' !etal o(ides' 4eolites' !oss' io!ass' and geothites. At the industrial le*el' pollutants are re!o*ed fro! wastewater y using colu!ns and contactors filled with the required adsor ents. The e(tent of re!o*al *aries fro! @B to @@D. Adsorption is used for source reduction' wastewater treat!ent' and recla!ation for pota le' industrial' and other purposes. The asic pro le!s of adsorption are regeneration of colu!ns and colu!n life. <.3. 1he!ical Technologies. Water treat!ent !ethods in*ol*ing the use of che!icals are che!ical technologies. .recipitation' coagulation' o(idation' ion e(change' and sol*ent e(traction are the !ain che!ical !ethods for waste" water treat!ent and recla!ation #see Ta le =$. .recipitation. 0issol*ed conta!inants !ay e con*erted into solid preci" pitates y adding che!icals #<'13$ that react with the solu le pollutants and for! precipitates. The !ost co!!only used che!icals for this purpose are different types of alu!' sodiu! icar onate' ferric chloride' ferric sulfate' ferrous sulfate' and li!e. pC and te!perature are the controlling factors in the precipitation pro" cess. .recipitation is carried out in sedi!entation tan)s+ <B to >BD re!o*al of pollutants y precipitation has een reported. The presence of oil and grease !ay cause a pro le! in precipitation. The applications of precipitation include wastewater treat!ent #fro! nic)el and chro!iu! plating$ and water recycling. Specific applications include water softening and re!o*al of hea*y !etals and phosphate fro! wastewater. The !a&or pro le! in precipitation is !anaging the large *olu!e of sludge produced.

1oagulation. The suspended nonsettlea le solids in wastewater are allowed to settle y the addition of certain che!icals in a process called coagula" tion #;'1;$. The co!!ercially a*aila le che!icals are alu!' starch' iron co!" pounds' acti*ated silica' and alu!inu! salts. In addition' synthetic cationic' anionic' and nonionic poly!ers are *ery effecti*e coagulants ut are usually !ore costly. pC' te!perature' and contact ti!e are the !ost i!portant control" ling factors in the coagulation process. In a iological treat!ent plant' !icro es and other organics floated on the surface are re!o*ed y the addition of certain coagulants. It is the !ain co!ponent of a wastewater treat!ent plant and its application includes wastewater treat!ent' recycling' and re!o*al of hea*y !etal ions and fluoride. /(idation. In che!ical o(idation' organic co!pounds are con*erted into water and car on dio(ide or so!e other products such as alcohols' aldehydes' )etones and car o(ylic acids which are iodegrada le #;'1<$. 1he!ical o(idation is carried out y potassiu! per!anganate' chlorine' o4one' pero(ides' air' and chlorine dio(ides. The rate of che!ical o(idation depends on the nature of the o(idants and pollutants. pC' and te!perature also play a crucial role in the rate of che!ical o(idation. A!!onia' cyanide' sulfides' phenols' hydrocar ons' and so!e pathogens !ay e re!o*ed y che!ical o(idation. 1he!ical o(idation is used for wastewater treat!ent and recycling for industry and irrigation. It is also a useful and effecti*e !ethod for source reduction. Ion E(change. Ion e(change is a process in which ions in wastewater are e(changed with solid !aterials called ion e(changers #;'1=$. It is a re*ersi le pro" cess and requires low energy. The ion e(changers are of two types' cation and anion e(changers' that can e(change cations and anions' respecti*ely. Ion e(changers are resins of natural or synthetic origins that ha*e acti*e sites on their surfaces and' generally' are in the for! of eads. The !ost co!!only used ion e(changers are sodiu! silicates' 4eolites' polystyrene sulfonic acid' acrylic and !ethacrylic resins. Ion e(change is used to re!o*e low concentra" tions of inorganics and organics #up 3=B !gF,$. The concentration of organics and inorganics can e reduced up to @=D. Applications include the production of pota le water' water for industries' phar!acy' research' and softening for oi" ler feed' fossil fuels' nuclear power stations' paper' and' electronic industries. It has also een used for source reduction. .retreat!ent of water is required in the presence of oil' grease' and high concentrations of organics and inorganics. Sol*ent E(traction. /rganic sol*ents that are i!!isci le with water and can dissol*e water pollutants are added to wastewater to re!o*e pollutants. The technique is called sol*ent e(traction #1>$. A !a(i!u! concentration of T0S of 3BBB !gF, can e reduced up to @BD y sol*ent e(traction. The !ost co!!only used sol*ents are en4ene' he(ane' acetone' and other hydrocar ons. The techni" que is effecti*e to re!o*e only the dissol*ed organics' oils' and greases in waste" water. Cowe*er' certain !etal ions and actinide che!icals !ay e re!o*ed y the !ethod. It is also used for water treat!ent and recycling in che!ical process plants' phenol' gasoline' and acid industries. It has also een used for water source reduction. The presence of suspended solids !ay cause a pro le! in sol" *ent e(traction and' hence' requires pretreat!ent.

<.;. Electrical Technologies. Water pollutants are re!o*ed under the influence of electric current in electrical water treat!ent and recycling technol" ogies. Electrical water treat!ent technologies are su!!ari4ed elow. Electrodialysis. In this technique' water solu le ions are allowed to pass through ion selecti*e se!iper!ea le !e! ranes under the influence of an elec" tric current #;G='1H$. The ion selecti*e !e! ranes are !ade of ion e(change !aterial. They !ay e cation and anion e(changers' which per!it outflow of cations and anions' respecti*ely. The process' operated either in a continuous or atch !ode' has two electrodes on which an e!f. is applied. To o tain the desired degree of de!inerali4ation' !e! ranes are arranged either in parallel or series. The dissol*ed solids re!o*al depends on pC' te!perature' the a!ount of current applied' the nature of the pollutants' selecti*ities of the !e! ranes' the wastewater flow rate' fouling and scaling y wastewater' and the nu! er and configuration of stages. Applications include production of pota le water fro! rac)ish water. This technique has also een used for water source reduc" tion. A !a(i!u! concentration of 3BB !gF, of T0S can e reduced y @BD y electrodialysis. Me! rane fouling occurs as in re*erse os!osis. 1leanup and other precautions should e ta)en as discussed in the re*erse os!osis section. Electrolysis. The technique in which the solu le inorganics and organics are either deposited or deco!posed on the surface of electrodes y an electroche" !ical redo( reaction is called electrolysis #1A$. Metal ions are deposited on the electrode surface' and organics are deco!posed into car on dio(ide and water or so!e other products. It has een used to re!o*e tur idity and color fro! was" tewater. This !ethod is effecti*e for the re!o*al of T0S elow 3BB !gF, and' therefore' requires pretreat!ent of wastewater. The technique co!prises a water tan) or tan)s in series with two or a series of electrodes of the required !etal. The electrodes are specific with respect to the dissol*ed !etal ions in was" tewater. The !ost i!portant controlling factors for this process are pC' te!pera" ture' a!ount of current applied' and contact ti!e. Electrolysis as a technique for wastewater treat!ent is not yet de*eloped co!pletely and is still at the research and de*elop!ent stage. It has een rarely used co!!ercially for wastewater treat!ent. Cowe*er' its applications include treating so!e industrial effluents especially enriched with !etal ions and so!e organics. It !ay e used as a water source reduction technique. The ad*antages of this technique co!prise the further use of deposited !etal ions without any waste !anage!ent pro le!. <.<. Ther!al Technologies. Techniques in*ol*ing the use of heat energy for water treat!ent and recycling are ther!al technologies. The !ost co!!only used techniques for wastewater treat!ent and recycling are e*apora" tion and distillation. E*aporation. E*aporation is a natural process and is generally used to reduce waste liquid *olu!e. In !odern de*elop!ent' it has een used as a water treat!ent !ethod #<'='1@$. The water surface !olecules escape fro! the surface under natural conditions' and these escaped !olecules are collected as pure liquid water. Mechanical e*aporators ha*e een used for water recycling. So!eti!es' *acuu! e*aporation has een used for wastewater recycling' and these are operated y stea! or electric power. E*aporation is effecti*e for re!o*" ing inorganic and organic #e(cept *olatile organics$ conta!inants' and it wor)s e*en at *ery high concentrations #a out 1BD$ of pollutants. ?oa!ing' scaling'

and fouling along with suspended solids and car onates are the !a&or pro le!s in e*aporation ecause they create !aintenance pro le!s. E*aporation applica" tions include treating wastewater fro! the fertili4er' petroleu!' phar!aceutical' and food processing industries. It is also used for water supply to ion e(changers and !e! rane processes. Water fro! e*aporation has een used for cooling in towers and oilers. It can e used as a technique for water source reduction. 0istillation. In distillation' water is purified y heating it up to 1BBA1 at which liquid water *apori4es and lea*es the pollutants ehind #;'3B$. The *apors generated are cooled to liquid water. The wastewater should e free of *olatile i!purities. Water produced y this technique is a out @@D free fro! i!purities. 2arious types of oilers with !ultistage and dou le distillation are used in this process. The si4e of the oilers depends on the quantity of water required. Appli" cations of distillation in water treat!ent and recla!ation include water supplies in la oratories' phar!acy' and !edicinal preparations. 0istillation is effecti*e for preparing pota le water fro! sea and rac)ish water. <.=. %iological Technologies. %iodegradation. The iodegradation properties of *arious organics are shown in Ta le >. The !echanis! of aero ic degradation is shown in ?igure 1. Appro(i!ately one"half of the organics re!o*ed are o(idi4ed to 1/3 and

C3/' and one"half synthesi4ed to io!ass. Three to 1B percent of the organics re!o*ed result in solu le !icro ial products #SM.$. The SM. is significant ecause it causes aquatic to(icity.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are required in the reaction at an appro(i!ate ratio of %/06N6. of 1BB6=61. Nitrogen and phosphorus are a!ply a*aila le in !unicipal wastewaters' ut frequently are deficient in industrial wastewaters. It should e noted that only a!!onia nitrogen or nitrate is a*aila le for io" synthesis. The reactions in an aero ic iological process are as follows6 organics K / K N K .
3

L 1ells

new cells K 1/3

8

K C3 / K SM.

