A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a single-point

cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical. (Adding axes of motion can yield helical toolpaths; see "Helical planing" below.) A planer is analogous to a shaper, but larger, and with the entire workpiece moving on a table beneath the cutter, instead of the cutter riding a ram that moves above a stationary workpiece. The table is moved back and forth on the bed beneath the cutting head either by mechanical means, such as a rack and pinion drive or a leadscrew, or by a hydraulic cylinder.

Bed and table: The bed is a long heavy base and table made of cast iron. Its top surface is flat and machined accurately. The flat top surface has slots in which the workpiece can be securely clamped. The workpiece needs rigid fixing so that it does not shift out of its position. The standard clamping devices used on planer machine are: Heavy duty vice, T-holders and clamps, angle plate, planer jack, step blocks and stop. The table movement may be actuated by a variable speed drive through a rack and pinion arrangement, or a hydraulic system.

Housings: The housings are the rigid and upright column like castings. These are located near the centre on each side of the base.

Cross rail: The cross rail is a horizontal member supported on the machined ways of the upright columns. Guide ways are provided on vertical face of each column and that enables up and vertical movement of the cross rail. The vertical movement of the cross rail allows to accommodate workpiece of different heights. Since the cross rail is supported at both the ends, this type of planer machine is rigid in construction.

Types of Drill
Drills are used for making circular holes; the holes so formed may be for the reception of a component or another tool, or simply a means of removing surplus metal. For drilling large holes, drills must be held in some form of fixed, powered drilling machines and for other jobs in a hand brace, or electric or pneumatic portable hand drilling machines.

Types of Drills The types of drills commonly used are as follows: Flat Drill: This is very slow in cutting action, drills inaccurate holes and hence waste of power. It is easy to manufacture and is capable of withstanding rough use. Bottoming Drill: This type is used to finish the bottom of blind holes. Peg or Arboring Drill: This is used to machine the surface round a drilled hole to provide a good seat for a nut or bolt head. Rose Bit: The rose bit is used in countersinking holes to take screw or counter sunk rivet heads, and some times used to remove the burr from a hole. This type of countersinking tool is only suitable for soft metals. Twist Drills: An accurate fast cutting drill, giving good guidance in the hole and designed to reject cuttings automatically by means of the spiral grooving called flutes. Parts of Twist Drill Shank: Smaller drills have parallel shanks and larger drills have tapered shanks. The size of the drill and sometimes the material may also be marked on it.

Body: This is the main part of the drill and is ground slightly to a lesser diameter toward the shank end, so that there is a small clearance of not more than 0.001". This reduces the friction and thereby the wear on the drill. Lands: These are the narrow strips along the cutting edge of the flutes. Te diameter across these is the correct size of the drill. Flutes: These are cut spirally at an angle to the axis of the drill. Flute provides cutting edges to the drill; rejects the swarf automatically and takes lubrication. Classification Drills are classified by the type, material and size. Material Drills are made of high carbon steel or alloy steel. Alloy steel drills are commonly termed "High Speed" drills, since they can be used at much higher speed than drills of carbon steel. Twist Drill Sizes The following are the sizes of twist drills: Fractional: 1/64" diameter to 1" diameter by steps of 1/64". From 1" upward, by steps of 1/32" Numbered: No.60 (0.040") to No. 1(0.228") Lettered: "A"(0.234") to "Z" (0.413") In millimeters and fractions of a millimeter. 7. Angles of Twist Drills. For efficient operation, it is essential that the drill be accurately ground to give the correct angles. The various angles of the twist drills are as follows (a) Cutting Angle. This is the angle between the cutting edge and the axis of the drill. Standard drills areusually ground tota cutting angle of 59, but varies with the material to be drilled. Harder the

material, more the cutting angle. . (b) Clearance Angle. This is the angle made by the line joining the leading and trailing edges of a lip to the horizontal. Normally this angle is about l2 but varies from 5 to l5 depending on the metal to be drilled. Harder the metal, lesser the clearance angle and vice versa. (c) We/1Ang/e. lt is about l3() when the cutting angle is 59 and clearance angle is l2. The Web angle and clearance angle are inter-dependant. lt is the angle made by the Web (noncutting portion) of the drill to one cutting edge.

