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Modeling and simulation of arc: Laser and hybrid welding process. J Manuf Process
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JMP-190; No. of Pages 30
Journal of Manufacturing Processes xxx (2013) xxxxxx
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes
j our nal home page: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ manpr o
Modeling and simulation of arc: Laser and hybrid welding process
Dae-Won Cho, Won-Ik Cho, Suck-Joo Na
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 4 April 2013
Received in revised form14 June 2013
Accepted 24 June 2013
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Arc welding
Laser welding
Laserarc hybrid welding
Modeling and simulation
a b s t r a c t
Welding is a fabrication process to join two different materials. Among the many welding processes,
the arc and laser welding processes are the most widely used. Great effort is required to understand
the physical phenomena of arc and laser welding due to the complex behaviors which include liquid
phase, solid phase and, gas phase. So it is necessary to conduct numerical simulation to understand the
detailed procedures of welding. This paper will present the various numerical simulation methods of the
arc welding processes such as arc plasma, gas tungsten arc welding, gas metal arc welding, laser welding,
and laserarc hybrid welding. These simulations are conducted by the nite element method, nite
differential method and volume of uid method to describe and analyze the various welding processes.
2013 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Arc welding
1.1. Arc plasma
The arc plasma simulations normally describe the process to
formarc plasma fromwelding parameters such as current, voltage,
arc length, shielding gas, and tip angle. So these simulations can
provide the distributions of temperature, velocity, and pressure in
the arc plasma. Many studies have adopted FDMto analyze the arc
plasma and boundary-tted coordinate to describe the complex
region, which includes the electrode surface conguration.
Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagramof GTAWwith straight polar-
ity. In the stable arc established after arc starting, the supplied
shielding gas is continuously ionized and maintains the path for
the welding current. The ionized gas has a much higher electrical
conductivity thanthe gas before ionization, whichallows the weld-
ing current to ow continuously. This ow of current also causes
joule heating in the welding arc, which maintains its ionized state.
Therefore, the ionized and high temperature welding arc gives rise
to a highly concentrated heat source at the anode plate for welding.
This self-maintained welding arc also generates a magnetic eld
and force. Additionally, the current density near the electrode is
Abbreviations: FDM, nite differential method; TIG, tungsten inert gas; EMF,
electromagnetic force; LTE, local thermodynamic equilibrium; CCD, charge-coupled
device; GTAW, gas tungsten arc welding; GHTAW, gas hollowtungsten arc welding;
HAZ, heat affected zone; FEM, nite element method; VOF, volume of uid; BOP,
bead on plate; GMAW, gas metal arc welding; LIP, laser induced plasma; EPMA,
electron prove micro analyzer.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 42 350 3216; fax: +82 42 350 3210.
E-mail address: sjoona@kaist.ac.kr (S.-J. Na).
high and gradually decreases toward the anode plate. This grad-
ual decrease of current density from cathode (electrode) to anode
causes the axial pressure gradient, which acts as a driving force
of the arc plasma for an additional convective heat ux into the
base plate. From the outlet of the shielding nozzle, the shielding
gas is continuously supplied and maintains mass continuity. At the
anodeplate, theelectrons arecondensed, producingenergypropor-
tional to the work functions of the anode material. To establish a
numerical model for the complex welding arc fromthe standpoint
of magneto hydrodynamics (MHD) type ow, some assumptions
must be made in the arc domain and the boundaries.
a. The domain will satisfy the stationary and steady state condi-
tions.
b. Although the real welding process includes the movement of the
electrode andtime-varying arc, it was assumedtobe a stationary
condition. Therefore, the arc can be treated as an axisymmetric
problem, and the solution domain was represented in terms of
the cylindrical coordinates. Additionally, the temperature of the
cathode and anode were assumed to be constant and the anode
plate was assumed to be at.
c. At atmospheric pressure and normal welding conditions, the arc
plasma can be assumed to be a laminar ow[2].
d. Regarding the body force inside the welding arc plasma, only
EMF was considered. The buoyancy fromgravity was neglected.
e. The uid was considered to be incompressible.
f. The heating effect due to viscous dissipation was neglected.
g. The arc plasma was assumed to be in the LTE state [25].
h. With the above-mentioned assumption, the governing equa-
tions such as mass continuity, momentum, energy conservation
and current continuity equations were used as follows [1].
1526-6125/$ see front matter 2013 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2013.06.012
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Fig. 1. Schematic diagramof the tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding arc [1].
(a) Mass continuity equation:
1
r
r
(ru) +

z
(w) = 0 (1)
(b) Momentumequation:
r-component
1
r
r
_
ruu r
u
r
_
+

z
_
wu
u
z
_
= 0
(2)
z-component
1
r
r
_
ruwr
w
r
_
+

z
_
ww
w
z
_
= 0
(3)
(c) Current continuity equation:
1
r
r
(rj
r ) +

z
(j
z) = 0 (4)
(d) Energy conservation equation:
1
r
r
_
ruh r
k
C
p
h
r
_
+

z
_
wh
k
C
p
h
z
_
=
j
2
r
+j
2
z
o
S
r
+
5
2
k
s
c
_
j
r
C
p
u
z
+
j
z
C
p
h
z
_
(5)
where is the density, u is the r-directional velocity, w is the
r-directional velocity, is the dynamic viscosity, j
r
is the radial
current density, j
z
is the axial current density, h is the enthalpy, k is
the thermal conductivity, C
p
is the specic heat at a constant pres-
sure, S
r
is the radiation loss termper unit volume for the argon arc
plasma, k
8
is Boltzmann constant and e is the electron charge.
Fromthe arc plasma simulation, variable distributions could be
obtainedsuchas, current density, magnetic force, gas owpatterns,
heat ux, current ux, temperature, arc pressure and shear stress.
The resultant distributions for heat ux, current density, gas shear
stress and arc pressure above the 0.1mm from the anode plate
in Fig. 2 can be used as boundary conditions in the molten pool
simulations afterward.
In pulsing the welding arc, both the welding current and arc
voltage are simultaneously switched between high and low levels
at a given frequency and duration. Fig. 3 is a schematic represen-
tation of an ideal pulsed current rectangular waveform. However,
the actual waveform in the experiment shows a different shape,
which means that the rectangular waveform cannot be sustained
in higher frequency in Fig. 4 [7,8].
In high frequency control over 100Hz, Fig. 4(d) shows saw-
toothed form rather than rectangular form. This practical aspect
has to be taken into consideration in the analysis of the pulsed cur-
rent arc. For the analysis of a high frequency pulsed current, the
current must be calculated along the slope from the peak current
to the base current. Numerical analyses for pulsed current pro-
cesses can be performed. In the numerical analysis, performing a
one-time step analysis of an unsteady problem shows no funda-
mental difference compared to solving a steady state problem. In
a steady state problem, a large value is considered to be set to the
time step, namely, zt . Fig. 5 shows the results of isothermal
lines (11,000K), whichrepresent the progress of rapidconvergence
to a nal state with iteration numbers. The third or the fourth iter-
ations nearly reach a nal value. From this method, it is possible
to expect numerical analyses for an unsteady welding process of
pulsed current in Fig. 5.
1.2. Arc characteristics on workpiece
Arc heat ux, current density and arc pressure should be
described properly to simulate the arc welding processes accu-
rately. There are several arc heat ux models proposed and applied
for simulations of heat and mass transfer in arc welding, such as
Gaussian surface ux distribution, hemispherical power density
distribution and double ellipsoidal power density distribution. The
arc heat ux distribution could also be measured by using a special
type of calorimeter or thermocouples. The same arc characteristic
of heat ux distributioncanbe adoptedfor arc pressure andcurrent
density. The irradiance distribution of welding arc next above the
anode workpiece is obtained by applying Abel inversion algorithm
to the CCD arc image, and then used to determine the distribution
of arc heat ux, arc pressure and current density from the physi-
cal relations of arc irradiance, temperature and current density in
GTAW[9].
1.2.1. Arc characteristics in GTAW
Gas tungsten arc plasma contains three regions; anode drop,
arc column, and cathode drop. The arc column region is electrically
neutral and in LTE, where the temperature of electron, ion, neutron
and particle are the same. As the arc column is LTE, Saha equation
and Boltzmann equation [10] use the same temperature and can be
expressed as follows:
1
k
= 1
cxc
= 1
i
(6)
where 1
k
is the kinetic temperature of arc plasma, 1
cxc
is the excita-
tion temperature of arc plasma and 1
i
is the ionization temperature
of arc plasma. The temperature of arc plasma is qualitatively pro-
portional to the radiation energy of particles which are excited and
emitted in the arc plasma. With a CCDcamera, it is possible to mea-
sure the 2D intensity of the arc plasma which can be then used to
obtain the 3D arc irradiance by Abel inversion method [11].
1.2.1.1. Physical relation of arc irradiance, temperature and current
density. To form the arc heat ux model, it is necessary to under-
stand the energy transfer mechanism from arc plasma to anode.
The arc heat ux can be described as follows:
Q
u
(r) =
5
2
k
8
(1
u,g
1
un
)
j
c
+j
u
+j
j
+k
g
1
u,g
1
un
(7)
where k
8
is the Boltzmann constant, j
u
is the current density on
the anode,
u
and
j
are the work functions of the anode metal
and anode fall. 1
u,g
is the temperature in gas, 0.1mm above the
anode, 1
un
is the temperature of the anode, k
g
denotes the thermal
conductivity, and is the anode fall regiondistance (about 0.1mm).
The physics of the anode fall region is rather complex, where
DinulescuandPfender [12] summarizedandusedthe simple anode
heat transfer equation, expressed in Eq. (7) which many researches
[13,14] widely adopted in the welding physics area. The rst term
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D.-W. Cho et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes xxx (2013) xxxxxx 3
Fig. 2. Distributions of heat ux, current density, gas shear stress and arc pressure on the anode boundary [6].
Fig. 3. Schematic of a pulsed current square waveformand associated parameters
[8].
in Eq. (7) is the thermal energy of Thomson effect from the anode
boundary to the anode. The second and third terms are due to the
electron ow, and show that the heat transfer energy is propor-
tional to the work function of anode and anode fall region. The
fourth termindicates the convection and conduction heat transfer
energy inthe arc plasma. Eq. (7) canbe further simpliedas follows.
Q
u
(r) j(2.76 +
u
) +k
g
1
u,g
1
un
(8)
Eq. (8) indicates that the heat transfer terms by electron ow,
conduction and convection are proportional to the current density
and the temperature difference between anode and anode bound-
ary. Wronski et al. [15] found that the light intensity (irradiance,
) from the plasma layer zx in glow discharge is proportional to
an increase in z
c
, which is the electron streamover this layer as
shown below:
C ^
c
(^x) = C ^j
c
(^x) (9)
where
c
is the electron streamof the plasma unit layer (zx) and j
c
is the electron current density. Even though the current in GHTAW
is muchhigher thanthat of glowdischarge, boththearc plasmanext
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Fig. 4. Practical pulsed current waveforms [8].
above the anode drop zone and the glow discharge are assumed
to be in the LTE condition. Li and Zhang [16] observed the light
intensity of argon arc for various arc lengths and arc currents in
GTAWandfoundthat argonatomic lineintensityof gas tungstenarc
is linearly proportional to the arc length, as shown in Fig. 6(a). For
the case of 5-mmarc length, the arc light intensity shows almost a
linear relationship to the welding current, Fig. 6(b).
As the arc light intensity represents the total arc irradiance and
the effective radius of arc was formulated[17] bycurrent inEq. (10),
the arc irradiance can be related to the current density (j l]o
2
r
)
as showninFig. 6(c). The current density, therefore, canbe assumed
as linearly proportional to the irradiance of argon arc plasma in
GHTAWas shown in Eq. (11).
o
r
= 0.7939 l
0.2367
(10)
Fig. 5. Isotherms of 11,000K according to the iteration number (I: 200A) [8].
= C
1
j +C
2
j
u
=
C
2
C
1
=