in which 8 is a reaction rate coefficient which is a function of the degrada ility of the wastewater and SM. is the nondegrada le solu le !icro ial products and cells K /3

L 1/3 K C3 / K N K . K nondegrada le cellular

residue K SM. The generation of SM. is directly proportional to the degrada le 1/0 re!o*ed
in the process. So!e of the SM. is to(ic to aquatic species. In the acti*ated sludge process' perfor!ance is related to the food"to" !icroorganis! ratio #?FM$' which is the )g %/0 appliedFdF)g *olatile sus" pended solids #2SS$. ?or a solu le wastewater' the 2SS is proportional to the io!ass concentra" tion. .rocess perfor!ance !ay also e related to the sludge age' which is the a*erage length of ti!e the organis!s are in the process.

sludge age E

!ass of organis!s under aeration !ass wastedFd

?igure 3 depicts a atch o(idation. Note that readily degrada le organics will e sor ed y the floc for!ing organis!s i!!ediately on contact. As organics are re!o*ed' o(ygen is consu!ed and io!ass is synthesi4ed' as shown. 1ontin" ued aeration after organic re!o*al will result in o(idation of the io!ass' gener" ally referred to as endogenous respiration. The perfor!ance' therefore' is related to the ?FM or sludge age and the degrada ility' 8. As the ?FM decreases or the sludge age increases' greater re!o*als are achie*ed. It should e noted that the sludge age is proportional to the reciprocal of the ?FM. The reaction rate coefficient' 8' as related to waste" waters characteristics. As shown in ?igure 1' all of the organics re!o*ed in the process are either o(idi4ed to 1/3 and C3/ or synthesi4ed to io!ass generally

e(pressed as *ola" tile suspended solids. As pre*iously noted' a s!all portion of the organics re!o*ed results in SM. products.
The fraction of the organics re!o*ed that result in synthesis *aries' depending on nature and iodegrada ility of the organics in question. A rough esti!ate is to assu!e that one"half is o(idi4ed and one"half synthesi4ed. ?or a solu le wastewater' the net sludge to e wasted fro! the process !ay e co!puted as synthesis !inus o(idation' ie' endogenous respiration. net sludge wasted E sludge synthesi4ed o(idation

As the sludge age is increased' !ore of the sludge is o(idi4ed and the net sludge wasted is decreased. If the wastewater contains influent *olatile suspended solids' such as that in a pulp and paper !ill' the solids not o(idi4ed in the process !ust e added to the net wasted. The o(ygen require!ents are co!puted in a si!ilar !anner6 o(ygen required E organic o(idation K endogenous o(idation6 /n a*erage' it ta)es 1.< )g o(ygen to o(idi4e 1 )g cells as 2SS. Therefore' for each )ilogra! of 2SS su stracted fro! the sludge yield' 1.< )g o(ygen !ust e added to the o(ygen required. .rocess perfor!ance is affected y te!perature. The reaction rate decreases with te!perature o*er a range of < G ;1A1. As the te!perature decreases' dispersed effluent suspended solids increase. In one che!ical plant in West 2irginia' the a*erage effluent suspended solids was <3 !gF, during the su!!er and 1B= !gF, during the winter. Te!peratures a o*e ;HA1 !ay result in a dispersed floc and poor settling sludge. It is therefore necessary to !aintain aeration asin te!perature elow ;HA1 to achie*e opti!al effluent quality. %iological sludges generally fall into one of three classifications. A flocculent sludge is one in which the !a&or part of the io!ass consists of flocculent organ" is!s' with so!e fila!ents growing within the floc. The ad*antage this pro*ides is

that the fila!ents for! a ac) one which strengthens the floc. ?ila!entous ul)ing occurs when the fila!ents grow out fro! the floc in the ul) of the liquid. This condition hinders sludge settling. The pinpoint case occurs at *ery low load" ings' causing floc dispersion' as shown in ?igure ;. Sludge quality is defined y the sludge *olu!e inde( #S2I$' ie' the *olu!e occupied y one dry weight gra! after settling for one"half hour' which therefore defines the ul)iness of the sludge. A ul)ing sludge is usually caused y an e(cess of fila!entous"type organis!s. ?ila!entous organis!s thri*e est with readily degrada le organics as a food source. Wastewater containing co!ple( organics is not su &ect to fila!entous ul)ing ecause the fila!ents cannot degrade these organics. If all things are !aintained equal' ie' adequate /3' N

and .' and %/0' the floc"for!ing organis!s are predo!inant. In order to !ain" tain conditions fa*ora le to the floc for!ers' adequate o(ygen' nutrients' and %/0 !ust diffuse through the floc and reach all the organis!s.
As the o(ygen upta)e or ?FM increases' the dissol*ed o(ygen !ust e increased to pro*ide sufficient dri*ing force to penetrate the floc. Mini!u! con" centrations of nitrogen and phosphorus are necessary in the effluent. 5enerali4ed flow configurations are shown in ?igure <. Refractory waste" waters can e treated in a co!plete !i( asin ecause fila!entous ul)ing is not an issue. ?or readily degrada le wastewaters' high concentrations of %/0 are necessary to penetrate the floc' requiring a plug flow configuration. Alterna" ti*ely' a selector can e e!ployed to a sor the readily degrada le organics so they are not a*aila le as a food source for the fila!ents. The re!o*al of specific priority pollutants follows the Monod )inetic relationship' which states that effluent quality is a function of sludge age. Thus the only way to reduce the efflu" ent concentration of a specific organic is to increase the sludge age. %iological Treat!ent. %iological treat!ent has a reputa le place in *ar" ious water treat!ent and recycling !ethods #;G='31'33$. Solu le and insolu le organic pollutants are o(idi4ed y !icro es in this process. Water is circulated in a reactor that !aintains a high concentration of !icro es' and the !icro es con*ert organic !atter into water' car on dio(ide' and a!!onia. So!eti!es' the organic !atter is con*erted into other products such as alcohol' glucose' and nitrate. Wastewater should e free of to(ic organics and inorganic pollutants. The !a(i!u! concentrations of T0S' hea*y !etals' cyanides' phenols' and oil should not e(ceed 1>'BBB' 3.B' >B.B' 1<B' and =B !gF,' respecti*ely. %iological treat!ent includes aero ic and anaero ic digestion of wastewater #see Ta le H$. Aero ic .rocess. When air or o(ygen in dissol*ed for! is a*aila le freely to wastewater' then the iodegrada le organic !atter undergoes aero ic deco!" position' caused y aero ic and facultati*e acteria. The e(tent of the process depends on o(ygen a*aila ility' retention ti!e' te!perature' and the iological acti*ity of the acteria. The rate of iological o(idation of organic pollutants !ay e increased y adding che!icals required for acterial growth. The technique is effecti*e for re!o*ing dissol*ed and suspended *olatile and non*olatile organics. The concentration of iodegrada le organics can e reduced up to @BD. Applica" tions include treating industrial wastewater to reduce %/0' 1/0' nitrogen' and phosphorous. The disad*antage of this !ethod is the production of a large quan" tity of iosolids' which require further costly !anage!ent.

Anaero ic .rocess. If free or dissol*ed o(ygen is not a*aila le to waste" water' then anaero ic deco!position called putrefaction occurs. Anaero ic and facultati*e acteria con*ert co!ple( organic !atter into si!pler organic co!" pounds of nitrogen' car on' and sulfur. The i!portant gases e*ol*ed in this pro" cess are nitrogen' a!!onia' hydrogen sulfide' and !ethane. The applications of the anaero ic process to organic pollutant digestion are as discussed in the aero" ic process. Anaero ic Treat!ent. Anaero ic treat!ent is usually e!ployed for high strength wastewaters. In anaero ic treat!ent' co!ple( organics are ro)en down through a sequence of reactions to end products of !ethane gas' 1C<'

and car on dio(ide' 1/36

organics L *olatile fatty acids L 1C<

K 1/3

%ecause anaero ic treat!ent will not reach usual per!it discharge le*els' it is e!ployed as a pretreat!ent process prior to discharge to a ./TW or to a su se" quent aero ic process. Therefore it is !ost applica le to high strength waste" waters. Whereas aero ic treat!ent requires energy to transfer o(ygen' anaero ic processes produce energy in the for! of !ethane gas. Successful anae" ro ic process operation depends on !aintaining a population of !ethane organ" is!s. It is therefore critical that the sludge age of the anaero ic sludge e(ceed the growth rate of the !ethane organis!s. At ;=A1 the co!!on design criterion is a solids retention ti!e #SRT$ of 1B d or !ore. Anaero ic sludge can e !aintained dor!ant for long periods of ti!e' there y !a)ing the process attracti*e for sea" sonal industrial operations such as in the food processing industry. A disad*an" tage to the anaero ic process is that initial startup !ay ta)e as long as <= G >B d. Should the process e )illed y a to(ic shoc) a long period will e required for a re"startup. .articular care !ust e ta)en' therefore' to a*oid upset. ?ro! an eco" no!ic perspecti*e' anaero ic pretreat!ent should e considered when the %/0 e(ceeds 1BBB !gF,.

Types of Anaero ic .rocesses. There are fi*e principal process *ariants which are propriety in nature. These are as follows6
#1$ Anaero ic ?ilter. The anaero ic filter is si!ilar to a tric)ling filter in that a iofil! is generated on !edia. The ed is fully su !erged and can e op" erated either upflow or downflow. ?or *ery high strength wastewaters' a recycle can e e!ployed. #3$ Anaero ic 1ontact. This process can e considered as an anaero ic acti" *ated sludge ecause sludge is recycled fro! a clarifier or separator to the reactor. Since the !aterial lea*ing the reactor is a gas G liquid G solid !i(ture' a *acuu! degasifier is required to separate the gas and a*oid floating sludge in the clarifier. #;$ ?luidi4ed %ed. This reactor consists of a sand ed on which the io!ass is grown. Since the sand particles are s!all' a *ery large io!ass can e de" *eloped in a s!all *olu!e of reactor. In order to fluidi4e the ed' a high recycle is required.