Tool heads: Generally two tool heads are mounted in the horizontal cross rail and one on each of the vertical housing. Tool heads may be swiveled so that angular cuts can be made.

Driving and feed mechanism: The tool heads may be fed either by hand or by power in crosswise or vertical direction. The motor drive is usually at one side of the planer near the centre and drive mechanism is located under the table.

The size of the planer is specified by the maximum length of the stroke, and also by the size of the largest rectangular solid that can be machined on it.

Up milling
Also called conventional milling, - Wheel rotation opposite of the feed - The chip formed by each cutter tooth starts out very thin and increases its thickness - The length of the chip is relatively longer - Tool life is relatively shorter - Need more clamping force to hold the work part still.

Down milling
Also called climb milling, - Wheel rotation is parallel to the feed - The chip formed by each cutter tooth starts out thick and leaves out thin - The length of the chip is relatively short - Tool life is relatively longer - Need less clamping force to hold the work part still.

Grinding operations Grinding operations are carried out with a variety of wheel-workpart configurations. The basic type of grinding are v surface grinding, v cylindrical grinding, and v centerless grinding. Each basic operation has a number of variations some of them discussed in this section. Surface grinding Surface grinding is an abrasive machining process in which the grinding wheel removes material from the plain flat surfaces of the workpiece.

In surface grinding, the spindle position is either horizontal or vertical, and the relative motion of the workpiece is achieved either by reciprocating the workpiece past the wheel or by rotating it. The possible combinations of spindle orientations and workpiece motions yield four types of surface grinding processes

Cylindrical grinding In this operation, the external or internal cylindrical surface of a workpiece are ground. In external cylindrical grinding (also center-type grinding) the workpiece rotates and reciprocates along its axis, although for large and long workparts the grinding wheel reciprocates. In internal cylindrical grinding, a small wheel grinds the inside diameter of the part. The workpiece is held in a rotating chuck in the headstock and the wheel rotates at very high rotational speed. In this operation, the workpiece rotates and the grinding wheel reciprocates.

Three types of feed motion are possible according to the direction of feed motion, traverse feed grinding (also through feed grinding, cross-feeding) in which the relative feed motion is parallel to the spindle axis of rotation, plunge grinding in which the grinding wheel is fed radially into the workpiece, and a combination of traverse and plunge grinding in which the grinding wheel is fed at 45o to grind simultaneously the cylindrical part of the workpiece and the adjacent face. This methods provides a precise perpendicular mutual position of both surfaces.

Centerless grinding is a process for continuously grinding cylindrical surfaces in which the workpiece is supported not by centers or chucks but by a rest blade. The workpiece is ground between two wheels. The larger grinding wheel does grinding, while the smaller regulating wheel, which is tilted at an angle i, regulates the velocity Vf of the axial movement of the workpiece. Centerless grinding can also be external or internal, traverse feed or plunge grinding. The most common type of centerless grinding is the external traverse feed grinding, illustrated in the figure

SPECIFICATIONS OF A MILLING MACHINE

Along with the type of a milling machine, it has to be specified by its size. Generally size of a typical milling machine is designated as given below :

mm. Above travels indicate maximum movement in a direction. (b) Number of feeds available (specify their values). (c) Number of spindle speeds (specify their values). (d) Total power available. (e) Spindle nose taper. (f) Floor space required. (g) Net weight.

Fixed Bed Type Milling Machine It is also known as manufacturing type milling machine. Its table is mounted directly on the ways of fixed bed. Table movement is restricted to reciprocation only. Cutter is mounted on the spindle head which can move vertically on the column. Duplex milling machine has double spindle heads, one on each side of the table. Triplex milling machine has three spindle heads one each side of the table and third one is mounted on the cross rail. Bed type milling machine is shown in figure

Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed crosssectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex crosssections, and to work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellentsurface finish.[1] Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough, and foodstuffs. The products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates". Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the center barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth,

beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported from the back of the die.

Hot extrusion[edit]
Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the material'srecrystallization temperature to keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontalhydraulic presses that range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,130 short tons). Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to 101,500 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.[1]

Cold extrusion[edit]
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, good surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.[1] Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, bery llium,vanadium, niobium, and steel. Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock absorber cylinders and gearblanks.