C
1
C
2
C
1
=

C
1
C
3
(11)
where C
1
, C
2
, and C
3
are constants.
In LTE region, the relation between irradiance and arc tem-
perature could be calculated by FowlerMilne method. Recently,
Vilarinho and Scotti [18] suggested the relation between irradiance
and arc temperature is linear at the low arc temperature which is
in the range of 5000K to 12,500K as shown in Fig. 7. If the welding
current is inthe range from100Ato200AinGTAW, the arc temper-
ature near the anode drop zone can be approximated to vary from
10,000Kinarc peripheryto15,000Kinarc center fromthe previous
theoretical and experimental researches [2,18,19]. The following
linear relation between the irradiance and arc temperature next
above the anode drop zone in GHTAWwas adopted as shown with
the black line in Fig. 7.
= C
4
1
u.g
+C
5
(12)
The anode temperature variation may be assumed as a constant
value C
4
[20], since this temperature range is much lower than the
arc temperature above the weld pool, 1
u,g
. The total arc heat trans-
fer tothe anode couldbe generalizedbythe irradiance of arc plasma
which is closely related with the current density and temperature
as follows, if k
g
,
u
and are assumed to be constant.
Q
u
=
_
2.76 +
u
C
1
+
k
g
C
4
_
C
3
(2.76 +
u)
K
g
C
4
_
C
5
+C
4
1
u.g
_
=
_
2.76 +
u
C
1
+
k
g
C
4
_
+C
6
(13)
where C
5
, and C
6
are constants.
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Fig. 6. Relationship between arc light intensity and welding current density [9].
Lin and Eagar [21] found out that the current density is propor-
tional to the arc pressure, which can be combined with Eq. (11) to
be expressed as follows:
p
urc
=