#<$ -pflow Anaero ic Sludge %lan)et #-AS%$. -nder proper conditions anae" ro ic sludge will de*elop as high density granules. These will for! a sludge lan)et in the reactor. The wastewater is passed upward through the lan)et. %ecause of its density' a high concentration of io!ass can e de*eloped in the lan)et. #=$ A0I .rocess. The A0I is a low rate anaero ic process which is operated in a reactor rese! ling a co*ered foot all field. %ecause of the low rate' it is less suscepti le to upset co!pared to the high rate processes. Its disad*an" tage is the large land area require!ent. With the e(ception of the A0I process' anaero ic processes usually operate at a te!perature of ;=A1. In order to !aintain this te!perature' the !ethane gas generated in the process is used to heat the reactor. Anaero ic processes are shown in ?igure =. Anaero ic treat!ent perfor!ance data are shown in Ta le A.

=. Alternati*e %iological Treat!ent Technologies =.1. ,agoons. Where large land areas are a*aila le' lagooning pro*ides a si!ple and econo!ical treat!ent for nonto(ic or nonha4ardous wastewaters. There are se*eral lagoon alternati*es. The i!pounding and a sorption lagoon has no o*erflow or there !ay e an inter!ittent discharge during periods of high strea! flow. These lagoons are particularly suita le to short seasonal operations in arid regions. Anaero ic ponds are loaded such that anaero ic conditions pre*ail through" out the liquid *olu!e. /ne of the !a&or pro le!s with anaero ic ponds is the generation of odors. The odor pro le! can frequently e eli!inated y the addi" tion of sodiu! nitrate at a dosage equal to 3BD of the applied o(ygen de!and. An alternati*e is the use of a stratified facultati*e lagoon' in which aerators are sus" pended ; !eters elow the liquid surface in order to !aintain aero ic surface conditions' with anaero ic digestion occurring at the lower depths. Aero ic lagoons depend on algae to produce o(ygen y photosynthesis. This o(ygen' in turn' is used y the acteria to o(idi4e the organics in the wastewater. Since algae are aero ic organis!s' the organic loading to the lagoons !ust e sufficiently low to !aintain dissol*ed o(ygen. =.3. Aerated ,agoons. An aerated lagoon syste! is a two" or three" asin syste! designed to re!o*e degrada le organics #%/0$. The first asin is fully !i(ed' there y !aintaining all solids in suspension. This !a(i!i4es the organic re!o*al rate. A second asin operates at a lower power le*el' there y per!itting solids to deposit on the otto!. The solids undergo anaero ic degra" dation and sta ili4ation. A third asin is frequently e!ployed for further re!o*al of suspended solids and enhanced clarification. In order to a*oid groundwater pollution' these asins !ust usually e lined. The process is shown in ?igure >. Aerated lagoons are e!ployed for the treat!ent of nonto(ic or nonha4ar" dous wastewaters such as food processing and pulp and paper. Retention ti!e *aries fro! ; to 13 d' so a large land area is usually required.

=.;. Acti*ated Sludge. There are se*eral generic acti*ated sludge pro" cesses presently a*aila le. 1o!plete Mi( #1MAS$ is applica le to refractory"type wastewaters in which fila!entous ul)ing is not a pro le!. This process has the ad*antage of da!pening fluctuations of influent wastewater quality. .lug flow is applica le for readily degrada le wastewaters su &ect to fila" !entous ul)ing. -pstrea! controls are required to a*oid shoc) loadings. The selector process is applica le for readily degrada le wastewaters+ it also requires upstrea! controls. In a selector' degrada le organics are re!o*ed y the floc for!ers y iosorption and therefore are not a*aila le as a food source for the fila!ents. The sequencing atch reactor #S%R$ or inter!ittent process is a co! ina" tion of co!plete !i( and plug flow' and usually controls fila!entous ul)ing. The nature of the process eli!inates the need for an e(ternal clarifier. The o(idation ditch process is usually considered when nitrogen re!o*al is required. /ther processes include deep tan) aeration such as the %iohoch' the use of high purity o(ygen' and the 0eep Shaft process. .erfor!ance of the acti*ated sludge process !ay e su!!ari4ed as follows6 effluent quality is related to the sludge age' with higher sludge ages required for the !ore refractory wastewaters+ degrada le priority pollutants can e reduced to !gF, le*els under opti!al operating conditions as related to sludge age+ efflu" ent solu le %/0 le*els M1B !gF, are achie*a le in !ost cases' and nitrification and denitrification can e achie*ed through process !odifications. >. ?i(ed"?il! .rocesses >.1. Tric)ling ?ilter. A tric)ling filter is a pac)ed ed' usually plastic on which a iofil! grows. As a wastewater passes o*er the fil!' organics and o(ygen diffuse into the fil!' where they undergo iodegradation' as shown in ?igure H. The *aria les affecting perfor!ance are the organic loading rate' the hydraulic loading rate' te!perature' and the degrada ility of the wastewater. ?or the treat!ent of industrial wastewaters' a tric)ling filter is considered a pretreat" !ent process usually designed to re!o*e a out =BD of the %/0. This is largely the result of econo!ic considerations. Tric)ling filter perfor!ance data are shown in ?igure A. >.3. Rotating %iological 1ontactor #R%1$. An R%1 is a fi(ed"fil! process in which a iofil! is de*eloped on a rotating plastic cylinder which passes through the wastewater. As the cylinder passes through' the wastewater organics diffuse into the fil!. As the cylinder passes through the air' o(ygen dif" fuses into the iofil!' causing degradation of the organics. Increased treat!ent is achie*ed y increasing the nu! er of stages. H. Ad*anced Treat!ent .rocesses H.1. Nitrification. A!!onia nitrogen is con*erted to nitrate in a two" step process. A!!onia is first con*erted to nitrites' and the nitrites are then

con*erted to nitrates. This con*ersion is o(ygen intensi*e. ?or each !illigra! of a!!onia con*erted to nitrate' <.> !g of o(ygen is required. In addition' each !illigra! of a!!onia con*erted consu!es H.1< !g of al)alinity #3;$ #see ?ig. @$. Nitrification !ay occur in the sa!e tan) as car on o(idation in a single sludge process' or it !ay ta)e place in a separate nitrification tan). %ecause nitrifying organis!s ha*e a slower growth rate than the organis!s for car on o(idation' the process requires longer detention ti!e and longer !ean cell reten" tion ti!e. H.3. %iological .hosphorus Re!o*al. .hosphorus re!o*al can e enhanced in a iological syste! y first creating an anaero ic 4one followed y an aero ic 4one. In iological phosphorus re!o*al' fro! 3.= to < ti!es !ore phos" phorus can e re!o*ed than in a secondary treat!ent process #3;$. To generate energy for cell growth in the anaero ic stage' phosphorus is released fro! the internal polyphosphates of the cell' resulting in an increase in the liquid phosphorus concentration. In the aero ic 4one' there is a rapid upta)e of the solu le phosphorus for the resynthesis of intracellular polypho" sphates. More phosphorus is a sor ed y the cells than was released in the anae" ro ic 4one. There are three !a&or iological phosphorus re!o*al !ethodologies6 the Anaero icF/(ic #AF/$ process' the .hoStrip process' and the sequencing atch reactor. The AF/ process is proprietary' and phosphorus re!o*al depends on the influent ratio of %/0 to .. The .hoStrip process is also proprietary. .hos" phorus re!o*al does not depend on the %/06. ratio' ut che!icals !ust e used to precipitate the phosphorus #3;$. The S%R can e designed to pro*ide anaero ic conditions during the treat!ent cycle' which release phosphorus. When the reactor is then aerated' the phosphorus is a sor ed fro! the waste" water and is incorporated into the io!ass. H.;. 0enitrification. 0enitrification is the re!o*al of nitrogen fro! was" tewater. In an ano(ic en*iron!ent' se*eral species of acteria can use nitrates' rather than o(ygen' as their energy source. 0enitrification con*erts the nitrates into nitrogen gas and additional io!ass #3;$. The process requires a car on source for co!pletion. In wastewater treat!ent' it is co!!on to use the waste" water itself for the car on supply. The raw wastewater flows into an ano(ic 4one with return sludge and a large !i(ed liquor recycle. The recycle ratio is deter" !ined y the a!!onia concentration and the required effluent nitrate concen" tration. The ano(ic 4one then denitrifies y using the nitrates created in the !i(ed liquor. ?ollowing the ano(ic 4one' the wastewater flows to an aero ic 4one to strip nitrogen gas. The process !ay e repeated for additional nitrogen re!o*al. 0enitrification is nor!ally done in a plug flow type syste!' an o(idation ditch' or a sequencing atch reactor #3;$. H.<. %iological 0ual"Nutrient Re!o*al. %iological dual"nutrient re!o*al is the reduction of oth nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater y io" logical !ethods. %iological dual"nutrient re!o*al is achie*ed through se*eral proprietary treat!ent processes' including the A3/ process' the %ardenpho

pro" cess' the -ni*ersity of 1apetown #-1T$ process' and the 2irginia Initiati*e #2I.$ process #3;$. These processes use the aero ic process for car on o(idation' the ano(ic process for denitrification' and the anaero ic process for iological phos" phorus re!o*al' although arrange!ent of the processes *aries. The -1T process

