ROBOTICS

Robotics is a form of programmable automation. According to Webster's dictionary: "A robot is an automatic apparatus or device that performs functions ordinarily ascribed to humans or operates with what appears to be almost human intelligence." A formal definition of an industrial robot is given by Robotics Industries Association (RIA): "An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks." A robot must possess some intelligence which is normally due to computer algorithms associated with its control and sensing sensors. An industrial robot is a general purpose computer controlled manipulator consisting of several rigid links connected in series by revolute or prismatic Joints. One end of the chain is attached to supporting base while the other end it five and is equipped with a tool to manipulate objects or perform assembly tasks. The motion of joints results in relative motion of links. Mechanically a robot is composed of an am (or mainframe) and a wrist subassembly plus a tool, It is designed to reach a workpiece located within its work volume. HISTORY OF ROBOTICS The word robot is derived from Czech word 'robota', which means forced Labourer or slave labourer. The word robot was first used in 1921 by the Czech novelist Korel Capek in his drama named Rossum's Universal Robots (R.U.R.). A science fiction writer named Isaac Asimov has contributed a number of stories about robots starting in 1939. In fact the word 'robotics' was coined by Asimov in his story named 'Runaround' that was published in 1942. Asimov gave "Three laws of robotics", and they are: 1. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human to be harmed. 2. A robot must obey order given by humans except when that conflicts with the first law. 3. A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the first or second laws. Over a period of time, a large numbers of movies have been produced, some picturing robots a friendly servants others featuring them as predator, Example of such movies are: Star wars, The day the earth stood still, Space odyssey, and Terminator etc. ADVANTAGES OF USING ROBOTS IN INDUSTRIES In technically advanced countries such as USA and Japan, the number of robots being used for industrial and commercial applications has increased rapidly due to following advantages: 1. Robots offer reduced cost of production: The cost of maintaining a robot is much less than the average cost of maintaining a human being when additional benefits are taken into account. Robots do not get any additional benefits as they are not paid any salary; do not need vacations, sick leave or retirement benefits. 2. Robots can operate in hazardous and hostile environment: Robots can operate situations that are either uncomfortable or dangerous for human being to work in. Some examples are loading and unloading hot furnaces, doing welding operations where unhealthy or toxic fumes will be produced, working with toxic points, handling radioactive materials hazardous chemicals, working in deep mines, under the ocean or outer space, for fire fighting.

3. Robots offer improved production quality; with robots, the accuracy of positioning is greater. The speed of operation is another advantage. In some cases, welding has to be completed before the pieces distort due to heat of welding. With controlled accuracy and Speed, welds that were difficult to perform earlier are now possible. Another example is that of die-casting where the casting cycle must be completed within stipulated time. Quality of production is very important factor in any manufacturing industry and robots provide the required quality of production. The robot is assisted by sensors and measuring instruments and hence the final product is produced accurately and meet the prescribed quality standards. 4. Use of robots result in increased productivity: Robots can be designed to work faster than human beings. For example, a robot does straight welding at the rate of 75 cm per minute while a human being does only 25 cm per minute. Two typical spray painting robots can complete the painting of an automobile inside and out with two coats (wet-on-wet is now in use) in 90 seconds and work 20 hours a day. It is not possible for human spray painters to achieve such a high level of productivity. 5. Robot enables improved management control In a CIM environment: Computer controlled robots can record in the memory of computer what is being done. The inventory of all the shop floors can be maintained in the memory of the computer. Hence a manager sitting in his office can find out what is happening in any shopfloor by recalling the information from the memory of the computer. The manager need not waste time going from shop floor to shop floor. Hence there is an improvement in scheduling, planning and monitoring operations. 6. Industrial robots meet occupational safety and health administration standard: A human being will often violate the safety precautions by not wearing protective helmets or goggles. But since robot obeys command without protest, it will meet the occupational safety and health administration standard. Due to these advantages, robots are being increasingly used for industrial applications. MAJOR FEATURES OF A ROBOT The major features that are common to almost all types of robots are:

(3)Sensors (1)Manipulator (or arm) (4)Power supply unit (2)Controller (The brain of robot unit) EXPERIMENT NO. 01

OBJECTIVE - To study various Robotic Arm Configurations.