0
lj
u
4
= C
7
j
u
=
C
7
C
1
C
7
C
3
= C
8
+C
9
(14)
where C
7
, C
8
, and C
9
are constants,
0
is magnetic permeability
in vacuum. Eqs. (11), (13) and (14) reveal that the arc heat ux,
arc pressure and current density on the welding workpiece can be
assumedas linearlyproportional tothelight intensityof arc column
next above the anode fall region.
Fig. 7. Relation between arc irradiance and temperature [18].
1.2.2. Modeling of arc characteristics by the Abel inversion
method
The arc plasma is in LTE, where the arc temperature is propor-
tional to the radiation energy of particles. With a CCD camera, it is
possible toobtainthe 2Ddistributionof arc light intensity. Tocalcu-
late the local emissivity, however, 2D arc light intensity should be
transferredbyAbel inversion. ChoandNa[11] suggestedanewAbel
inversion method for the fast calculation through an area matrix
inversion by using the geometrical relationships as follows. The
assumptions adopted for this Abel inversion method are; (1) opti-
cally thinarc plasma, (2) axisymmetric light intensity (3) no plasma
absorption in LTE.
Fig. 8 shows the principle of transformation of 3D data to 2D
data and a disk of cylindrically symmetric plasma. The measured
intensity of radiation is expressed as follows.
l(y)^y^z =
x
0
x
0
(r)^x^y^z (15)
FromEq. (11), it could be considered that all the irradiance mul-
tiplied by the local volume (^x^y^z) is the same as the intensity
of the arc plasma radiation multiplied by the local area of measure-
ment. By eliminating ^z from the both sides, therefore, Eq. (15)
could be further simplied as follows:
l (y) ^y =
x
0
x
0
(r) ^x^y (16)
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Fig. 8. Principle and coordination systemfor Abel inversion [11].
By using the area matrix form, Eq. (16) could be expressed as
follows which were then adopted to calculate the irradiance of arc
plasma.
_
_
S
11
S
12
S
1n
0 S
22
S
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . S
nn
_
_
_
2
.
.
.
n
_
_
=
d
2
_
_
l
1
l
2
.
.
.
l
n
_
_
(17)
[] =
d
2
[S]
1
[l] (18)
where, S
nn
is the area of cross position for the nth measurement
line,
n
is local irradiance at the nth radius, I
n
is the measured
data (gray level). The arc irradiance at 0.1mm above the anode
surface is used because the heat transfer by electron ow, convec-
tion and conduction occurs in this region as shown in Eq. (7), and
the anode boundary is the edge of LTE. Gaussian model of arc heat
ux, arc pressure and current density is adopted as many previous
researches [2226]. The effective radius of arc, therefore, should be
extracted accurately to conduct the Gaussian tting, Fig. 9.
1.3. Analysis of weld bead formation
The heat supplied by a welding arc produces a complex ther-
mal cycle in the weldment which causes some changes in the
microstructure of HAZ, transient thermal stresses, and molten
metal ows and consequently results in the residual stress and
distortion in the nished product. In order to analyze these prob-
lems, the heat ow during the welding process must rstly be
considered [27]. With the advancement of computer technology
and numerical simulation techniques such as FEM, FDM, and VOF,
it is possible to enlarge the capability of analyzing the heat owin
weldment.
1.3.1. FEMfor conductive heat transfer
Only conductive heat transfer could be described by FEMto ana-
lyze the temperature of weldbeadandHAZarea as showninFig. 11.
So this method ignores the convective heat transfer, which is very
important in real welding phenomena. Even though FEM simula-
tions have physical defects in the welding process, FEMhas a long
history and many welding engineers adopt FEM in simulation for
various welding processes due to its simplicity. Goldak et al. [28]
explained the FEMsimulation history as follows.
To simulate the FEM model, a heat source model is crucial
because it decides the size of both the molten zone and HAZ. The
basic theory of heat owdeveloped by Fourier and applied to mov-
ing heat sources by Rosenthal in the late 1930s is still the most
popular analytical method for calculating the thermal history of
welds [29]. As many researchers have shown, Rosenthals analysis
which assumes a point, line, or plane source of heat, is subject to
serious error for temperatures in or near the fusion and HAZ. In
regions of the workpiece where the temperature is less than about
20% of the melting point, Rosenthals solution can give quite accu-
rate results. However, the innite temperature at the heat source
assumed inthis model and the temperature sensitivity of the mate-
rial thermal properties (a temperature independent mean value
is assumed) increases the error as the heat source is approached.
To overcome most of these limitations, several authors have used
FEM to analyze heat ow in welds. Since Rosenthals point or
line models assume that the ux and temperature is innite at
the source, the temperature distribution has many similarities to
the stress distribution around the crack tip in linear elastic frac-
ture mechanics. Therefore, many of the FEMtechniques developed
for fracture mechanics can be adapted to the Rosenthal model.
However, since it would not account for the actual distribution
of heat in the arc and hence would not accurately predict tem-
peratures near the arc. Pavelic et al. rst suggested that the heat
source should be distributed. He proposed a Gaussian distribution
of ux (W/m) deposited onthe surface of the workpiece [30]. While
Pavelics model is certainly a signicant stepforward, some authors
have suggested that the heat should be distributed throughout the
molten zone to more accurately reect the digging action of the arc
[31].
Goldak et al. suggesteda newmathematical model for weldheat
sources based on a Gaussian distribution of power density [28]. He
modied an axisymmetry Gaussian distribution heat source model
to a double ellipsoidal volumetric Gaussian heat source model
which can predict a more realistic fusion zone and HAZ by adjus-
tingthe heat source parameters. After Goldaks model was released,
so many studies still used the model to predict the fusion zone,
HAZ, welding residual stresses, and distortions fromvarious weld-
ing processes [27,32,33]. Fig. 10 describes a double ellipsoidal heat
source model that is divided by front and rear parts with Eqs. (19)
and (20).
Front part : q(x, y, z, t) =
6
3j
j
Q
ubc
3x
2
u
2
c
3y
2
b
2
c
3[z+v(zt)]
2
c
2
(19)
Rear part : q(x, y, z, t) =
6
3j
j
Q
ubc
3x
2
u
2
c
3y
2
b
2
c
3[z+v(zt)]
2
c
2
(20)
1.3.2. FDMfor conductive and convective heat transfer
WhileFEMonlyconsiders theheat conductiontransfer, FDMcan
describe the convective molten pool ows in the welding process.
It means that the user can approach the welding process realisti-
cally. Considering the signicant effects of weld pool convection on
the microstructure and properties of the resultant weld, numerous
investigators have attempted to calculate heat transfer and uid
owin the weld pool. Most of these investigators have used either
the rigid-lid assumption [34] or the stepwise approximation [3] for
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Fig. 9. Process of Abel inversion and Gaussian tting for arc characteristic modeling [9].
the weld pool surface. The transporting phenomena fromthe weld-
ing arc to the molten pool, such as the heat ux, current density,
and shear stress acting on the surface of molten pool, were taken
fromthe simulation results of the corresponding welding arc. The
driving forces responsible to the weld pool convection, i.e., the self-
inducedEMF, surfacetensionduetothetemperaturegradient at the
surface of molten pool, the effect of surface depression due to the
arc pressure anddrag force by the arc plasma ow, were considered
in FDMsimulation.
As the fusion boundary has a curve and unknown shape dur-
ing the welding process, a boundary-tted coordinate systemwas
adopted to precisely describe the boundary for the momentum
equation. Then, through the same numerical procedure as the anal-
ysis of TIG welding arc, the nite difference discretizations were
derived in the uniformly-spaced transformed domain [23,35,36].
Fig. 12 shows a schematic diagram of the coordinate system
and each driving force acting on the GTAW molten pool. To ana-
lyze the molten pool convection, the following driving forces were
considered [37].
a. EMF generatedbythe interactionbetweenthe self-inducedmag-
netic eld and welding current owing through the workpiece.
b. Surface tension force due to the temperature gradient at the
surface of the molten pool.
c. Drag force acting on the surface by the arc plasma ow.
Fig. 10. Goldaks double ellipsoidal Gaussian heat source model [28].
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Fig. 11. Example of 2D temperature history in the gasmetal arc welded plate by FEM[32].
The molten pool convection was characterized by the following
assumptions:
a. At normal welding conditions, the ow could be assumed to be
laminar owand incompressible.
b. The welding process is restrictedto stationary GTAspot welding,
and the systemis axisymmetric.
c. The physical prosperities are assumed constant except for the
thermal conductivity and surface tension.
d. The transport phenomena into the workpiece are determined
from the numerical analysis of the welding arc under the
assumption of a rigid surface at the anode
The governing equations in the rz coordinate system for the
current and mass continuity, momentum and energy equations
based on the above mentioned assumptions might be written as
follows[37]:
Continuity
1
r
(ru)
r
+
(w)
z
= 0 (21)
Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of coordinate system and driving forces occurring
molten pool convection in GTAW[37].
Momentum
(u)
t
+
1
r
r
_
ruu r
u
r
_
+

z
_
rw
u
z
_
=
P
r
+
1
r
r
_
r
u
r
_
2
u
r
2
+

z
_
w
r
_
j
z
8
0
(22)
(w)
t
+
1
r
r
_
ruwr
w
r
_
+

z
_
ww
w
r
_
=
P
z
+
1
r
r
_
r
u
r
_
+

z
_
w
r
_
g(1 1
L
) +j
r
8
0
(23)
Energy
(C
p
1)
t
+
1
r
r
_
rC
p
u1 rk
1
r
_
+

z
_
C
p
w1 k
1
z
_
= ^H
j
L
t
(24)
In the energy equation, the latent heat of fusion is included by
employing the liquid fraction, j
L
, which is dened as follows [3]:
j
L
= 1 for 1 :1
L
j
L
=
1 1
S
1
L
1
S
for 1
S
1 1
L
,
j
L
= 0 for 1 -1
S
(25)
where 1
S
and 1
L
are the liquidus and solidus temperature, respec-
tively.
The self-induced magnetic eld 8
0
was calculated by following
Amperes law because of the axisymmetric current density distri-
bution:
8
0
=

0
r
_
r
0
j
z
rdr (26)
According to the denition of electrical potential, the current
density component was calculated fromthe following equation:
j = o (27)
where J is the current density in the molten pool.
1.3.2.1. GTAW for BOP. An example of the solution domains used
in boundary-tted condition is shown in Fig. 13. While ACDE is
used for solving the electrical potential and temperature eld, ABF
is used for the momentum equation because the uid ow takes
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Fig. 13. Solution domain for analyzing molten pool and mesh generation with boundary-tted coordinates [35,37].
place only withinthe fusionregion. The number of nodes inthe ABF
domain is adjusted in the progress of calculations according to the
molten pool size. The boundary tted nodes are used for describ-
ing the fusion boundary. The boundary conditions for solving the
governing equations are as follows:
j
r
= o
n
(28)
q
n
= k
1
n
(29)
When a molten pool forms, the following condition must be
satised along its surface, AF.
v
s
n
= z
u
+
d
d1
1
s
, v
n
= 0 (30)
where j
n
(r), q
n
(r) andz
u
are the distributionof current density, heat
ux and arc drag force acting on the surface of molten pool [35,37].
The surface depression will form a shape that minimizes the
total energy. The weld pool is distorted by the gravitational force,
arc pressure and surface tension acting on the molten pool. The
minimum energy surface equation includes these effects on the
molten pool and makes the surface shape as follows:
_
r
rr
+
r
(1 +
2
r
)
r(1 +
2
r
)
3]2
_
= g P
urc
+z (31)
where is the displacement of the top surface of the molten pool.
After the physical domainrepresentedby a boundary-ttedcoordi-
nate is transformed into a rectangular domain, FDMcan be applied
to the solution of the governing differential equations from(21) to
(24). The physical domainrepresentedby a boundary-ttedcoordi-
nate systemmust be transformed into a rectangular domain before
a standard FDM can be applied to the solution of the governing
differential equations discussed above. Finally, uid patterns and
temperature distributions in the material could be obtained by
FDM simulation. Fig. 14 shows the FDM simulation results which
describe the ow patterns for partially and fully penetrated weld
pools in GTAW.
1.3.2.2. GMAWfor BOP. In GMAW, the additional volume fromthe
wire metal should be considered in the molten pool area, there-
fore; the additional volume in the weld joint could be regarded as
a constrain condition in the solution domain by a boundary tted
coordinate as shown in Fig. 15. The boundary tted coordinates can
beusedinsteadystateGMAWtodescribethetemperaturedistribu-
tionandowpattern. Not onlybead-on-plate but alsollet welding
canbedescribedbyFDMas showninFigs. 16and17, however, these
simulations have to be satised by steady state welding.
1.3.3. VOF for free surface
The VOF simulation technique was used to track the deforma-
tion of the weld pool surface due to variable arc forces that were
mathematically modeled and implemented in the numerical simu-
lation[22,4044]. This methodadopts transient analysis, whichcan
detect the free surface variation from the simulation time. There-
fore, it can predict unstable weld beads such as humping and burn
through as well as stable weld beads [41,44].
To conduct the VOF transient simulation, several equations
such as mass conservation, the momentum conservation
(NavierStokes) equation, the energy equation and the VOF
Fig. 14. Flowpatterns in GTAWfor fully and partially penetrated weld pools.
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Fig. 15. Mesh grid on BOP GMA welding [38].
Fig. 16. Flowpatterns on BOP GMA welding [38].
equation were used as governing equations to execute the molten
metal ow analysis. Still, many studies assumed the molten metal
as Newtonian viscosity and incompressible laminar ow. Based on
these assumptions, the governing equations are as follows:
Mass conservation
v =
m
s
(32)
NavierStokes equation:
v
t
+v v =
1
P +v
2
v Kv +
m
s
(v
s
v) +C (33)
Energy equation:
h
t
+v h =
1
(k1) +