and the 2I. process are further co!plicated y the use of internal recycle strea!s. H.=. Air Stripping. Air stripping is a !ethod of re!o*ing *olatile co!" pounds fro! a solution. Air is introduced at the otto! of a pac)ed tower. Waste" water flows down the tower fro! the top and contacts the air countercurrently. The dri*ing force in air stripping is the concentration difference etween the air and the wastewater. The tower !ediu! !ay eco!e fouled' resulting in high operating and !aintenance costs. H.>. 1oagulationFSedi!entation. 1oagulationFsedi!entation uses che!icals to enhance the sedi!entation of solids' precipitate pollutants' or re!o*e phosphorus. The che!icals !ost co!!only used in the coagulationFsedi" !entation process are li!e' alu!' iron salts' and poly!ers. 1oagulation in*ol*es desta ili4ing colloidal particles through any of se*eral processes' including dou le layer co!pression' charge neutrali4ation' en!esh!ent' or interparticle ridging #3<$. The particles then aggregate and settle out. Alu! is typically used in the che!ical re!o*al of phosphorus' although iron salts !ay also e used. .hosphorus re!o*al occurs y the for!ation of an inso" lu le precipitate of alu!inu! or iron phosphate. Alu! and iron also react with hydro(yl radicals in the water' for!ing hydro(ides in addition to phosphates. H.H. ?iltration. ?iltration is the re!o*al of wastewater solids y passing the wastewater through granular !edia. So!e of the !edia that ha*e een used include sand' anthracite coal' diato!aceous earth' perlite' and granular acti" *ated car on. Sand filters are the !ost co!!only used filters in wastewater treat!ent' although filters can also consist of !ultiple types of !edia' such as coal o*er sand or coal o*er silica sand o*er garnet sand #3<$. .articles !ay e re!o*ed y interstitial straining. Cowe*er' s!aller parti" cles !ust e transported to the surfaces of the !edia' where an attach!ent !echanis! retains the particles. Transport !echanis!s !ay include gra*ita" tion' diffusion' and interception. These processes depend on the physical charac" teristics of the !edia. The attach!ent !echanis! !ay include electrostatic attraction' che!ical ridging' or adsorption. These processes are functions of the coagulant and the che!ical characteristics of the wastewater and !edia #3<$. ?ilters are classified as slow filters' rapid filters' or pressure filters. Slow filters require a uildup of solids on the top surface of the filter through which the wastewater !ust pass' which requires a low application rate. This uildup strains particles fro! the wastewater. Rapid filters and pressure filters use the entire depth of the !edia and !ay e operated at higher loadings than slow filters. H.A. Acti*ated 1ar on Adsorption. Adsorption is a process where !olecules of a co!pound adhere to a solid surface. The !ost co!!only used adsor ent in wastewater treat!ent is acti*ated car on. Acti*ated car on co!es in two for!s' powdered and granular. .owdered acti*ated car on #.A1$ is added to the !i(ed liquor in the aeration tan)s and is re!o*ed fro! the waste" water y settling. 5ranular acti*ated car on #5A1$ is used in a pac)ed ed #3=$. The adsorpti*e capacity of the car on is a function of the !aterial and !ethod used to create the acti*ated car on as well as the che!ical properties of the co!pound to e adsor ed. In general' organics are co!pletely re!o*ed

until the adsorpti*e capacity is e(hausted. At this point' the effluent concentra" tions increase #3=$. Spent acti*ated car on !ay e regenerated y heating. H.@. Me! rane Syste!s. Me! rane processes use a se!iper!ea le arrier that allows the water to flow through ut retains the conta!inants. There are se*eral types of !e! rane syste!s in wastewater treat!ent' includ" ing re*erse os!osis' nanofiltration' !icrofiltration' and ultrafiltration. All of these processes use pressure to force water through the !e! rane. -ltrafiltration !ay e used to re!o*e !olecules that ha*e a !olecular weight of =BB or greater and ha*e a low os!otic pressure at !oderate concentra" tions. This includes acteria' *iruses' proteins' and clays #3<$. Re*erse os!osis is used to separate s!all !olecules whose os!otic pressure is high. Microfiltration and nanofiltration are !e! rane syste!s that lie etween ultrafiltration and re*erse os!osis. Me! rane processes are su &ect to fouling of !e! ranes. These processes should e pilot tested to deter!ine which process and !e! rane wor) est for any gi*en application. H.1B. 0isinfection .rocesses. 1hlorinationF0echlorination. 1hlorine has een used as a disinfectant for !any reasons' including inacti*ation of a wide range of pathogens' !aintenance of a residual' and cost. As chlorine dissol*es in water' it for!s hypochlorous acid' which dissociates into hypochlorite ions and hydrogen ions and decrease the pC. ,ower pC *alues cause less dissociation' which is prefera le' ecause hypochlorous acid is a !uch !ore effecti*e disinfec" tant than hypochlorite. Sodiu! and calciu! hypochlorites also for! hypochlorous acid when dissol*ed' ut they also li erate hydro(yl ions' and thus increase the pC of the wastewater. 1hlorine is to(ic' so dechlorination !ay e required' which is usually done y using sulfur dio(ide to reduce the chlorine to chlorides. Sodiu! !eta isulfite or sodiu! isulfite !ay e used instead of sulfur dio(ide in s!all facilities. The reactions are nearly instantaneous' and detention ti!es are less than 3 !inutes. /4onation. /4one is a powerful o(idant that can disinfect wastewater using less contact ti!e and lower dosages than other che!ical !ethods. It has high ger!icidal efficiency against a wide range of organis!s' and it does not lea*e a residual. %ecause of its insta ility' o4one !ust e generated on"site. /4one is applied to wastewater in closed contactors. The off"gas fro! the contac" tors contains high concentrations of o4one' which !ust e destroyed efore it is discharged to the at!osphere. -ltra*iolet ,ight 0isinfection. -ltra*iolet light is a for! of electro!ag" netic radiation at wa*elengths of 1BB G <BB n!. Electro!agnetic radiation at wa*elengths fro! 3<B G 3AB n! inacti*ates !icroorganis!s y da!aging their nucleic acid. -ltra*iolet la!ps operate in !uch the sa!e way as fluorescent la!ps. The u* radiation is generated y passing a current through !ercury *apor. The !ercury la!ps !ay e low"pressure or !ediu!"pressure la!ps. ,ow"pressure la!ps e!it !ost of their energy at a wa*elength of 3=;.H n!' which is in the opti!al range. Mediu!"pressure la!ps generate a lesser portion of their energy in the opti!al range' ut the intensity of the radiation is !uch greater than that of the low"pressure la!ps' and fewer la!ps are required. See Ref. 3> for further infor!ation discussed in section H.

A. Ad*ances in Wastewater Treat!ent A.1. Ad*anced /(idation .rocesses #A/.$. Radicals produced y A/. are suita le for achie*ing co!plete a ate!ent and !inerali4ation of pollu" tants. A/. usually operate at or close to a! ient te!perature and pressure. The potentialities offered y A/. can e e(ploited to integrate iological treat!ents y o(idati*e degradation of to(ic su stances' entering or lea*ing the iological stage #3H'3A$. The usual two A/. are the ?enton process and photocatalysis6 ?enton .rocess. .roduction of /C. radicals y ?enton7s reagent
when addition of C3/3

is added to ?e3K salts #3@$6 It has een de!onstrated that ?enton7s reagent can destroy to(ic co!pounds such as phenols and her i" cides in wastewaters. Irradiation y u*"*is light strongly accelerates the degra" dation rate of organic pollutants #;B$. The application of the ?enton process requires strict pC control+ sludges can e for!ed which create disposal pro le!s.
.hotocatalysis. In this process' hydro(yl and other radicals are gener" ated at the surface of an u*"a sor ing powder #called a photocatalyst$. The !ost widely used photocatalyst is the wide and"gap #;.3 e2$ se!iconductor Ti/3 in its anatase crystalline for! #;1';3$. Ti/3 a sor s u* light at

occurs

wa*elengths

elow ;AB n! creating an e(cess of electrons in the conduction and #e holes in the *alence and #hK $6
*

$ and

Ti/3

L Ne O *

K hK

The carriers can diffuse to the surface where they react as follows6 hK *

K /C L /C
ads

and e
c

K /3 L /3

where ads E adsor ed to the surface of Ti/3 particles. /rganic pollutants !ay adsor on the surface of Ti/ particles' and there 3 they are attac)ed y the adsor ed /C. radicals and holes. The / radicals can 3 further disproportionate as follows6 3 /3 K 3C K L C / K /
ads 3 3 3

photocataly4ed reactions is rather low' the syste! does ha*e the ad*antage that it can use u* photons in the near u* # lac)" light u* fluorescent la!ps or the u* portion of solar radiation$. 1o!pilations of su stances which can e !inerali4ed using photocatalysis are now a*aila le #;;$.
Although the quantu! yield of Ti/3

A.3. 1o!ple(ationF?locculation. It has een shown that dissol*ed hu!ic su stances #0CS$' ind #co!ple($ organic solutes *ia hydropho ic interac" tions' for!ing hu!ic G conta!inant co!ple(es in the aqueous phase. The treat!ent process follows two stages6 #1$ inding of dissol*ed hu!ic acid #0CA$ y the dissol*ed conta!inants to for! co!ple(es #co!ple(ation

stage$ and #3$ precipitation of 0CA and the associated conta!inant y using a flocculant #alu! or ferric chloride' flocculation stage$. This process can e applied to re!o*e *arious classes of hydropho ic organic pollutants such as .ACs' .1%s and chloro"organo pesticides fro! industrial wastewater. Additionally' this tech" nology has the ad*antage that it !ay e coupled to the general water treat!ent process #;<$. A.;. 1onducting .oly!ers. 1onducting poly!ers ha*e ion e(change properties induced y charging and discharging processes #;=$. ?or instance' polypyrrole #..y$ can function as an anion e(changer' whereas ..y !odified with polystyrenesulfonate anions #..yF.SS.$ wor)s as a cation

e(changer #;>';H$. Such a !odified poly!er can e used as an electroche!ically switcha le ion e(changer for water softening #;A$. This ion e(changer can e regenerated without che!ical additi*es or aqueous electrolysis.