ARM CONFIGURATION:The mechanics of the arm with 3-DOF dependent on the type of three joints employed and their arrangements. The purpose of the arm is to position the wrist in the 3 -D spaces and the arm has following characteristics requirements. Links are long enough to provide for maximum reach in the space. The design is mechanically robust because arm has to bear not only the load of work pieces but also has to carry the wrist and the end-effectors. According to joint movement and arrangement of links, four well distinguish basic structural configuration are possible for the arm. 1. Cartesian (rectangular) configuration: This is the simplest configuration with all three prismatic joints. it is constructed by three perpendicular slides, giving only linear motion along the three principle axes. There is an upper and lower limit for moment of each link. Consequently, the end point of the arm is capable of operating in a cubical space, called workspace. The work space represents the portion of space around the base of the manipulator that can be accessed by the arm endpoint.

(c) Typical Robot Design

(d) Work Envelope

Fig. Cartesian Coordinate Configuration

2. Cylindrical configuration: The cylindrical configuration pictured. Used two perpendicular prismatic joints, and the revolute joint. The difference from the Cartesian one is that is one of the prismatic joint is replaced with a revolute joint. The arm end point is thus capable of sweeping a cylindrical space the work space is a hollow cylinder.

Fig. Cylindrical Coordinate System

3. Polar (spherical) configuration: The polar configuration is illustrated it consist of a telescopic link (prismatic joint) that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal revolute joint. This two links are mounted on a rotating base, this arrangement of joints known as RRP configuration, gives the capability of moving the arm end points within a partial spherical shell space as work volume.

4. Articulate (revolute or jointed arm) configuration:It consist of two straight link, corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm with two rotary joints corresponding to the elbow and shoulder joints. These two links are mounted on a vertical rotary table corresponding to the human waist Joints.

5. Other configuration:New arm configuration can be obtained by assembling the link and joints differently resulting in the properties different from those of basic arm configuration outlined above the instance; if the characteristics of articulated and cylindrical configuration are combined the result will be another type of the manipulator with revolute motions, confined to the horizontal plane. Such a configuration is called SCARA, which stands for selective compliance assembly robot arm.

Fig. The SCARA configuration and its workspace

Fig. Different Application with Robot Configuration

Viva question:1. Define the degree of freedom in an arm? 2. Name of the different software use in the programming? 3. What is arm configuration? 4. How many types of configuration?

EXPERIMENT NO. 02

OBJECTIVE- To detect objects with infrared ray detector. Infrared ray detector -Infrared detection devices are sensors that detect radiation in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (>1012 to 5 1014 Hz). Often, such devices form the information they gather into visible-light images for the benefit of human users; alternatively, they may communicate directly with an automatic system, such as the guidance system of a missile. Principles of infrared detection- Infrared"below-red"light consists of electromagnetic radiation that is too low in frequency (i.e., too long in wavelength) to be perceived by the human eye, yet is still too high in frequency to be classed as microwave radio. Infrared (IR) light that is just beyond the human visual limit (>1.0 1014 to 4.0 1014 Hz) is termed near IR, while light farther from the visible spectrum is divided into middle IR, far IR, and extreme IR. Military and security systems utilize mostly near IR and a narrow band in the far IR centered on 3.0 1013 Hz, because the Earth's atmosphere happens to be transparent to IR radiation primarily in these two "windows." Modulation Most common infrared detectors require the data signal to arrive in the form of a modulated signal. The modulation component is referred to as the carrier. One stage of the detectors internal circuitry consists of a band-pass filter. The job of the band-pass filter is to reject light energy or un-wanted data signals not modulated at the band-pass filter center frequency. This helps keep the output stage of the detector from emitting false-pulses or dark-bits, and is a simple method for discriminating between ambient light or noise, and the intended data signal. For this application we're not concerned with actual data signal carrying useful information. All we need is to sample the logic output at the detectors output stage. To produce a change in the detectors output stage all we need is: An infrared LED A means of modulating [turning ON & OFF] the infrared LED at the carrier frequency The output stage of this IR detector includes an internal pull-up resistor. In the resting state [no data or carrier being received] this pull-up resistor holds the IR detector modules output-pin at logic 1. The logic value [1 or 0] on the output-pin of the infrared detector can be sampled by the PIC microcontroller using the simple circuit, and code sample shown below.