h
s
(34)
VOF equation:
F
t
+ (vF) =

F
s
(35)
where v is the velocity vector, m
s
is a mass source termby molten
droplet inGMAW, v is thedynamic viscosity, Kis thedragcoefcient
for aporous mediamodel inthemushyzone, v
s
is thevelocityvector
for the mass source, G is the body acceleration due to body force,
h is the enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity,

h
s
is an enthalpy
source termdue to a mass source term, F is a volume fraction, and
F is the change of the volume fraction of uid associated with the

mass source inthe continuity equation. Additional arc models, such
as arc pressure, EMF, drag force by arc plasma, and buoyancy force
are used in the VOF method to describe the molten pool dynamics.
1.3.3.1. Arc and weld pool characteristics in GHTAW [9]. The resul-
tant arc models are then adopted to simulate the GHTAWprocess
Fig. 17. Flowpatterns and temperature (K) prole on V-groove GMA welding [39].
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Fig. 18. Effect of gas owrate on the arc plasma (I: 150A, arc length: 5mm) [9].
Fig. 19. Gaussian arc heat ux models in GHTAWfor different gas owrates [9].
for various gas ow rates. Fig. 18 shows that the higher gas ow
rate could bring more amount of ionized gas which caused more
frequent collisions among the ionized particles; therefore, the irra-
diance of arc plasma could be increased in the higher gas ow
rate according to LTE assumptions. As the irradiance of arc plasma
is linearly proportional to arc temperature in Eq. (12), the higher
temperature of arc plasma could bring the higher irradiance value
which was then applied to the arc heat ux modeling.
Additionally, the irradiance of arc plasma at 0.1mm above the
anode surface should be obtained by Abel inversion and Gaussian
tting to formthe arc characteristic models, as described in previ-
ous sections. Fig. 19 shows the distribution of arc plasma gray level
and that of arc heat ux for variable gas owrates.
Fig. 20 shows the cross sections of GHTAW experiments and
numerical simulations for variable gas ow rates. For 0.1l/min
gas ow rate, the period of transition arc was relatively long,
which caused a smaller total arc heat input and accordingly molten
pool size. In this case, the downward arc pressure and EMF were
decreased, because 0.1l/min gas owrate brought the bigger effec-
tive radius. Therefore, the surface tension force which moved the
Fig. 20. Comparison of the simulated molten pool with experimented cross section [9].
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Fig. 21. Calculated temperature proles and owpatterns on a transverse cross-sectional (x =3.0cm) in C1 [44].
moltenpool outwardwas more dominant thanthe arc pressure and
EMF. Resultingly, the nger shape penetrationwas hardly observed
for 0.1l/min gas owrate.
Ontheother hand, as thegas owrateincreased, thepenetration
also increased due to the higher downward arc pressure and EMF
which came from the smaller effective radius. In higher gas ow
rate, two kinds of owpatterns were displayed: (1) the behavior of
moltenpool by the surface tensionto spreadout, and(2) the behav-
ior of molten pool by EMF and arc pressure to penetrate downward
deeply. When the gas ow rate is 1.0l/min or 2.0l/min, therefore,
the owpattern fromthe center toward the down was more active,
and consequently caused the nger shape penetration.
1.3.3.2. V-groove GMAWfor various weldingpositions. Choet al. per-
formed the numerical simulation of V-groove GMAWin for various
welding positions under the following conditions [44] (see Table 1).
Table 2 lists the different welding positions used in the simula-
tion without the root gap. In C1, the sloped surface of the V-groove
melts earlier than the weld seam owing to the geometrical shape
of the V-groove as shown in Fig. 21. These molten pool ow pat-
terns also disturb a fully penetrated weld bead, even though EMF
and arc pressure fromarc plasma tend to penetrate the weld pool
downward. Finally, the molten pool ows can be circulated on the
V-groove slope and, inturn, caninduce the incomplete penetration.
In C2 (overhead position), uniformand stable molten pool ow
patterns are described, although the reverse gravity vector affects
the molten pool (see Fig. 22). These ow patterns are very similar
to C1; moreover, they formthe incompletely penetrated weld bead
in C2. By comparing the C1 with C2, it is possible to understand
that a gravity vector in the z direction has only a weak effect on the
molten pool and the nal bead formation.
In the vertical position, the welding direction is the same as or
opposite to the direction of gravity according to the vertical-down
Table 1
Common welding conditions (with or without root gap).
Variable Value
Wire feed rate 7.5m/min
Voltage 25V
Electrode YGW15, =1.2mm
Current 255A
Welding speed 10mm/s (C1C7), 20mm/s (C8)
Contact tip-to-work distance 20mm
Torch angle 90 degree
Shielding gas 80%Ar20%CO
2
, 20l/min
or vertical-up position respectively, so that the molten pool behav-
ior can be very sensitive and dynamic compared to other welding
positions. This study adopts the vertical-up position, referred to as
C3, which induces the dynamic weld beads such as humping on
the top surface and melt-through on the bottomsurface, as shown
in Fig. 23. In C3, the molten pool can be accelerated to the rear
welding direction in line with the direction of gravity in the case of
vertical-up position. Fig. 24(a) describes the unstable owpatterns
in the longitudinal cross section where the maximum velocity of
molten pool ow toward the rear welding direction is 390mm/s,
whichresults inthepartial circulationandtheformationof ahump-
ing bead on the top surface. Thus, a more active convection heat
transfer canmelt the V-groove material and forma fully penetrated
weld bead. The dashed circle region in Fig. 24(b) solidies earlier
because the heat is dissipated by a conduction transfer. This solid-
ied region breaks the molten pool channel and heads to the top
surface; therefore, the rest of the molten pool ows to the bottom
surface and forms a melt-through bead, as shown in Fig. 25. The
numerical models used in the simulation can be validated by com-
paringthesimulationresults withtheexperimental ones. However,
the welding conditions presented in Table 2 are not suitable for
applying the V-groove GMAW without a root gap because these
conditions result in weld defects such as incomplete penetration,
humping and melt-through beads for various welding positions.
Resultantly, it is necessary to optimize the welding parameters in
V-groove GMAWfor various welding positions.
In order to prevent the weld defects and obtain a sound weld
bead, the V-groove joint between the plates is opened with a 1-mm
root gap. The welding conditions are the same as those in previous
cases, however, the torch angles and welding positions are varied,
as given in Table 3.
In C4, droplets from the molten wire impinge perpendicularly
on the weld pool surface. Under this condition, the surface tension
on the bottom surface hardly sustains the variable forces such as
droplet impingement, EMF, and arc pressure. Thus, the molten pool
can leak from the bottom surface where a burn-through bead is
Table 2
Welding positions (without root gap).
Welding position
C1 Flat
C2 Overhead
C3 Vertical-up
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Fig. 22. Calculated temperature proles and owpatterns on a transverse cross-section (x =3.0cm) in C2 [44].
Fig. 23. Simulation and experiment result in C3 [44].
Fig. 24. Calculated temperature proles and owpatterns on a longitudinal cross-section in C3 [44].
formed, as shown in Fig. 26. However, Fig. 27 shows that the stable
weld beads can be formed on the top and bottomsurfaces as in C5.
Droplets are added to the weld pool so that the molten uids
can accumulate completely (see Fig. 28(a)). Next, droplets slantly
impact and push the small amount of weld pool to penetrate into
the root gap. As shown in Fig. 28(b), the penetrated molten pool
solidied earlier owing to conduction heat transfer. When the cen-
ter of the arc plasma reaches the pre-solidiedregion(see Fig. 28(c)
Fig. 25. Simulation result of fusion zone on a longitudinal cross-section in C3 [44].
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Table 3
Welding positions (1mmroot gap).
Position (torchangle)
C4 Flat (90 degree)
C5 Flat (45 degree, front direction)
C6 Overhead (90 degree)
C7 Vertical downward (90 degree)
C8 Vertical downward (90 degree), Welding speed (20mm/s)
Fig. 26. Burn-through bead in C4 (top surface) [44].
and (d)), it can be melted again owing to EMF and arc pressure
suppressing the molten pool downward, making a fully penetrated
weld bead. Meanwhile, the molten uid ows to the rear and
downward direction because the pre-solidied region reected the
molten pool. Thus, the downward momentum of the molten pool
became smaller than in C4, so the fully penetrated molten pool
could not leak from the bottom surface and the surface tension
could sustain the variable arc forces in C5. Finally, this condition
resulted in the formation of a uniform, fully penetrated, and sound
weld bead.
The molten pool overow phenomenon can be observed by a
high-speed camera as shown in Fig. 29. Just before overow, the
molten pool has fully accumulated in the V-groove and the arc
plasma is located in a higher position. After overow, however,
the molten pool penetrates in the root gap; thus, the arc plasma
is located in a lower position. If there is no overow pattern in
V-groove welding, however, the arc position can be stable during
the welding process. Fig. 30 compares the simulation results of the
weld bead cross section with the experimental results to verify the
welding models and algorithms used in simulations.
In C6, the molten pool overowpattern is observed by CFDsim-
ulation, whichis similar toC5. Thepenetratedmoltenpool solidies
in the root gap, and then melts again by the arc heat source and arc
forces to forma stable bead. In overhead welding, the direction of
gravity is opposite to the direction of at position welding; there-
fore, different molten pool ow patterns and the resultant bead
shapes can be formed. Fig. 31(a) and (b) shows the temperature
proles and the molten pool owpatterns on a longitudinal cross-
section in C6. The dashed region is far from the arc center, so arc
forces such as EMF and arc pressure prevent the molten pool from
owing downward. On the contrary, the molten pool is stretched
at the upper part owing to the gravity force, so the dashed molten
region can remain as a molten uid for a longer time.
Weld defects such as humping and melt-through beading are
clearly observed in a vertical-upward position in C3 owing to the
gravity force, as mentioned above. To prevent these weld defects,
the vertical-downward position is used, as given in Table 3, with a
1-mm root gap. In C7, the direction of gravity force is the same as
the welding direction, so that it can induce a molten pool overow
Fig. 27. Stable weld bead in C5 [44].
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Fig. 29. Molten pool overowfroma high speed camera [44].
Fig. 30. Fusion zone proles C5 [44].
pattern in a vertical-down welding position as shown in Fig. 32(a)
and (b).
These molten pool ow patterns can induce a lack of penetra-
tion. The reasonfor this lackof penetrationis that the solidregionin
the red boxed area reects the molten uid, so that it goes upward
without penetrating (Fig. 21(a)). Although the arc forces are acting
on the region to make the molten pool ow downward, the forces
are insufcient to cause the penetrationinto the root gap and result
in an incompletely penetrated region as shown in Fig. 33.
To prevent the formation of weld defects in the vertical-
downward position, it is necessary to change the welding
parameters to avoid the molten pool overow. One of the reasons
for generating the overow pattern in a vertical-downward posi-
tion is the accumulation of the molten pool. Thus, higher welding
speed(20mm/s) is adoptedtoreducetheaccumulatedmoltenpool.
Simulationresults showthat fullypenetratedmoltenpool owpat-
terns are observed on the transverse cross-sections, as shown in
Fig. 34.
2. Laser welding
2.1. Introduction: the role of modeling in laser welding
The CO
2
laser and the lamp pumped Nd:YAG laser have been
commonly used in industrial welding applications for many years.
High power welding is mainly realized with a CO
2
laser but its
10.6m wavelength means it cant be delivered via ber-optic
cable. The lamp pumped Nd:YAG laser is applied in various elds
because it enables the beam to be delivered by ber; however, it
is limited to relatively low power welding and has the disadvan-
tages of lowefciency and lowbeamquality due to problems with
elevated temperatures, thermal lensing, and depolarization loss.
Fig. 32. Detailed owpatterns which produce a lack of penetration in C7 [44].
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Fig. 33. Fusion zone proles fromexperiment and simulation in C7 [44].
Disk lasers have recently been commercialized; by using a diode-
pumping method as well as a very thin disk (as the gain medium),
disk lasers can achieve a high level of efciency and a high beam
quality at high power levels.
One of the goals of welding research is to determine optimal
conditions by analyzing the effects of the welding conditions from
the perspective of the process, metallurgy, and mechanics. The
related studies can be divided into experimental and numerical
approaches. The experimental approach can be used to observe the
molten pool owand surface shape, though environmental limita-
tions of the strong light and high temperature limit the availability
of precise information. The X-ray transmission in situ observation
method of the Joining and Welding Research Institute is the most
developedway of observing the keyhole shape inside a moltenpool
[45]. However, the applicationof this methodis limitedbecause the
equipment is expensive and bulky. Therefore, numerical approach
is favorable for comprehending the molten pool ow.
Rosenthal used a simple heat conduction model to estimate the
fusion zone shape [46]; and heat conduction simulations were con-
ducted until the early 1980s. Numerical simulations of the molten
pool ow began in the mid-1980s for arc welding and in the late
1980s for laser welding. In laser welding, the recoil pressure forms
a unique keyhole, and estimating the keyhole shape is a major
research topic. In the early stages of laser welding simulation, how-
ever, the focus was on the conduction mode of laser welding and
the simulation was similar to that of arc welding [47]. Depending
on the aim of the simulation, the usage of a Goldak heat source
model can be sufcient in laser welding simulation, e.g., in deter-
mination of the residual stresses and distortion [48]. On the other
hand, other defects like pores demand more detailed description of
the keyhole. To estimate the laser keyhole shape, Kaplan used an
energy balance equation with a simple multiple reection model
[49]. Multiple reections were considered in a conical shape with
an average angle of the keyhole wall; thus, only rough predictions
could be made of the keyhole shape. Since then various numerical
techniques have been used to track the free surface so that the pre-
cise keyhole shape can be calculated. Ki et al. [50] used a level-set
method [51] to calculate the free surface of the keyhole for the
purpose of realizing the multiple reections inside the calculated
keyhole shape. Lee et al. [52] used a VOF method [53] to under-
stand the mechanism of keyhole instability. Cho and Na [40] also
used the VOF method in conjunction with a ray-tracing algorithm
to calculate the keyhole shape and realize the real-time multiple
reections. The same algorithmwas used to estimate the results of
the drilling process vis--vis the polarization of the laser beam[54]
as well as the results of laserarc hybrid welding [22]. In addition, a
laser model based on the optical geometry of a laser systemand the
theoretical laser- and material-dependent value which affects the
reectivity inthe simpliedFresnels reectionmodel was recently
usedinsimulations of thelaserarc hybridweldingprocess [42] and
laser welding process [43].
In welding simulations, it is important to formulate the reliable
models based on actual welding phenomena. However, practi-
cal welding involves complex multi-physical phenomena, such as
heat transfer, diffusion and electromagnetism, as well as solid, liq-
uid, gas, and plasma phases. Thus, researchers have attempted
to simplify the physical phenomena of welding through various
assumptions. This chapter features the numerical simulation of
molten pool dynamics in laser and hybrid welding.
2.2. Key issues in modeling laser welding processes
2.2.1. Lasermatter interaction
If light moves between media of differing refractive indices,
both reection and refraction (or absorption) of the light can be
described by Fresnel reection model. Fresnel reection model
determines the reectivity of a material surface according to the
polarization of the incidence beam. It has already been dened in
previous reports andtextbooks that theplaneof incidenceis a plane
determined by two vectors of the incidence ray and surface normal.
Fig. 34. Calculated temperature proles and owpatterns on a transverse cross-section (x =2.6cm) in C8 [44].
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Fig. 35. Schematic diagramof the reection model.
P-polarization refers to the case where the polarization direction of
the beam is parallel to the plane of incidence. On the other hand,
s-polarization means that the polarization direction is perpendic-
ular to the incidence plane. If a beam ray is irradiated vertically
on the material surface, however, one cannot dene whether it is
s-polarization or p-polarization. Determination of the absorption
rate of the material surface starts with dividing the electric eld
of the incoming beam ray,