A.<. Ioni4ing Irradiation. Cigh energy irradiation #g rays' P rays' and electron ea!s$ interacts with water to generate a *ariety of free radicals' prin" cipally /C.' C. and hydrated electrons. If C3/3 or /; is present in the

water' the C. and the hydrated electrons are con*erted efficiently to /C. radicals. This pro"

cess is ased on electron accelerators. An atte!pt has een !ade to use co! ined electron ea! and o4one for treating !unicipal wastewater in aerosol flow #;@'<B$. A.=. Me! raneFSonicationFWet /(idation. Cy rid syste!s are eco!ing popular for treating waste strea!s that are otherwise difficult to han" dle. ?or instance' the powder"acti*ated car on G acti*ated sludge syste! #.A1T syste! y Qi!pro En*iron!ental' Inc.$ is a classic e(a!ple of such syste!s. /PRMEM is another hy rid process' where wet o(idation and nanofiltration were used together to treat ioresistant industrial wastewater containing poly" ethylene glycol. It has also een de!onstrated that sonication followed y wet o(idation #S/NIW/$ is a useful hy rid process for treating refractory waste. 1on*entional ioprocesses !ay not e a!ena le to iodestruction of the effluent fro! reacti*e ath dye. SSMe! rane"sonication"wet o(idation77 #MEMS/NIW/$ is a hy rid process applied to water conser*ation *ia recycling. The !e! rane unit allows concentrating the waste' and then the per!eate #!ostly water$ can e recycled. The concentrate fro! the !e! rane unit can' then' e treated y soni" cation to !a)e it suita le for wet o(idation. After wet o(idation' the water can e discharged or recycled #<1$. A.>. Sorption y Qeolites. It is well esta lished that the sorption char" acteristics of 4eolite"type !aterials are defined y pore si4e and charge properties #<3$. Most naturally occurring 4eolites ear a relati*ely high fra!ewor) charge arising fro! Al;K su stitution for Si<K in the crystal lattice+ this

results in a structure of high cation"e(change capacity. Such 4eolites ha*e een used as ion e(changers to treat water and are incorporated into syste!s for treating radioacti*e waste #re!o*al of 1;H1sK and @BSr3K$ and for re!o*ing NC<K fro! wastewater. Qeolites that ha*e high Si/3FAl3/; ratios ha*e a low capacity to retain cations ut are !ore hydropho ic and can' therefore' sor uncharged !olecules. In la oratory studies using atch sorption equili ria' high Si large" pore !ordenite #M/R$ and QSM"=' it was found' ha*e sorption properties for !ethyl tert"

utyl ether #MT%E$ and trichloroethylene #T1E$ superior to those of acti*ated car on #<;$.

that are

A.H. Supercritical Water /(idation. Supercritical water o(idation #S1W/$ is considered a pro!ising technology for treating se*eral wastes #<<G <H$. S1W/ is a process where o(idation ta)es place in water a o*e its critical point #><H 8' 33.1 M.a$. S1W/ is an en*iron!entally accepta le technology that produces a disposa le clean liquid #pure water$' clean solid #!etal o(ides' salts$' and clean gas #1/3' N3$. Recently' there has een increasing interest in using

heterogeneous cat" alysts in S1W/. 1atalysts can increase the o(idation rates' reduce the residence ti!es and te!peratures required for treat!ent' and possi ly control the selecti*ity of the reaction pathways #<A$.

A.A. -ltrasonic Irradiation. Sonoche!ical effects are due to the phe" no!enon of SSca*itation'77 the nucleation and the eha*ior of u les in a liquid #<@'=B$. In wastewater treat!ent' a u le of ca*itation !ay function as a !icro" reactor which destroys *olatile organic co!pounds inside #=1G=;$. The ca*ity !ay also e thought as a C.' /C.' //C. radical source that react with

pollutants in the ul) of the solution. Se*eral potential applications of ultrasonic irradiation ha*e een reported recently.
See Ref. =< for further infor!ation on these ad*ances.

@. Sludge Candling and 0isposal @.1. Types of Sludges. Municipal pri!ary sludge consists of organic and inorganic particulates. The sludge !ust e sta ili4ed efore land disposal. %iological sludge consists of organis!s and other particulates not degraded in the iological process. 1he!ical sludges consist of che!ical precipitates' hea*y !etals' and other conta!inants such as color precipitated fro! industrial waste" waters. @.3. Sludge Sta ili4ation. /rganic sludges need to e sta ili4ed efore ulti!ate disposal e(cept in the case of incineration. This is usually achie*ed y either aero ic or anaero ic digestion. In aero ic digestion' the degrada le *ola" tile solids are liquefied and o(idi4ed to 1/3 and C3/. In anaero ic

digestion the solids are liquefied and fer!ented to 1C< and 1/3.

@.;. Sludge Thic)ening. The !echanis!s of sludge dewatering are shown in ?igure 1B. Thic)ening of sludge usually precedes dewatering. 0epend" ing on the nature of the sludge' se*eral techniques are a*aila le for thic)ening.
#1$ 5ra*ity thic)ening is applica le to pri!ary !unicipal sludges and !ost che!ical sludges. #3$ Another technique is one in which the sludge is passed in a thin sheet o*er a porous drainage elt. This technique is particularly applica le to waste" acti*ated sludge. #;$ In dissol*ed air flotation' air u les float the sludge' which is then re" !o*ed y a scraper. It is generally applica le to large *olu!es of waste" acti*ated sludge. #<$ In a centrifuge technique' *arious centrifuge types are used for sludge thic)ening.

@.<. Sludge 0ewatering. In a centrifuge technique for sludge dewater" ing' the solid owl centrifuge concentrates the solids under centrifugal force. %oth centrate and ca)e solids are continuously discharged fro! the !achine. .oly!er addition is required for !ost wastewater sludges. A *acuu! filter is a cloth"co*ered dru! which operates under an applied *acuu!. As the dru! passes through the sludge *at' solids are deposited on the filter. As the dru! passes through the air' drying of the ca)e occurs. The ca)e is continuously discharged to a con*eyor elt. A elt filter press consists of a gra*ity drainage elt' followed y a series of roller presses which squee4e out water. A pressure filter is a plate"and"fra!e press which operates on an inter!it" tent ti!e cycle. 0rier ca)es are generally attaina le fro! a filter press. Sludge drying eds are usually used for s!aller sludge *olu!es' which drain and dry rapidly. Their application is usually restricted to the !ore arid cli" !ates. Thic)ening and dewatering of *arious sludges is shown in Ta le @. @.=. Sludge 0isposal. ,and disposal of wet sludges can e acco!" plished in a nu! er of ways6 ,agooning or the application of liquid sludge to land y truc) or spray syste!' or y pipeline to a re!ote agricultural or lagoon site. In lagoons sludge is stored and in the case of organic sludges anaero ically disgested. /dor control is achie*ed either y che!ical addition to the o*erlaying water #1l3 or C3/3$ to o(idi4e sulfides' or y installing aerators in the

liquid layer to !aintain aero ic conditions.

%iological sludges can e incorporated into the soil. An i!portant consid" eration is the hea*y !etal content of the sludge' which will dictate the total nu!" er of years sludge can e applied. The a*aila le nitrogen content of the sludge will deter!ine the !a(i!u! yearly application. 0ewatered sludges can e e!ployed as a landfill. Incineration can e acco!plished in !ultiple"hearth furnaces' in which the sludge passes *ertically through a series of hearths. In a fluidi4ed" ed sludge' particles are fed into a ed of sand fluidi4ed y upwardly !o*ing air.

1B. Stor!"Water 1ontrol

Acti*ities that ta)e place at industrial facilities' such as !aterial handling and storage' are often e(posed to the weather. As runoff fro! rain or snow!elt co!es into contact with these !aterials' it pic)s up pollutants and transports the! to near y stor! sewer syste!s' ri*ers' la)es' or coastal waters. Stor!water pollu" tion is a significant source of water quality pro le!s for the nation7s waters. /f the 11 pollution source categories listed in E.A7s National Water Tuality In*en" tory6 3BBB Report to 1ongress' ur an runoffFstor! sewers was ran)ed as the fourth leading source of i!pair!ent in ri*ers' third in la)es' and second in estu" aries #==$. .ollutional discharges can e !ini!i4ed y pro*iding adequate di)ing around process areas' storage tan)s' and liquid transfer points' with drainage into the process sewer. 1onta!inated stor! water is usually collected on the

asis of a frequency for the area in question' eg' a 1B"year stor!' in a holding asin. The collected water is then passed through the wastewater treat!ent plant at a controlled rate.

11. /ther Sewage and 0isposal 1onsiderations 11.1. .ri*ate and Rural 0isposal Syste!s. In areas not ser*ed y sewers' hu!an and other water"carried wastes are disposed of in pri!iti*e pri" *ies' cesspools' or septic tan)s #=>$. In the !ore de*eloped areas pri*ies ha*e al!ost disappeared. 1esspools are si!ply pits in the ground into which waste" water is allowed to flow' and in !any parts of North A!erica they are not per" !itted. 1esspool water seeps into the ground' lea*ing the solid !atter in the pit' thus groundwater in the area !ight eco!e conta!inated. Septic tan)s are widely used in s!aller co!!unities and outlying su ur s of larger co!!unities. The tan) is )ept full of waste and functions as oth a sedi!entation tan) and anaero ic digester. Sanitary and )itchen wastes flow into the tan)+ grease and light !aterial rise to the top. Cea*ier !aterials settle to the otto! and deco!" pose anaero ically. %affles are placed at the inlet and outlet and a grease trap is usually pro*ided in front of the tan)' which has to e cleaned periodically of solids. 5ood practice requires a !ini!u! *olu!e of =>HB , #1=BB gal$. The efflu" ent flows to a tile field where it is disposed of in the soil. The tile field is co!posed of perforated field tile fed y a !anifold and underlain with granular !aterial' usually gra*el. 1logging of the soil under the tile field !ust e pre*ented. As !ore areas are ser*ed y !unicipal syste!s' septic tan)s are eco!ing less co!" !on. Malfunctioning septic tan)s cause odor pro le!s and present a pu lic health ha4ard. ?urther!ore' septic tan)s and cesspools !ay for! a closed sys" te! in which the waste discharged !ay return in the water supply. In !any de*eloping nations' hu!an waste' called night soil' is not discarded' instead' it is used as crop fertili4er and for iogas production #=H$. Although it is not good pu lic health practice' it is utili4ation of a *alua le resource #see %I/MASS ENER5R+ ?-E,S ?R/M WASTE$. The I!hoff tan) is si!ilar in !any respects to the septic tan)' operating as a sedi!entation tan) and digester. It is co!posed of two cha! ers' one a o*e the other and the shape !ay e square' circular' or rectangular. The depth ranges fro! H.H to 1B.> ! #=A$. Sewage flows slowly into the upper cha! er at ca B.; !Fs and solids settle out and slide through a slot into the lower cha! er' where the flowing wastewater is detained for ca 3 h. Solids held in the lower' or digestion' cha! er ha*e an initial water content of ca @=D. After a digestion ti!e of ;B G >B d the water content of the digesting sludge is reduced to ca ABD which greatly reduces the *olu!e. The sludge is withdrawn at inter*als for further dewatering and disposal. 5ases produced during digestion are allowed to escape to the at!osphere through *ents located at the tan) sides. Solids uoyed up y gas are pre*ented fro! escaping to the upper cha! er y deflector plates. 11.3. S!all 1o!!unities. S!all co!!unities and recent su di*ision additions to larger co!!unities' which ha*e not yet een connected to !unicipal collection syste!s' !ust ha*e a !eans of waste disposal. Septic tan)s are a