Infrared Detector Circuit The output of the IR detector module can connect to any available I/O-pin on the PIC. For this example we'll be using Port B, bit #7. Here is the code to detect a valid carrier being received by the IR detector module, and light an LED connected to Port B, bit #0. The LED in this case is used for visual verification that the infrared carrier or signal is being received by the IR detector module. IF PortB.7 = 0 THEN ' If a logic 0 is detected, then HIGH PortB.0 ' Turn ON the LED ELSE ' If not, then LOW PortB.0 ' Turn OFF the LED ENDIF The output of the detector module is held at logic 1 by the internal pull-up resistor until infrared energy modulated at the band-pass frequency [38 kHz] strikes the face of the detector module. Once the modulated signal is detected, the output of the detector goes to logic 0 [ground], and indicates to the PIC that infrared energy modulated at the carrier frequency is being received by the detector module. For this application, we're only interested in knowing when the IR energy from the infrared LED is reflected back onto the face of the IR detector module. The code example above causes the LED connected to PortB, bit #0 to turn ON when the reflected IR energy strikes the face of the detector causing the detectors output-pin to transition from logic 1 to 0. Below is the simple LED circuit used for the visual indicator?

LED Visual Indicator Circuit

When PortB.7 = 0 [38 kHz carrier is detected], the LED is turned ON. When no valid carrier is detected, the LED is turned OFF. We now have a way to detect objects in the path of the IR LED close enough to reflect the IR energy back onto the detector, and an indicator to verify detection. You could replace the LED with a small relay if necessary. Pretty similar to those mysterious toilets that automatically flush when you're walking away..] The 10uF capacitor used in the detector circuit helps to stabilize the output. When you build this circuit, you can remove the 10uF capacitor while the circuit is in operation, and see the effects. Weak reflections from the infrared LED, and other sources will cause very small fluctuations on the output stage of the detector module causing the indicator LED to flash quickly as an object moves closer to the detector module. The capacitor acts as a filter, and ensures that only a strong reflected infrared signal produces the desired output of logic 0 by absorbing the small negative noise spikes. Much the same as power supply filter capacitors you see in most simple power supply designs, and it's quite effective. Without the 10uF capacitor, you'll notice very fast ON / OFF fluctuations of the LED connected to PortB.0. Experiment a little to see the effects first-hand. The Infrared LED The infrared LED used for this project is the Lumex OED-EL-8L. This IR LED has a 40 beamangle, and is capable of emitting 180mW of IR energy at a peak wave-length of 940nm. Below is the circuit for the infrared LED driver.

Infrared LED Circuit The 40 beam-angle of the OED-EL-8L infrared LED can narrowed by placing a small piece of heat-shrink tubing over the LED lens. For this project I chose to narrow the 40 beam-angle for more precise distance measurements, and to eliminate side target signal reflections.

The black heat-shrink tubing covering the LED lens keeps IR energy from being emitted sideways, and affecting forward measurements. The heat-shrink on the LED leads keeps IR energy from exiting the rear of the lens element. Infrared energy is projected forward, and then reflected back onto the surface of the detector module positioned directly behind the infrared emitter. The actual placement of the heat-shrink is covering more of the LED, but for the purpose of illustration - I have shown the LED lens protruding slightly from the heat-shrink. You can adjust the heat-shrink to cover more or less as necessary, but try to eliminate IR emissions from the rear, and side of the LED. Effectively measuring distances, and detecting objects directly in front of the emitter will be more precise with a narrow beam-angle. The real trick, and big difference between this project and many other simple infrared detection circuits is the ability to control the infrared output power of the LED. By controlling the output power we can adapt to changing environmental conditions, and ambient light sources or noise. As discussed previously, we know the infrared detector modules internal circuitry will attempt to increase or decrease the gain of the detection circuit proportional to the amount of ambient light striking the surface of the detector. High levels of ambient light will force the internal automatic gain-control to reduce the gain of the detection amplifier, thereby requiring a much stronger infrared signal striking the surface of the IR detector for valid detection. Increased gain due to lower ambient light levels or dark conditions means the IR detector is operating with increased sensitivity, and hence will detect a much weaker IR signal than in a disturbed or noisy environment. Here's the trick The PIC microcontroller has an onboard "hardware" PWM module. This PWM module offers true multi-tasking operation, and provides an excellent way to modulate the infrared LED at the required band-pass frequency of the detector module. Multi-tasking is the ability to process multiple tasks simultaneously [at exactly the same time]. Once we have configured the PIC registers to produce our required PWM frequency, and turned the PWM output ON, our code can go about other tasks while the PIC PWM hardware continues to emit the carrier frequency without further intervention. Turn it ON, and walk away. This multi-tasking ability allows us to modulate the IR LED at the required carrier frequency while performing other tasks such as: Sample the output-pin of the IR detector [without stopping the PWM carrier]