E
i
, into two components of the direc-
tional unit vector, as shown in Fig. 35 and as given in the following
equations [55,56].
E
i||
=

E
i
e
i||
, E
i
=

E
i
e
i
(36)
E
i
= E
i||
e
i||
+E
i
e
i
(37)
e
i
=
s
i
n
sin
, e
i||
= e
i
s
i
(38)
According to the Fresnel reection models, the reectivity
depends on the wavelength of the beam, the temperature of the
surface, and the incident angle of the beam , because the com-
plex refractive index of the material, m=n
2
ik
2
, varies with the
wavelength of the beam and the temperature of the surface. The
complex refractive index of the metal such as steel can be obtained
by Drude theory. Because the metal is generally good conductor
and free electrons move freely, the Lorentz model can have spe-
cial form, Drude model with a vanishing spring constant leading
to a resonance frequency of 0. Based on Fresnel reection model
by Drude theory, Fig. 36 shows the absorptivity according to the
incident angle between the incoming ray and the surface normal
for CO
2
laser (10.6m) and disk laser (1.03m).
The Fresnel reection model can be simplied [57] by the
HagenRubens relation derived under the assumptions that the
material is a good conductor and the wavelengthof the beamis suf-
ciently long (infrared). Based on the simplied Fresnel reection
model by HagenRubens relation, Fig. 37 shows the absorptivity
according to the incident angle between the incoming ray and the
surface normal for CO
2
laser (10.6m) and disk laser (1.03m).
2.2.2. Laser heat source model
In terms of energy transfer, the laser beam undergoes rather
complex processes. However, in the simplest case, the absorbed
laser beampower at the keyhole wall might be describedbyconsid-
eringonlytheFresnel absorption, usingaGaussian-likesurfaceheat
ux [57]. Fig. 38 shows one important problem when the surface
0 0.5 1 1.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
CO
2
laser(=10.6m)
Incident angle, [rad]
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