Warm extrusion[edit]
Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of the material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 F (424 to 975 C). It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties.[3]

Extrusion defects[edit]

Surface cracking - When the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die. Pipe - A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of the product. Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of the billet. Internal cracking - When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the deformation zone in the die. (A similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress specimen) Surface lines - When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This depends heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained, as some residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the embossed lines.

FEED RATE
Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced against the workpiece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning and boring (typically inches per revolution [ipr] or millimeters per revolution). It can be expressed thus for milling also, but it is often expressed in units of distance per time for milling (typically inches per minute [ipm] or millimeters per minute), with considerations of how many teeth (or flutes) the cutter has then determining what that means for each tooth. Feedrate is dependent on the:

Type of tool (a small drill or a large drill, high speed or carbide, a boxtool or recess, a thin form tool or wide form tool, a slide knurl or a turret straddle knurl). Surface finish desired. Power available at the spindle (to prevent stalling of the cutter or workpiece). Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (ability to withstand vibration or chatter). Strength of the workpiece (high feed rates will collapse thin wall tubing) Characteristics of the material being cut, chip flow depends on material type and feed rate. The ideal chip shape is small and breaks free early, carrying heat away from the tool and work. Threads per inch (TPI) for taps, die heads and threading tools.

When deciding what feed rate to use for a certain cutting operation, the calculation is fairly straightforward for single-point cutting tools, because all of the cutting work is done at one point (done by "one tooth", as it were). With a milling machine or jointer, where multi-tipped/multi-fluted cutting tools are involved, then the desirable feed rate becomes dependent on the number of teeth on the cutter, as well as the desired amount of material per tooth to cut (expressed as chip load). The greater the number of cutting edges, the higher the feed rate permissible: for a cutting edge to work efficiently it must remove sufficient material to cut rather than rub; it also must do its fair share of work. The ratio of the spindle speed and the feed rate controls how aggressive the cut is, and the nature of the swarf formed.

Formula to determine feed rate

This formula[10] can be used to figure out the feed rate that the cutter travels into or around the work. This would apply to cutters on a milling machine, drill press and a number of other machine tools. This is not to be used on

the lathe for turning operations, as the feed rate on a lathe is given as feed per revolution.

Where:

FR = the calculated feed rate in inches per minute or mm per minute. RPM = is the calculated speed for the cutter. T = Number of teeth on the cutter. CL = The chip load or feed per tooth. This is the size of chip that each tooth of the cutter takes.

CUTTING SPEED
Cutting speed (also called surface speed or simply speed) may be defined as the rate (or speed) that the material moves past the cutting edge of the tool, irrespective of the machining operation used. A cutting speed for mild steel, of 100 ft/min (or approx 30 meters/min) is the same whether it is the speed of the (stationary) cutter passing over the (moving) workpiece, such as in a turning operation, or the speed of the (rotating) cutter moving past a (stationary) workpiece, such as in a milling operation. What will affect the value of this surface speed for mild steel, is the cutting conditions: For a given material there will be an optimum cutting speed for a certain set of machining conditions, and from this speed the spindle speed (RPM) can be calculated. Factors affecting the calculation of cutting speed are:

The material being machined (steel, brass, tool steel, plastic, wood) (see table below) The material the cutter is made from (Carbon steel, high speed steel (HSS), carbide, ceramics)

The economical life of the cutter (the cost to regrind or purchase new, compared to the quantity of parts produced)

Cutting speeds are calculated on the assumption that optimum cutting conditions exist, these include:

Metal removal rate (finishing cuts that remove a small amount of material may be run at increased speeds) Full and constant flow of cutting fluid (adequate cooling and chip flushing) Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (reduction in vibration or chatter) Continuity of cut (as compared to an interrupted cut, such as machining square section material in a lathe) Condition of material (mill scale, hard spots due to white cast iron forming in castings)

The cutting speed is given as a set of constants that are available from the material manufacturer or supplier, the most common materials are available in reference books, or charts but will always be subject to adjustment depending on the cutting conditions. The following table gives the cutting speeds for a selection of common materials under one set of conditions. The conditions are a tool life of 1 hour, dry cutting (no coolant) and at medium feeds so they may appear to be incorrect depending on circumstances. These cutting speeds may change if, for instance, adequate coolant is available or an improved grade of HSS is used (such as one that includes cobalt).