Take real-time ambient light readings with a CDS photocell Adjust the PWM duty-cycle to control IR output power Using the information obtained from readings of ambient light levels, we can adjust the output power of the IR LED by varying the duty-cycle of the PWM signal. This adaptive technique allows us to compensate for changing environmental conditions, and adapt as necessary to maintain a constant infrared energy output required for reliable "reflective" IR sensing under variable lighting conditions. Measuring ambient light levels is simple with the PicBasic compiler POT command. Below is the simple circuit used for measuring light levels.

The POT command charges the capacitor through the CDS photocell, and then measures the time it takes for the capacitor to discharge. The resulting value is then used to adjust the IR LED output power to compensate for changing light levels present on the infrared detector module. Note: You can also us the RCTIME command with minor adjustments to the light-sensing circuit. Duty-Cycle vs. Output Power The duty-cycle of the PWM signal can easily be modified by placing different values into the CCPR1L register. The high-time of the duty cycle will turn ON the LED connected to PortC.2. The low cycle will turn the LED OFF. The Peak-Current through the infrared LED will be:

= the peak pulsed current through the infrared LED. = the operating voltage. Here it is +5 VDC. = the voltage drop across the infrared LED. For the OED-EL-8L this is 1.7V. = the current-limiting series resistor used between the PortC.2 I/O-pin, and the infrared LED. The result is 3.3mA peak pulsed current as shown below:

With a duty-cycle of 100%, the maximum peak current through the infrared LED would be approximately 3.3mA. In fact, if you connect the anode of the IR LED directly to Vcc instead of PortC.2, you would have a steady current of 3.3mA through the LED. However, we're going to adjust the high portion of the duty-cycle to vary the power delivered to the LED. You may have already noticed that 3.3mA seems incredibly small considering that most LED's operate at 10-20mA. In fact, the OED-EL-8L LED can handle up to 60mA continuous, and much more when pulsed, but this application does not require long-range operation, and infrared isn't visible - so we're not going to be seeing emitted IR light from the LED. For detecting objects at distances up to 6" or more, the OED-EL-8L provides sufficient output power operating at a mere 264-660uA. This is excellent for battery powered robotics applications, and just about anything with low power requirements. It's not always necessary to use the standard 10-20mA ratings used with most common LED circuits for all applications. For even further power-savings, supply power to the infrared detector module using a single I/Opin, and turn OFF the PWM module when not being used. I won't go into these details in this article, but it's good to know if you're planning a battery operated robot using these simple circuits & techniques. The average current delivered to the infrared LED is important. Going over the average current will, in most cases, degrade or completely destroy the LED. This application stays well below the average current rating of the OED-EL-8L. Here's how:

= average LED current = peak pulsed LED current = duty factor or PWM [duty cycle]

With a maximum peak current of 3.3mA, and a duty cycle varying from 8-20%, the average current range for the infrared LED used in this application is: 3.3mA x 20% = 660uA MAX, and 3.3mA x 8% = 264uA MIN. The Code: '**************************************************************** '* '* '* '* '* Name Author Date Notes : IR-DETECT.BAS : Bruce Reynolds : 10/14/2001 : Infrared Object Detection using hardware PWM : with auto PWM / IR-LED power adjustment * * * * *