A

[
%
]

0 0.5 1 1.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Disk laser(=1.03m)
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

A

[
%
]
s-pol.
p-pol.
circularly pol.
Fig. 36. Absorptivity vs. incident angle based on Fresnel reection model by Drude
theory.
heat ux is used without consideration of an axisymmetric laser
beaminnature. If bundle1andbundle2aresymmetric, for example,
the energies of bundle1 and bundle2 should be the same. However,
because the projected area of the free surface in cell 1, A
1
, is larger
than the projected area of the free surface in cell 2, A
2
, the energy
of bundle1 is greater than that of bundle2, a physically wrong out-
come. Therefore, it is necessary to dene the bundles of rays whose
energy distribution is Gaussian-like axisymmetric as well as whose
number is nite but large enough to reproduce the real laser beam.
The previous work assumed that the beam was focused on an
innitesimal point that denes the initial directions of the rays, but
this step is practically impossible in laser welding. In the practi-
cal laser processing, however, the calculation of the focal spot size
and the corresponding laser beam ray directions are based on the
diffraction parameter. Because the disk laser used in welding is not
diffraction-limited, the beam radius at position z along the axis of
the beamcan be expressed as follows:
r
j
(z) = r
j 0
_
1 +
_
z z
0
z
r
_
2
_
1]2
(39)
where z
r
= 2r
j 0
F.
0 0.5 1 1.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
CO
2
laser(=10.6m)
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

A

[
%
]
0 0.5 1 1.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Disk laser(=1.03m)
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
v
i
t
y
,

A

[
%
]
s-pol.
p-pol.
circularly pol.
Fig. 37. Absorptivity vs. incident angle based on simplied Fresnel reection model
by HagenRubens relation.
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Fig. 38. Schematic diagramof incoming two bundles of rays in the keyhole.
Eq. (39) implies that the beamis diffracted in the manner shown
in Fig. 39(a), where the direction vector r at any arbitrary point is
calculated as shown in Fig. 39(b). In this calculation, the value of
zz is given as the value of the original mesh size.
2.2.3. Multiple-reection model of keyhole
The portionof total energytransfer fromlaser beamtoat mate-
rial surface is quite small compared to other welding methods.
However, it increases dramatically after a keyhole is generated
because of the multiple reection effect on the keyhole wall. Its
basic concept is that a xed portion of energy of the laser beamis
absorbedat the irradiationpoint onthe wall andthe rest is reected
to the opposite wall and acts as a new energy beam. Most of the
traveling rays in the keyhole are superposed at the keyhole bot-
tom, which results in a deep penetration and an increase of the
total energy absorption rate.
To implement the multiple reections in analysis, a ray tracing
technique with the discrete grid cell systemis proposed as shown
Fig. 40. Schematic diagram of methodology of multiple reection effect on the
keyhole.
in Fig. 40. First of all, a ray vector is formed from the focal point
to an arbitrary cell denoted as
I. Some portion of the energy con-

tained in the ray is absorbed according to the Fresnel absorption
model, whichwill be explainedlater, andthe rest is deliveredbythe
reected ray

R to the point P
r
on the opposite side by the following
simple vector equation:
R =
I +2(
I

N)
N (40)
where

N indicates the surface normal at the irradiated point P
i
. In
a discrete grid cell system, it is not possible to nd an exact point
consistent with a given

R vector. Therefore, it is necessary to make
a temporary vector
P
r
P
i
in Fig. 40 and select a point which makes
the vector most similar to

R. And its criterion is expressed in the
following equation.
(
P
r
P
i
)

R
P
r
P
i
arctan
_
^x
P
r
P
i
_
(41)
In this equation,

P
r
indicates the point to be irradiated by the
reected ray and

P
i
the irradiated point by the incoming ray. ^x is
Fig. 39. Schematics of (a) the diffracted laser beamand (b) the direction vector of a ray at an arbitrary point.
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Fig. 41. Flow chart of molten pool simulation process including multiple refection
iterations until a ray escapes fromthe keyhole.
the distance between grids along the x axis and ^y, ^z are set to
be equal to ^x throughout the simulation. Proposed ray tracing is
conducted for each ray incoming into the keyhole until there is no
more point satisfying Eq. (41). Whole of this process is expressed
as a owchart in Fig. 41.
2.2.4. Weld pool dynamics in laser welding
For analysis of the heat transfer and uid owin relation to the
tracking free surface in the weld, solutions are found for the gov-
erning equations of mass conservation, momentum conservation
(NavierStokes), energy conservation and the VOF. In the simula-
tion, the molten metal is assumed to be an incompressible laminar
owwith Newtonian viscosity.
With these assumptions, the governing equations can be
expressed in Cartesian coordinates as follows:
Mass conservation equation:
v = 0 (42)
where v is the velocity vector.
NavierStokes equation:
v
t
+v v =
1
P +
2
v Kv +G (43)
where K = C
Fs
2
(1Fs)
3
+B
and =
0
_
1.0
Fs
Fs,cr
_
.
In Eq. (43), is the uid density, p is the pressure, is the
dynamic viscosity, Kis thedragcoefcient for aporous mediamodel
in the mushy zone, Gis the body acceleration due to body force, C is
a constant representing the mushy zone morphology, F
s
is the solid
fraction, B is the positive zero used to avoid the division by zero,
0
is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid phase and F
s,cr
is a user-
dened constant denoting the critical solid fraction value at which
all uid in the mushy zone freezes. It is assumed that the drag coef-
cient is zero and the dynamic viscosity is constant in the molten
metal (over liquidus temperature), but in the mushy zone those
are dependent on the solid fraction as shown in Eq. (43). The third
termonthe right-handside of Eq. (43) is the source terminducedby
the frictional dissipation in the mushy zone. The CarmanKozeny
equation derived fromthe Darcy model is used to model the owin
the mushy zone, with the assumption that this zone can be treated
as a porous medium[58].
Energy conservation equation:
h
t
+v h =
1
(kT) (44)
where h is the enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity, and T is the
temperature. The following enthalpy-based continuum model is
used in many cases to consider the solidliquid phase transition:
h =
_
s
C
s
1 (1 1
s
)
h(1
s
) +h
sl
1 1
s
1
l
1
s
(1
s
1 1
l
)
h(1
l
) +
l
C
l
(1 1
l
) (1
l
1)
(45)
where h is the enthalpy,
s
and
l
are the solid and liquid density,
C
s
and C
l
are the specic heat at a constant volume of the solid
and liquid phase, T
s
and T
l
are the solidus and liquidus temperature
respectively, and h
sl
is the latent heat of fusion.
VOF equation:
F
t
+ (vF) = 0 (46)
where F is the volume of uid.
The keyhole formation process is a phenomenon of particular
interest in laser welding. Its main driving force, called recoil pres-
sure, involves the evaporation of material. The following model can
beusedinmanycases tocalculatetherecoil pressureonthekeyhole
wall [59]:
P
R
(1)
= 0.54P
sut
(1) = 0.54P
0
exp
_
L
v
1 1
b
R11
b
_
(47)
where P
sat
is the saturated pressure, P
0
is the atmospheric pressure,
L
v
is the latent heat of vaporization, T
b
is the boiling temperature,
and

R is the universal gas constant.
A surface tension model that Sahoo et al. [60] developed for a
binary FeS systemis used to model the Marangoni ow. Thus, the
surface tension can be expressed as follows:
(1) =
c
m
/(1 1
m
)