possi ility' ut require periodic ser*icing and cleaning. ?urther!ore' the soil is not always suita le for accepting the effluent. An alternati*e is the pac)age plant. These units are co!!ercially produced to ser*e s!all areas. They furnish pri!ary treat!ent and so!e secondary treat!ent' and require only !ini!al operating super*ision. 1apacity can e *aried as needs dictate. In general' pu lic health authorities prefer such installations instead of septic tan)s. 11.;. Watercraft"Waste 0isposal. The popularity of recreational oat" ing has rought with it the pro le! of disposing of wastes generated y the oat users. In !any ri*ers and la)es' this has eco!e a serious pro le!. A large nu!" er of pleasure craft can place' in a wee)end' a pollutional load equi*alent to a s!all co!!unity on a !ediu!"si4ed water ody. As legislation was passed y the states' it eca!e apparent that this pro le! would require a solu" tion at the national le*el. 2arious technologies are a*aila le' ut no agree!ent could e reached on which to use. -nits a*aila le include the holding tan)' !acerator G chlorinator' and on" oard incinerators. The 1oast 5uard was gi*en the tas) of reco!!ending a solution ut eca!e !ired in ureaucratic tugs"of" war. It was agreed that holding tan)s would )eep the waste fro! reaching the recei*ing waters directly fro! the oat. Cowe*er' a*aila ility of facilities to recei*e the retained waste !aterial ashore was li!ited. In !any cases' the pu!ped"out waste was discharged to the recei*ing water as soon as the sun had set. After se*eral years of indecision' rules were pro!ulgated that allowed the use of the !acerator G chlorinator for a period' followed y total con*ersion to holding tan)s. Macerator G chlorinators chop the waste into fine particles for adequate chlorine contact and are regarded as potential sources of acterial con" ta!ination. Incinerators did not achie*e the sa!e acceptance on pleasure craft as they did on railroads.

13. Cealth and Safety ?actors

Wastewater"treat!ent plants ha*e nu!erous ha4ards to e e(pected in a che!i" cal"process plant. Wor)er safety is co*ered y applica le /SCA' state and local standards' ut two ha4ards require special notice+ the potential for infection y pathogenic organis!s is always present' and plant wor)ers require inoculation against the co!!on water orne diseases. In addition' since wastewater treat" !ent plants utili4e deep water"filled tan)s' pro*ision !ust e !ade against drowning. .roper railings should e installed around the tan)s and life"sa*ing equip!ent should e a*aila le for i!!ediate use. A special ha4ard is the io" !ass concentration in aeration tan)s. Ingestion of this floc has caused a nu! er of fatalities.

1;. 5o*ern!ent Regulations

A succession of federal agencies and ad!inistrations has een charged with deal" ing with wastewater. At present this responsi ility resides with the E.A. It has een proposed that !ost of the E.A functions e turned ac) to the states. It

re!ains to e seen if the states' with conflicting needs and priorities' will e a le to deal successfully with these pro le!s. The National .ollutant 0ischarge Eli!ination Syste! #N.0ES$ is a corner" stone of the federal efforts to control water pollution. It deter!ines what can e discharged to a pu licly owned treat!ent plant. Indirect discharges !ay not e required to o tain an N.0ES per!it ut !ust !eet pretreat!ent effluent li!" itations and conditions of the N.0ES per!it of the treat!ent plant cannot e e(ceeded. In order to !ini!i4e the i!pact of stor!water discharges fro! industrial facilities' the N.0ES progra! includes an industrial stor!water per!itting co!ponent. /perators of industrial facilities included in one of the 11 categories of stor!water discharges associated with industrial acti*ity that discharge or ha*e the potential to discharge stor!water to a !unicipal separate stor! sewer syste! #MS<$ or directly to waters of the -nited States require authori4a" tion under a N.0ES industrial stor!water per!it. #1onstruction acti*ity is one of these 11 categories' ut ecause of the nature of its operations' it is discussed separately fro! the other 1B categories.$ The list pro*ided elow descri es the types of industrial acti*ities within each category. 1ategory /ne #i$6 ?acilities with effluent li!itations 1ategory Two #ii$6 Manufacturing 1ategory Three #iii$6 Mineral' Metal' /il and 5as 1ategory ?our #i*$6 Ca4ardous Waste' Treat!ent' or 0isposal ?acilities 1ategory ?i*e #*$6 ,andfills 1ategory Si( #*i$6 Recycling ?acilities 1ategory Se*en #*ii$6 Stea! Electric .lants 1ategory Eight #*iii$6 Transportation ?acilities 1ategory Nine #i($6 Treat!ent Wor)s 1ategory Ten #($6 1onstruction Acti*ity 1ategory Ele*en #(i$6 ,ight Industrial Acti*ity 1ategory Ten #($6 1onstruction Acti*ity that distur s = or !ore acres of land is included in the definition of SSstor!water discharges associated with industrial acti*ity.77 Cowe*er' E.A opts to per!it these types of acti*ities sepa" rately fro! other industrial acti*ities ecause of the significant difference in the nature of these acti*ities. In addition' E.A also requires per!it co*erage for s!all construction that distur s fro! 1 to = acres of land. More infor!ation a out stor!water discharges fro! construction acti*ities is a*aila le #==$. The *arious -.S. E.A rules that apply to water supply syste!s also i!pact the selection of treat!ent processes. The Surface Water Treat!ent Rule' the Total 1olifor! Rule' the ,ead and 1opper Rule' and the Enhanced Surface Water Treat!ent Rule are e(a!ples of rules that deal with the re!o*al or con" trol of specific constituents and !icroorganis!s #eg' 1ryptosporidiu!$. Thus' the require!ents set forth in the *arious rules will also affect the selection' design' and operation of water treat!ent facilities. The challenge for the designer of water treat!ent facilities is to !eet current regulations while at the sa!e

ti!e trying to anticipate what changes will occur in regulations and rules o*er the useful life of the facility and how they !ight i!pact the design and operation of the facility in the future #=@$.

%I%,I/5RA.CR
SSSewage77 in E1T 1st ed.' 2ol. 13' pp. 1@1 G 3BH' y A. M. %uswell' Illinois State Water Sur" *ey 0i*ision+ SSWater' Sewage77 in E1T 3nd ed.' 2ol. 33' pp. 1B< G 11=' y 9. R. .fafflin' -ni" *ersity of Windsor' /ntario' 1anada+ SSSewage77 in E1T ;rd ed.' 2ol. 3<' pp. <BH G <1@' y 9. R. .fafflin' consultant+ SSSewage77 under SSWater77 in E1T <th ed.' 2ol. 3=' pp. =<B G =>B+ SSWater' Sewage77 in E1T #online$' posting date6 0ece! er <' 3BBB+ SSWastes' Industrial77 in E1T 1st ed.' 2ol. 1<' pp. A@> G @1<' y C. E. /rford' W. %. Snow' and W. A. .arsons' Rutgers -ni*ersity+ in E1T 3nd ed.' 2ol. 31' pp. >3= G >=1' y R. 0. Ross' Ther!al Re" search : Engineering 1orp.+ in E1T ;rd ed.' 2ol. 3<' pp. 33H G 3=>' y N. ,. Ne!erow' -ni" *ersity of Mia!i+ in E1T <th ed.' 2ol. 3=' pp. ;3= G ;>1' y W. W. Ec)enfelder' 9r.' Ec)enfelder Inc.+ SSWastes' Industrial77 in E1T #online$' posting date6 0ece! er <' 3BBB' y W. W. Ec)enfelder' 9r.' Ec)enfelder Inc.

1ITE0 .-%,I1ATI/NS
1. I. Ali and 1. 8. 9ain' SSWastewater Treat!ent and Recycling Technologies'77 in Water Encyclopedia' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' Inc.' Co o)en' N.9.' on"line April 3BB=. 3. R. A. 1onway and R. 0. Ross' Cand oo) of Industrial Waste 0isposal' 2an Nostrand Reinhold 1o.' Inc.' New Ror)' 1@AB' p. 13=. ;. R. ,. 0roste' Theory and .ractice of Water and Wastewater Treat!ent' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' New Ror)' 1@@H. <. N. Ne!erow and A. 0asgupta' Industrial and Ca4ardous Waste Treat!ent' 2an Nostrand Reinhold' New Ror)' 1@@1. =. 5. A. Qin)us' W. 0. %yers' and W. W. 0oerr' 1he!. Eng. .rog. @<#=$' 1@ G ;1 #1@@A$. >. A. R. Willia!s' SSThe -se of Re*erse /s!osis for the .urification of 1oal 5asification ,iquors'77 in M. 8. Turner' ed.' Effecti*e Industrial Me! rane .rocesses6 %enefits and /pportunities' Else*ier Science' %ar)ing Esse(' 1@@1. H. ,. Sun' E. M. .erdue' and 9. ?. Mc1arthy' Water Res. 3@' 1<H1 G 1<HH #1@@=$. A. %. 1ul)in' A. .lot)in' and M. Monroe' 1he!. Eng. .rog. @<#1$' 3@ G ;; #1@@A$. @. ?. *an der Ca!' 5. 9. Wit)a!p' 9. de5rauw' and 5. M. *an Ros!alen' 1he!. Eng. .rocess. ;H#3$' 3BH G 31; #1@@A$. 1B. I. /. Sine*' /. .. Sine*' and S. N. ,ine*ich' I4o reteniya. 3>' ;>@ G ;HB #1@@H$. 11. 2. 8. 5upta and I. Ali' SSAdsor ents for Water Treat!ent6 ,ow 1ost Alternati*es to 1ar on'77 in A. Cu ard' ed.' Encyclopedia of Surface and 1olloid Science' 2ol. 1' Marcel 0e))er' New Ror)' 3BB3' pp. 1;> G 1>>. 13. 9pn. 8o)ai To)yo 9p. 1B=H@>H I@A=H@>HJ #1l. 1B3?1F=3$ #1@@A$' R. Nagasa)i. 1;. A. A. ,atifossglu' 5. Surucu' and M. E*irgen' SSI!pro*e!ent to the 0ewatera ility of ?erric Sludge .roduced fro! 1he!ical Treat!ent of Wastewaters'77 Water .ollut. I26 Modelling Meas. .redicting' <th Int. 1onf.' 1@@H' pp. H;; G H<3. 1<. R. 9. %igda' 1he!. Eng. .rog. A@' >3 G >> #1@@=$. 1=. 9. T. McNulty' SSAnion E(change Resin 8inetics in Mi(ed %ed 1ondensate .olish" ing'77 in 0. Naden and M. Streat' eds.' Ion E(change Technology' Ellis Norwood' 1hichester' 1@A<.