'**************************************************************** DEFINE LOADER_USED 1 ' Use only with boot-loader program DEFINE OSC 4 ADCON1 = 7 CDS VAR BYTE ' Default 4MHz ' Port A = digital I/O ' CDS photo-cell reading ' Set Port C.2 (CCP1) to output for PWM drive ' Set Port B.0,1,2,3,4,5,6 to outputs PortB.7 = input ' Set Port A pin 0 to input

TRISC.2 = 0 TRISB = %10000000 TRISA.0 = 1

CCP1CON = %00001100 ' Set CCP1 to PWM INTCON.7 = 0 T2CON = %00000100 OPTION_REG.7 = 0 PR2 = 25 begin: POT PORTA.0,127,CDS ' Get initial light reading SELECT CASE CDS CASE IS >= 49 CCPR1L = 2 CASE IS <= 10 ' Place value into variable CDS ' If light over 48, duty = 8% [dark] ' Duty cycle = 8% approx ' If light below or = 10, duty = 20% [bright] ' Turn interrupts OFF ' Turn on Timer2, Prescale = 1 ' Turn ON PortB pull-ups ' Set PR2 for 38.4kHz PWM [26uS period]

CCPR1L = 5 END SELECT IF PortB.7 = 0 THEN PortB.0 = 1 ELSE PortB.0 = 0 ENDIF GOTO begin

' Duty cycle = 20% approx ' End case select

' Loop continuously

Notes: As you will see once you start experimenting with this project, it has many various uses. You will also notice that you may need to adjust a few of the variables such as the scale factor used with the POT command, perhaps the PWM frequency for different IR detectors, and maybe the series resistor to compensate for different IR LEDs. This project was designed & tested using a 40W incandescent light approximately 10" above the CDS photocell during high ambient light measurements. Dark ambient light measurements were taken with the 40W light turned OFF, under average lighting conditions, shielding the CDS photocell from ambient light with my hands. You'll need to experiment with the POT scale value to tweak the application to suit your specific environmental & lighting conditions. Results under the above conditions, with the sample code shown: Detection Distance: Precise detection of objects up to a maximum of 6-inches in front of the infrared LED/detector module. Variable Light: Maximum detection distance of 6-inches is maintained under direct exposure to the 40W source, and in darkness. Bright Ambient: Duty-cycle is approximately 20%, LED current approx 660uA. Dark Ambient: Duty-cycle is approximately 8%, LED current approx 264uA.

Viva question:1. What is infrared ray detector? 2. What is the range of electromagnetic spectrum? 3. What is the job of band pass filter? 4. What is output of detector module when infrared ray energy modulated at band pass frequency?

EXPERIMENT NO. 03

OBJECTIVE - To study Pick and Place Robot.

Robot - A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specified devices through variable programmed motions. Robots are fitted with a Varity of sensors. Generally robots are machines with some degree of intelligence and operated under the control of a mini or micro computer.

Basic Elements of Robots-

Manipulator- The manipulator comprising of base, arm and wrist are the most obvious parts of the robot. The robot movements are executed by the mechanical parts like power joints and transmission system along with internal sensor within the manipulator. End Effectors-At the end of the manipulator wrist is a devices related to the task to that must be accompanied by the robot, called end effectors. End effectors are usually either i) Gripper for holding a work ii) A tool for performing some process. The body and arm of the robot is used to position end effectors and the robot wrist is used to orient the end effectors. Controller- The controller acts like a brain of robot. It performs the function of storing and sequencing data in memory, initiating and stopping the motion of the manipulator, and interacting with the environment.

Sensors- Sensors are used to sense the environment, are essential for intelligent robot.

Energy source- Energy source is required to cause movement of the manipulator arm. They make take the form of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices.