R11
s
ln(1 +k
1
u
i
c
zH
c
]
R1
) (48)
where
c
m
is the surface tension of pure metal at the melting point,
/ is the negative surface tension gradient for pure metal, 1
m
is the
melting point, 1
s
is the surface excess at saturation, k
1
is the con-
stant related to the entropy of segregation, u
i
is the weight percent
of sulfur, and zH
c
is the standard heat of adsorption.
The buoyancy force (body force), which is modeled on the
Boussinesq approximation, can be expressed as follows:
F
b
= g(1 1
0
) (49)
where g is the gravity, is the thermal expansion rate, and T
0
is the
reference temperature.
For the simulationof bubble formationthrougha partial keyhole
collapse, the transient distributions of the metal vapor and plasma
or theshieldinggas mixtureinthekeyholeshouldbedeterminedby
solving the governing equations of a multiphase problem. For the
sake of simplicity, however, a bubble is assumed to be lled with
an ideal gas and the heat transfer and mass transfer between the
gas and moltenmetal are ignored. The bubble canbe maintained by
using the energy conservation equation and state equation; specif-
ically, the pressure is increased as the volume is reduced [42,43].
Inlaser welding, metallic vapor is generatedandejectedthrough
the keyhole entrance. A spectroscopic measurement of a plume in
10kWber laser weldingconrms that the inverse Bremsstrahlung
effect is negligible; that the plume is weakly ionized; and that
almost all the elements in the plume consist of neutral atoms of
iron [61]. On account of the metallic vapor effect, the additional
driving force and heat source are modeled on the assumptions that
metallic vapor consists of ironvapor at a temperature of 6000K[57]
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Fig. 42. Schematic diagramof the regions for calculating the heat transfer by metal-
lic vapor.
and that iron vapor is an ideal gas. The power absorbed during the
welding process is calculated. The velocity of the metallic vapor at
the keyhole entrance depends on the absorbed laser power density
[62]. Inside the keyhole, the vapor velocity is assumed to increase
linearly along the depthfromzerovelocity at the bottomof the key-
hole to its calculated velocity at the entrance of the keyhole. The
calculated velocity and average diameter of the keyhole suggest
that the vapor ow is a laminar ow (Re <2000); thus, the shear
stress induced at the keyhole walls by the vapor can be expressed
as follows [63]:
z
w
=
1
8
jv
2
(50)
where j =
64
Rc
for the laminar ow.
With regard to the heat source of the metallic vapor plume, the
calculation region is divided as shown in Fig. 42. In region 1 (inside
the keyhole), only the convective heat transfer is considered. The
convective heat transfer coefcient can be expressed as follows,
provided that the keyhole has a circular tube shape with a laminar
owof metallic vapor and provided that there is a fully developed
condition and a uniformsurface heat ux [64]:
h =
48
11
_
k
D
_
(51)
where D is the average diameter of the keyhole. In region 2 (above
the keyhole), the convective heat transfer and the radiative heat
transfer are both considered because the plume is observed to
remain above the keyhole. Thus, an ambient temperature of 6000K
is used to calculate the heat transfer in this region. This region is
assumed to extend from the laser focal point to the bottom of the
keyhole by a value of Rayleigh length. In region 3 (away from the
keyhole), the convective heat transfer and the radiative heat trans-
fer are calculated with respect to the ambient roomtemperature.
2.3. Simulations of weld pool dynamics in laser welding
Three-dimensional simulation of molten pool dynamics in
multi-kilowatt laser welding is conducted. Basically, in a three-
dimensional transient simulation of laser welding, the mass
conservation equation, the momentum conservation equation,
referred to here as the NavierStokes equation, the energy con-
servation equation and the VOF equation were used as governing
equations to execute the molten metal owanalysis. Molten metal
is assumed to be an incompressible laminar uid with Newto-
nian viscosity. The simulation considers the buoyancy force, the
Marangoni force, the recoil pressure, the vapor-induced shear
Table 4
Simulation cases for stationary laser welding [65].
Case Driving force Stationary/moving
L1 Buoyancy Stationary
L2 Marangoni (negative surface tension
gradient: 0.43)
Stationary
L3 Marangoni (positive surface tension
gradient: 0.43)
Stationary
L4 Recoil pressure Stationary
L5 Recoil pressure +Buoyancy Stationary
L6 Recoil pressure +Marangoni (0.43) Stationary
L7 Recoil pressure +Marangoni (0.43) Stationary
L8 All driving forces Moving (1m/min)
stress, and the vapor-induced heat transfer, and bubble pressure
model is used to simulate the pore generation with a keyhole col-
lapse.
Theinuenceof respectivedrivingforces onweldpool was stud-
ied for stationary laser welding by using mathematical models and
numerical simulation (see Table 4) [65]. When only buoyancy force
was applied (case L1), the penetration depth was not as deep as
expected in normal laser keyhole welding as Fig. 43(a) shows. In
this case, deep penetration appeared only at the beginning of the
simulation, but it was not maintained after the lapse of simulation
time and no keyhole was formed, obviously because there was no
recoil pressure downwardalong the z-axis. Also, whenthe negative
(case L2) or positive (case L3) surface tension gradient was applied,
theresults werealmost thesameas thoseof caseL1as Fig. 43(b) and
(c). On the contrary, the penetration was deep and the keyhole was
formed and maintained during the whole simulation period when
only recoil pressure is applied (case L4), as Fig. 43(d). All gures
showthe weld pool state with the welding time of t =0.4s.
Next, the effect of buoyancy force and Marangoni forces are
compared, when the recoil pressure was applied simultaneously
(cases L5L7). There are some differences in the details of keyhole
shapes. As Fig. 43(e) to (g) shows, cases L6 and L7 resulted in a
slightly deeper penetration than case L5, but the three results can
be considered to be almost the same from the view point of laser
keyhole welding. When buoyancy or Marangoni force was applied
with recoil pressure, the penetration depth was deeper than that of
case L4, where only recoil pressure was applied, but this difference
is very small.
To compare the uid velocity of different cases, the maximum
velocity data were obtained during the simulation period from0s
to 0.4s with the time step of 0.002s. The magnitude order of max-
imumradial velocity for single driving force is the following:
Recoil pressure Marangoni (0.43) >buoyancy >Marangoni
(0.43): The magnitude order of maximum z-axis velocity for
single driving force is the following:
Recoil pressure buoyancy >Marangoni (0.43) >Marangoni
(0.43): Recoil pressure can be considered the dominant driving
force for forming the keyhole and laser welding by comparison
of these four cases. The magnitude order of maximum radial
velocity for each driving force combined with recoil pressure is the
following:
Recoil with buoyancy >with Marangoni (0.43) >with Marangoni
(0.43) >only recoil pressure: The magnitude order of maximum z-
axis velocity is the following:
Recoil with Marangoni (0.43) >only recoil pressure >with buoy-
ancy >with Marangoni (0.43): As the comparison results show,
there is a difference of maximum velocity values, but the differ-
ence is very small and can be considered a computational error in
some cases.
It can be concluded that recoil pressure is the dominant driv-
ing force in laser welding. Fig. 44 shows the bead cross sections
obtained from experimental result and simulation result, when
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Fig. 43. Temperature prole in stationary laser welding simulation with each force (case L1L7) at t =0.4s [65].
all the forces are applied (case L8) in order to validate the simu-
lation models. In the experimental result, the penetration depth
was 7.7mmand the bead width was 5.04mm, while in simulation
result, the penetration depth was 8.2mmand the bead width was
5.6mm. The two sets of results show very good agreement with
small differences in values. These differences may also be due to
the fact that some effects of shielding gas, metal vapor, etc. were
not considered in the numerical simulations, and making a perfect
Gaussian heat source is difcult because of laser instability. This
is another reason that the perfect modeling of a laser ray path is
also difcult. Even though this difference appears, the two results
are almost the same, so the process models of laser welding can be
considered to have been validated.
Fig. 44. Cross-sectional comparison of the experimental and simulation results in
laser welding [65].
Cho et al. [43] conducted CFD simulations and analyzed the
dynamic molten pool ows with a moving disk laser. Structural
carbon steel (namely A36 (ASTM) or SS400 (JIS)) with a thick-
ness of 12mm is used in both the simulation and experiment.
The disk laser power is 6kW, and the travel speed is 1m/min.
Fig. 45(a)(c) shows the three-dimensional cross-sectional views
of the simulation results. The red part is the molten region which
has the temperature over the solidus temperature. At the begin-
ning of the welding process, the upper part of the molten region
is extended slightly in the opposite welding direction. The region
is gradually extended over the time but ends up with almost the
same length. With regard to the shape of the keyhole, it reaches
its widest point at the opening, becomes narrow at the middle,
and then becomes wider again at the end. Accordingly, the key-
hole may collapse at the middle. Inthe simulationresults, however,
only a fewpores came up, and this behavior is acceptable in terms
of the industrial standard (ISO 13919-1). The keyhole is consid-
ered to be relatively stable because the laser energy is distributed
evenlybymultiplereections rather thanbeingfocusedat aspecic
region.
Fig. 45(d)(f) shows the calculated temperature proles and
ow patterns from a cross-sectional side view. Clearly, as men-
tioned above, the molten pool is stretched at the upper part. Except
for the upper part, however, the shape of the molten pool remains
almost unchanged over time, probably due to the fact that the
same owpattern, namely a clockwise vortex, is maintained in the
molten pool. This ow pattern helps transport the molten metal
heated by the laser to the rear upper part of the molten pool.
Because of this phenomenon, the rear upper part is extended over
time in the opposite welding direction. The molten pool owin this
part oscillates back and forth, so that no specic ow pattern can
be dened. The bottom of the keyhole is cooled relatively quickly