1>. 9. W. Ahn and 9. 5. Ahn' 1hawn Risai)ring. >#<$' <A G =< #1@@H$. 1H. 2. 5ott erg' 9. M. Antonia' and ,. R. Siwa)' Electrodialysis re*ersal process. Int. 0esalination Water Reuse T. H#<$' ;; G ;H #1@@A$. 1A. R. 9. 1oin' M. 9. Ni)sa' and 0. I. Elyanow' En*iron. .rog. 1=' 133 G 13H #1@@>$. 1@. 9pn. 8o)ai To)yo 9p. 1B=3>A; I@A=3>A;J #1l. 1B3?1FB<$ #1@@A$' T. Mato a and C. ?uruishi. 3B. .1T Int. Appl. W/ @A3=>H@ #1l. %B101F3>$ #1@@A$' .. R. %o!. 31. T. 1lar) and T. Stephenson' En*iron. Technol. 1@#>$' =H@ G =@B #1@@A$. 33. M. T. 8ato' 9. A. ?ield' and 5. ,ettinga' Water Sci. Technol. ;>' ;H= G ;A3 #1@@H$. 3;. Metcalf : Eddy' Inc. Wastewater Engineering6 Treat!ent' 0isposal' Reuse' ;rd ed.' Mc5raw"Cill' Inc.' New Ror)' 1@@1. 3<. W. 9. We er' .hysicoche!ical .rocesses for Water Tuality 1ontrol' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' New Ror)' 1@H1. 3=. Water En*iron!ent ?ederation. Water Reuse' Manual of .ractice SM";' 3nd ed.' Ale(andria' 2a.' 1@A@. 3>. 8. S. Mc,eary' SSWater Treat!ent .rocesses and Water Reuse'77 in Water Encyclopedia' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' Inc.' Co o)en' N.9.' on"line 9uly 3BB=. 3H. R. Andreo44i' 2. 1aprio' A. Insola' and R. Marotta' 1atal. Today =;' =1 #1@@@$. 3A. 0. ?. /llis' in 0. W. Tedder and ?. 5. .ohland' eds.' 1o!parati*e Aspects of Ad" *anced /(idation .rocesses' E!erging Technologies in Ca4ardous Waste Manage" !ent III' 1hapt. 3' A1S Sy!posiu! Series =1A' Washington' 0.1.' 1@@;. 3@. ?. Ca er and 9. Weiss' .roc. R. Soc. Ser. A. 1<H' ;;3 #1@;<$. ;B. R. %auer and co"wor)ers' 1atal. Today =;' 1;1 #1@@@$. ;1. A. Mills and S. ,. Cunte' 9. .hotoche!. .hoto iol. A6 1he!. 1BA' 1 #1@@H$. ;3. 0. %ahne!ann' in .. %oule' ed.' The Cand oo) of En*iron!ental 1he!istry' 2ol. 3' .art I' En*iron!ental .hotoche!istry' Springer"2erlag' %erlin' 1@@@. ;;. 0. M. %la)e' %i liography of Wor) on the .hotocatalytic Re!o*al of Ca4ardous 1o!" pounds fro! Water and Air. Report NRE,FT."=HB"3>H@H' National Renewa le En" ergy ,a oratory' 5olden' 1olo.' 1@@@. ;<. M. Re hun' S. Meir' and R. ,aor' En*iron. Sci. Technol. ;3' @A1 #1@@A$. ;=. T. Shi!id4u' A. /htani' and 8. Conda' 9. Electroanal. 1he!. AA' ;3; #1@AA$. ;>. 1. Qhong' 8. 0o lhofer' and 5. Wein erg' ?araday 0iscuss. 1he!. Soc. AA' ;BH #1@A@$. ;H. P. Ren and .. 5. .ic)up' 9. .hys. 1he!. @H' =;=> #1@@;$. ;A. 1. Weidlich' 8."M. Mangold' and 8. 9uttner' Synth. Met. 11@' 3>; #3BB1$. ;@. A. 8. .i)ae* and co"wor)ers' Radiat. .hys. 1he!. <A' H= #1@@>$. <B. A. 8. .i)ae*' E. A. .od4oro*a' and /. %a)htin' Radiat. .hys. 1he!. <@' 1== #1@@H$. <1. A. 0. 0hale and 2. 2. Maha&ani' Ind. Eng. 1he!. Res. ;A' 3B=A #1@@@$ and references therein. <3. 9. M. Newsa!' Science 3;1' 1B@; #1@A>$. <;. M. A. Anderson' En*iron. Sci. Technol. ;<' H3= #3BBB$. <<. 2. S. Mishra' 2. 2. Maha&ani' and 9. %. 9oshi' Ind. Eng. 1he!. Res. ;<' 3 #1@@=$. <=. R. I. Matato*"Meytal and M. Sheintuch' Ind. Eng. 1he!. Res. ;H' ;B@ #1@@A$. <>. E. ?. 5loyna and ,. ,i' En*iron. .rog. 1<' 1A3 #1@@=$. <H. 9. ,e*ec' 1he!. %ioche!. Eng. T. 11' <H #1@@H$. <A. 9. Ru and .. E. Sa*age' Ind. Eng. 1he!. Res. ;A' ;H@; #1@@@$ and references therein. <@. R. 5. Adewuyi' Ind. Eng. 1he!. Res. <B' <>A1 #3BB1$ and references therein. =B. ,. C. Tho!pson and ,. 8. 0oraiswa!y' Ind. Eng. 1he!. Res. ;A' 131= #1@@@$. =1. 1. .eU trier and A. ?rancony' -ltrasonic Sonoche!ical <' 3@= #1@@H$. =3. S. S. .hull and co"wor)ers' -ltrasonic Sonoche!ical <' 1=H #1@@H$. =;. A. %. .andit' .. R. 5ogate' and S. Mu&u!dar' -ltrasonic Sonoche!ical A' 33H #3BB1$.

=<. M. A. 2alen4uela' SSWastewater Treat!ent Techniques"Ad*anced'77 in Water Ency" clopedia' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' Inc.' Co o)en' N.9.' on"line April 3BB=. ==. Stor!water 0ischarges fro! Industrial ?acilities' -nited States En*iron!ental .rotection Agency' www.epa.go*.' accessed 9uly 3BB>. =>. 9. Sal*ato' En*iron!ental Sanitation' 3nd ed.' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' Inc.' New Ror)' 1@H3. U =H. 0. The ry' Resource Manag!ent and /pti!i4ation' 2ol. 1' No. <'

Carwood Acade!ic
.u lishers' New Ror)' 1@A1' pp. 3A@ G ;1<. =A. 8. I!hoff' Taschen uch der Stadt Entwa sserung'

R. /lden urg 2erlag'

Munich'
1@>B. =@. 9. 1. 1rittenden' R. R. Trussell' 0. W. Cand' 8. 9. Cowe' and 5. Tcho anoglous' Water Treat!ent6 .rinciples and 0esign' 3nd ed.' 9ohn Wiley : Sons' Inc.' Co o)en' N.9.' 3BB=.

W. WES,ER E18EN?E,0ER 9R. Ec)enfelder Inc. -pdated y Staff

Ta le 1. Waste Mini!i4ation Approaches and Techniques Approach in*entory !anage!ent and i!pro*ed operations Related techniques in*entory and trace all raw !aterials purchase fewer to(ic and !ore nonto(ic production !aterials i!ple!ent e!ployee training and !anage" !ent feed ac) i!pro*e !aterial recei*ing' storage' and handling practices install equip!ent that produces !ini!al or no waste !odify equip!ent to enhance reco*ery or recycling options redesign equip!ent or production lines to produce less waste i!pro*e operating efficiency of equip!ent !aintain strict pre*enti*e !aintenance progra! su stitute nonha4ardous for ha4ardous raw !aterials segregate wastes y type for reco*ery eli!inate sources of lea)s and spills separate ha4ardous fro! nonha4ardous wastes redesign or refor!ulate end products to e less ha4ardous opti!i4e reactions and raw !aterial use install closed"loop syste!s recycle on"site for reuse recycle off"site for reuse e(change wastes

!odification of equip!ent

production process changes

recycling and reuse

T a le 3. %asic .ara!eters in Wastewater 1haracteri4ation a .ara!eter E(a!ples %asic .ara!eters source infor!ation for the indi*idual points of origin waste constituents #specific co!pounds or general co!position$ discharge rate #a*erage and pea)$ atch discharges frequency of e!ergency discharges or spills che!ical co!position organic and inorganic constituents gross organics che!ical o(ygen de!and #1/0$ total organic car on #T/1$ ioche!ical o(ygen de!and #%/0$ e(tracta les to(ics' ha4ardous co!pounds' priority pollutants gross inorganicsVtotal dissol*ed solids specific inorganic ions #As' %a' 1d' 1N' Cg' . ' Se' Ni' Sn' nitrates$ pC' acidity' al)alinity nitrogen and phosphorus oil and grease o(idi4ing reducing agents' eg' sulfides surfactants chlorine de!and physical properties te!perature range and distri ution particulates6 colloidal' settlea le' and flota le solids color odor foa!a ility corrosi*eness radioacti*ity iological factors ioche!ical o(ygen de!and to(icity #aquatic life' acteria' ani!als' plants$ pathogenic acteria flow characteristics a*erage daily flow rate duration and !agnitude of pea) flow rate !a(i!u! rate of change of flow rate stor!"water flow rate #a*erage and pea)$ 1auses of 2aria ility in Waste 1haracteri4ation changes in production rate *ariations in plant product !i( atch operations *ariations in efficiencies of production units changes in raw !aterials upsets in production processes !aintenance #equip!ent shutdown and cleanout$ !iscellaneous lea)s and spills conta!inated drainage and runoff fro! rainstor!s
a

Ref. 3.