SPECIFICATIONFive axis of motion: Base to rotate left and right Shoulder moving range Elbow moving range Wrist rotate CW & CCW Gripper open and close degrees degrees degree degrees mm ( inches)

Product Dimensions: Maximum length outwards Maximum height upwards Maximum lifting capacity mm ( mm ( g( inches) inches) oz)

Control Box: ..Switch controllers

Power Source: .. batteries

Moving range of robotic arm -

Mechanism of pick and place robotic arm-

Operation of the gripper section- For opening and closing operation of gripper, a device called rack and pinion is used. The gear in a straight-line called the rack gear and the pinion gears are engaged so that they convert a rotational movement into a straight line movement, or do this inversely

Operation of the wrist- The power for rotating the wrist is transmitted from the crown gear fitted at the tip of the power unit. The rotation of this crown gear is in direct relation to the wrist. If the wrist was kept from rotating by the stopper, the motor would continue to run. Therefore, the torque limiter is also used to protect them from breakage by excessive force.

Operation of the elbow/shoulder- The operation of both elbow and shoulder is apart of rotating movement so that it is transmitted from the rotation of power unit. However, as the power unit is not powerful enough and the rotating speed is too high, additional gears are used to reduce the speed.

Operation of the base- The movement of the base is produced by the engagement of a flat gear and internal gear. The power unit is fixed stationary. A stopper is installed to hold rotation not to make more than one. In the previous section, the main gear was described as stationary. To be more exact, the main gear is simply placed on the battery box. The main gear makes idling to prevent excessive force being applied to the power unit.

Application of pick and place robotic armi) Staking of block

ii)

Picture drawing

iii)

Pick up of things

iv)

Tug of war

Viva question:-

1. What is manipulator? 2. What is controller? 3. Why the use of manipulator? 4. Explain the sensors work? 5. What is the operation of shoulder?

EXPERIMENT NO. 04

OBJECTIVE-To determine 5 Axis Robotic Arm Movement and its Degree of rotation.

SPECIFICATIONProduct Dimensions: Maximum length outwards- mm (..inches) Maximum height upwards.mm (.. inches)

Maximum lifting capacity- .g (..)

Control Box: ..Switch controllers CALIBRATION OF ARM BASE MOVEMENT(Maximum Displacement-350 degrees) SN. Time in Sec. CW Rotation 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 ACW Angular movement CW ACW Average Time Average Angular Movement

CALIBRATION OF SHOULDER MOVEMENT(Maximum Displacement-120 degrees) SN. Time in Sec. CW Rotation 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 ACW Angular movement CW ACW Average Time Average Angular Movement

CALIBRATION OF ELBOW MOVEMENT(Maximum Displacement-135 degrees)

SN.

Time in Sec. CW Rotation ACW

Angular movement CW ACW

Average Time

Average Angular Movement

01 02 03 04 05 06 07

CALIBRATION OF WRIST MOVEMENT(Maximum Displacement-340 degrees) SN. Time in Sec. CW Rotation 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 ACW Angular movement CW ACW Average Time Average Angular Movement

CALIBRATION OF GRIPPER MOVEMENT(Maximum Displacement-50mm (2 inches)) SN. Time in Sec. Open Closed Gripper movement Open (In mm) Closed (In mm) Average time Average Movement

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

Viva question:1. How many degree of freedom? 2. How many types of motor used? 3. What is servomotor? 4. Difference between servomotor and stepper motor?

EXPERIMENT NO. 05

OBJECTIVE- To lift the object and place 100mm away in various directions.

SPECIFICATION:

Five axis of motion: Base to rotate left and right-.degrees Shoulder moving range- ..degrees Elbow moving range- ..degree Wrist rotates CW & CCW-degrees Gripper open and close- ..mm (. inches) Product Dimensions: Maximum length outwards- mm (..inches) Maximum height upwards-..mm (..inches) Maximum lifting capacity- . g (.) Control Box: . Switch controllers Power Source: . each . batteries Time Vs /angular movement curve for the following components

Sample program: To pick the object placed at an approachable distance to keep it 100mm away in various directions.

Sl. No 01 02 03 04 05

Angle 00 900 1800 2700 00

Direction 100 mm away (Right Side) from the Base 100 mm away (Front Side) from the Base 100mm away( Left Side) from the Base 100mm away ( Back side) from the Base 100 mm above from the Ground

Viva question:-

1. What is the capacity of load lifter? 2. How many direction the arm can move? 3. What are the uses of robots in industry? 4. What is wrist rotation?

EXPERIMENT NO. 06

EXPERIMENT NO. 07