Ta le ;. /(ygen 0e!and and /rganic 1ar on of Industrial Wastewaters

Cigh concentration Waste of sulfides and thiosulfates.

che!icala che!icala che!icala che!ical che!ical che!ical G refinery petroche!ical che!ical che!ical che!ical che!ical che!ical che!ical che!ical nylon poly!er petroche!ical nylon poly!er olefin processing utadiene processing che!ical synthetic ru er

Ta le <. A 1o!parison of Wastewater Treat!ent and Recycling Technologies Wastewater technologies

Suita ility

Applica ility

treated /$, 1ost #WF C 1B

3

>

.hysical Technologies screening' filtration' and centrifugal separation Ss : Sl I/% RSrT 3B G <=B

Sl6 solu le+ Ss6 !icro" suspended+ I6 inorganics+ /6 organics+ 26 *olatiles+ and ultra"filtration %6 iologicals. crystalli4ationc R6 recla!ation+sedi!entation T6 treat!ent+ and Sr6 source reduction. and gra*ity c separation Rarely used.
a

flotation adsorption

1he!ical Technologies precipitationc coagulation o(idation ion e(change sol*ent e(traction Electrical Technologies electrodialysis electrolysis Ther!al Technologies e*aporationc distillation %iological Technologies aero ic anaero ic

Ta le =. 1he!ical Waste Treat!ent Treat!ent !ethod ion e(change

reduction and precipitation

coagulation

adsorption

che!ical o(idation

sol*ent e(traction

%iodegrada le organic co!poundsa 1o!pounds generally resis" tant to iological degradation

i n e s

s t y acrylic acid r ethers Ta le >. Relati*e %iodegrada ility of 1ertain /rganic e aliphatic acids n ethylene chlorohydrin e aliphatic alcohols #nor!al' *inyl acetate iso' secondary$ a So!e isoprene !ethyl *inyl )etone co!pounds can aliphatic e degraded aldehydes !orpholine iologically only aliphatic esters after e(tended oil periods of seed al)yl poly!e en4e ric accli!ation. ne co!pou sulfon nds ates with e(cept ion of propyl ene" ased polypropylene en4ene sulfonates aro!atic a!ines selected hydrocar ons dichlorphenols aliphatics ethanola!ines aro!atics glycols al)yl G aryl groups )etones tertiary aliphatic alcohols !ethacrylic acid tertiary en4ene sulfonates !ethyl !ethacrylate trichlorophenols !onochlorophenols nitriles phenols p r i ! a r y

WASTEWATER

2ol.

a l i p h a t i c a !

Ta le H. %iological Waste Treat!ent Mode of Treat!ent !ethod lagoons operation inter!ittent or continuous discharge+ faculati*e or anae" ro ic 0egree of treat!ent inter!ediate ,and require!ents earth dug+ 1B G >B days7 retention #!ay require lining$ Equip!ent Re!ar)s odor control fre" quently required groundwater con" siderations

aerated lagoons

co!pletely !i(ed or high in su!!er+ less lined earth asin' 3.<< G faculati*e in winter <.AA ! deep+ A.== G 1H.1 continuous asins !;F#!; d$

pier"!ounted or floating surface aerators or su " surface diffusers

acti*ated sludge

co!pletely !i(ed or X@BD re!o*al of organics plug flow+ sludge recycle continuous application+ !ay e!ploy effluent recycle !ultistage continuous co!plete !i( with recycle+ upflow or down"flow filter' fluidi4ed ed+ upflow sludge lan)et inter!ittent application of waste

earth or concrete asin+ ;.>> G >.1B ! deep+ B.=>1 G 3.>3 !;F#!;

d$

tric)ling filter

inter!ediate or high' =.=3 G ;<.< !;F#1B; !; depending on pac)ing loading inter!ediate or high inter!ediate

d$

solids separation in lagoon+ periodic dewatering and sludge re!o*al groundwater con" siderations diffused or !echani" e(cess sludge dewa" tered and disposed cal aerators+ clari" of fier for sludge separation and recycle plastic pretreat!ent efore ./TW or acti*ated >.1B G 13.1@ ! deep sludge plant plastic dis)s gas collection required+ pretreat" !ent efore ./TW or acti*ated sludge plant solids separation required

R%1 anaero ic

spray irrigation

co!plete+ water per" >.3< 1B!G 3 <.>A !;F#s $ colation into groundwater and runoff to strea!

>

1B

alu!inu! irrigation solids separation pipe and spray required+ salt con" no44les+ !o*a le tent in waste li!" for ited relocation

Ta le A. .erfor!ance of Anaero ic .rocesses ,oading' Wastewater Te!p"

2ol. ;!eat pac)ing WASTEWATER

!eat pac)ing 8eiring slaughter house citrus synthetic phar!aceutical phar!aceutical guar gu! rendering landfill leachate paper"!ill foul condensate synthetic paper"!ill foul condensate s)i! !il) sauer)raut potato sugar cha!pagne sugar eet rewery potato paper"!ill foul condensate potato corn starch dairy confectionery

WASTEWATER

; 2ol.

-AS% E upflow anaero ic sludge lan)et.

Ta le @. .erfor!ance of Sludge Thic)ening and 0ewatering Equip!ent Equip!ent' and type of sludgea

,oading 3B G 133 1= G 3@
33H G ;H@ @=

Resultant solids content'

wtD
gra*ity thic)ener !unicipal WAS' )gF!3

d 1 G ; inorganic sludge' )gF!3 d 1B G 3B

133 G ;>>

flotation thic)ener !unicipal WAS' )gF!3

h < G H centrifuge' per unit

paper"!ill WAS' ,F!in citrus"processing WAS' ,F!in *acuu! filter !unicipal WAS' )gF!3 h area che!ical WAS' )gF! h 1H paper"!ill WAS' !;F!"h

11 @ G 1B

1B G ;@ 1B G 1= elt filter press' per unit of elt width or

1<@ G ;<;

pressure filter che!ical WAS che!ical WAS citrus"processing WAS tannery WAS' !;F!3"h
a

13 G 1@ paper"!ill pri!ary sludge' !;F!"h 13 G ;B; 3 1A G ;H !eat processing WAS' ! F! "h ;.> 1H tannery WAS' !;F!3"h 3.1 3;

;G>

1; G

WAS E waste"acti*ated sludge.

End products Energy Organic waste Synthesis Cells Endogenous respiration

Nonbiodegradable residue

?ig. 1.

The !echanis! of aero ic iological o(idation.

Linear removal Declining removal Endogenous phase Synthesis of

S0

stored BOD
Biosorption

X
0

ime

3. Aero ic iological treat!ent' where SB E initial organic concentration and PB E initial io!ass concentration+ #VVV$ total cell weight+ # G G $ specific o(ygen upta)e rate+ # G G G $ cell N and .+ # $ organic su strate re!aining. ?ig.

E!tended filament

"ilament bac#bone $a%

$b%

Dispersed particle

$c%

?ig. ;.

Acti*ated sludge types6 #a$ fila!entous ul)ing+ # $ non ul)ing+ #c$ pinpoint.

&eration 'eturn sludge $a%

Clarifier

&eration

Clarifier

$b% Selector &eration Clarifier

$c%

?ig. <. Types of acti*ated sludge processes6 #a$ plug flow+ # $ co!plete !i(+ #c$ selector" acti*ated sludge.
Off*gases Effluent (ac#ed bed )astewater )astewater Degasifier Effluent recycle Solids recycle Effluent Clarifier Off*gases

$a% Off*gases Off*gases Effluent

$ b%

"luidi+ed bed $sand%

Effluent recycle )astewater

)astewater $c% $ d%

?ig. =. Anaero ic wastewater treat!ent processes6 #a$ anaero ic filter reactor+ # $ anae" ro ic contact reactor+ #c$ fluidi4ed" ed reactor+ #d$ upflow anaero ic sludge lan)et #-AS%$.

)astewater

Effluent

)ell*mi!ed

Settled sludge decomposes anaerobically $ b%

'esidual sludge

$a%

$c%

?ig. >.

Aerated lagoon types6 #a$ aero ic+ # $ facultati*e+ #c$ settling.

Biological film

,edia )astewater flow

& n a e BOD ON and ( CO-

& e r

&naerobic products

?ig. H.

Re!o*al !echanis!s in a fi(ed"fil! reactor.

.00

/ 0 / . .0 . 1 . 3 5 4 .0 2 . 3 3 2

00

B O D ' e m

00

.00

-00

500

/00
5

000

Loading6 lbs BOD7.000 ft 8day

?ig. A. .retreat!ent of organic wastewater on tric)ling filters. Industry types for which coordinates ha*e een plotted are 1' )raft pulp and paper+ 3' !i(ed industry+ ;' wet corn !illing+ <' dairy+ =' tannery+ >' !eat pac)ing+ H' food+ A' phar!aceutical+ @' refinery+ and 1B' te(tile.
Organic N Biodegradation and hydrolysis N:9
/

&ssimilation Lysis

Organic N $bacterial cells%

ONitrification NO;
-

ONitrification NO;
5

Denitrification

N
-

?ig. @.

Nitrogen transfor!ation.

-0 hic#ening $interstitial water% /0

20

40 10 -0

S Dewatering $capillary water% l u Drying $chemicallydbound water% g e v o l u

/0

20

40

.00

Solids content6 <

?ig. 1B.

Sludge thic)ening and dewatering relationships.