because the strong ow pushes the molten metal in this region,
which is bound by a large solid region. A narrow molten pool is
consequently generated and acceptably small pores appear in this
region.
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Fig. 45. Calculated temperature proles and owpatterns in a three-dimensional cross-sectional view; (d) to (f): cross-sectional side viewduring laser welding [43].
Fig. 46 shows the temperature proles and uid ows from a
cross-sectional front view. After a dimpled shape appears near the
surface, as shown in Fig. 46(a), a keyhole is generated and a small
amount of molten metal exists around the keyhole. As shown in
Fig. 46(b), a downward owwas observed for about 0.1s in a small
region behind the keyhole, most likely due to the recoil pressure.
At t =1.0s, the downward ow disappears and an upward ow
appears. The upward ow is dominant for a long time until the
solidication is completed. The solidication starts at the bottom
and, as a result, the last solidication occurs in the upper molten
region.
Fig. 47 compares the simulation results of the weld bead cross
section with the experimental results to verify the welding models
and algorithms used in simulations. Fig. 47(a) and (b) shows the
simulation results of the fusion zones in the transverse and longi-
tudinal cross sections after the solidication of the molten pool. In
the experiment, the weldbeadwas polishedandetchedtoshowthe
fusionzone, andatransversecross sectionis showninFig. 47(c). The
prole of the calculated fusion zone (Fig. 47(b)) is in a considerably
good agreement with the experimental results (Fig. 47(c)).
3. Laserarc hybrid welding
3.1. Modeling of laserarc hybrid welding
In the numerical simulation of hybrid welding process, three-
dimensional transient simulations are conducted by combining
the arc welding model and the laser welding model without any
interactive effect between the two. The temperature prole char-
acteristics of the weld bead and molten pool ow and alloying
element distribution in the molten pool are analyzed. It is found
that fusion zones and alloying element distributions predicted by
numerical simulations are quite similar to the experimental ones
[42]. It shows that the assumptions and models used in this study
are appropriate. Despite those fair predictionresults, it is important
to note that some other effects have not been taken into con-
sideration in the proposed algorithm, including: (a) the inverse
Bremsstrahlung representing the laserarc plasma interactions; (b)
the Rayleigh scattering representing the lasermetal vapor inter-
actions; and (c) the heat and mass exchanges between the molten
metal and the bubble. Accordingly, it is deemed that further study
that takes into account the overlooked effects noted above is nec-
essary.
3.1.1. Laserarc interaction
Laser arc hybrid welding, which simultaneously uses a high
power laser and a conventional arc, has been developed to improve
the welding speed and quality. After the development of hybrid
welding techniques, a considerable number of studies have been
carried out on systemcongurations, parameter optimization and
the characteristics of weld beads. Although the hybrid welding
plasma operates in a quite different way from the conventional
one, little attention has been given to the newwelding heat source.
When the laser and arc plasma are used simultaneously, each heat
source mutually assists and inuences the other. The reason why
the characteristics of hybrid plasma are improved is the gener-
ation of intensive metal vapor over the laser irradiated position.
When the laser is irradiated on the metal surface, sufcient energy
of light can cause metal vaporization and metal vapor can be fur-
ther developed to LIP plume by continuous supply of more laser
energy. Because LIP is generated inside the arc plasma in laser arc
hybrid welding, two kinds of plasma interact with and affect each
other. In the coupling of laser and plasma, previous studies [6668]
have shown that the absorption of the laser beamis an important
phenomenon; simulations have beenusedtounderstandthis inter-
action effect. For the absorption mechanism of laser beams in the
plasma, inverse Bremsstrahlung, photoionization, and Mie absorp-
tion are considered in general [66,67]. In the case of Nd:YAG and
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Fig. 46. Calculated temperature proles and owpatterns in a cross-sectional front viewduring laser welding [43].
Fig. 47. Calculated fusion zone proles; and (c) an experimental fusion zone prole [43].
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Fig. 48. Temperature distribution of laser arc hybrid plasma for various laser powers (effective radius of the laser: 0.6mm, arc current: 100A, arc length: 5mm) [20].
CO
2
lasers, inverse Bremsstrahlung is dominant because of its rela-
tively long wavelength[68], whereas it is knownthat for ultraviolet
lasers the photoionization effect is dominant [66]. Additionally, the
Mie absorption is dominant at lowplasma temperature [69], when
the effect of inverse Bremsstrahlung and photoionization is low.
For CO
2
laserTIG hybrid welding, Startsev et al. [70] conducted a
numerical simulation for a co-axial axisymmetric hybrid congu-
ration. They considered the absorption of laser beams in the Ar arc
plasma. The results showa signicant temperature rise in the core
of the arc, but LIP is not considered. LIP has been considered in laser
welding simulation [66] but it has not yet been considered with arc
plasma in hybrid welding.
Cho et al. [20] focused on an investigation of the interaction
mechanism between Nd:YAG laser and gas tungsten arc/LIP mix-
ture plasma bythe methodof numerical analysis. Inadditiontothis,
the characteristics of hybrid plasma such as temperature distribu-
tion, current density distribution and ow pattern are explained.
Innumerical simulations, the other absorptionmechanisms, except
for inverse Bremsstrahlung, are neglectedfor Nd:YAGLIPandAr arc
plasma. First, the temperature distribution of the base metal due to
laser irradiation is obtained by solving the corresponding heat con-
duction equations. By xing this result as the boundary condition,
thedistributionof metal vapor inducedbythelaser canbeobtained.
The distribution of temperature in the base metal and metal vapor
are set as the boundary condition and analysis domain, respec-
tively, in order to conduct the analysis of the hybrid plasma. The
analysis is completed after checking the absorption of laser light
in the plasma by inverse Bremsstrahlung. The simulation results
of temperature distributions for various laser powers are shown in
Fig. 48. In the case of a laser with low power, the amount of evap-
oration is relatively small and the effect of current concentration
decreases. Consequently, the local increase of plasma temperature
gradually disappears. On the contrary, the local increase of plasma
temperature in the vicinity of laser irradiation is extended and the
absolute value of temperature also increases when the laser power
is high.
3.2. Simulations of weld pool dynamics in laser arc hybrid
welding
Once the models of GTA and laser welding were synthesized,
the numerical analysis of laserGTA hybrid welding could be per-
formed. The thickness of the workpiece used in the simulations
is 12mm. The laser power was set to 6kW, and the wavelength
of 1.03m, beam quality factor M2 of 29.6, and focal length of
280mm were applied. The arc current was xed to be 275A, and
the arc voltage was xed to 15.6V. In all cases, stationary welding
was performed. The distance between laser and arc was 0, and the
electrode angle was 90 degree (coaxial). The welding conditions of
all cases are listed in Table 5.
As Fig. 49shows, the simulationresults are almost same as those
of laser welding simulation in Fig. 43. When all driving forces were
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applied (case H14), the shape of the weld pool was almost the same
as that of laser weldingas Fig. 49(n) shows. However, the upper part
of the weld pool is wider due to the inuence of the GTA welding
heat source. As Fig. 49(g) shows, recoil pressure (case H7) is also
a dominant driving force in hybrid welding when it is considered
fromthe viewpoint of weld pool shape. In other cases (cases H1 to
H6), as Fig. 49(a) to(f), deeppenetrationappearedonlyat thebegin-
ning of the simulations, but it was not maintained after the lapse of
simulation time and no keyhole is formed, obviously because there
was no recoil pressure downward along the z-axis as in laser weld-
ing. All gures show the weld pool state with the welding time of
t =0.2s.
Next, the effects of driving forces when the recoil pressure was
applied simultaneously (cases H8 to H13) are compared. There are
some differences in the details of keyhole shapes, as Fig. 43(h) to
(m), but it can be considered in general that six results are almost
the same in the view point of laserGTA hybrid welding. When
each driving force was applied with the recoil pressure, the pene-
tration depth was different fromthat of case H7, in which only the
recoil pressure was applied, but this difference is also very small.
The magnitude order of maximumradial velocity for single driving
force is the following:
Recoil pressure Marangoni (0.43) >drag >Marangoni
(0.43) >EMF >arc pressure >buoyancy: The magnitude order of
maximumz-axis velocity for single driving force is the following:
Recoil pressure EMF >buoyancy >Marangoni (0.43) >drag >arc
pressure >Marangoni (0.43): Recoil pressure can be considered
the dominant driving force for laserGTA hybrid welding based on
Fig. 49. Temperature prole in stationary laserGTA hybrid welding simulation with each force (case H1H8) at t =0.2s.
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Fig. 49. (Continued)
comparison of these seven cases. The magnitude orders of maxi-
mum radial velocity for each driving force combined with recoil
pressure is the following:
Recoil with Marangoni (0.43) >with buoyancy >with all driving
forces >with drag >only recoil pressure >with EMF >with arc pres-
sure >with Marangoni (0.43): The magnitude order of maximum
z-axis velocity is the following:
Only recoil pressure recoil with Marangoni (0.43) with
drag with buoyancy with Marangoni (0.43) with all driving
forces with EMF with arc pressure: As the comparison results
show, there is a difference in maximum velocity values, but the
difference is very small and can be considered a computational
Table 5
Simulation cases for stationary laserGTA hybrid welding [65].
Case Driving force Stationary/moving
H1 Buoyancy Stationary
H2 Arc pressure Stationary
H3 Drag force Stationary
H4 EMF Stationary
H5 Marangoni (negative surface tension
gradient: 0.43)
Stationary
H6 Marangoni (positive surface tension
gradient: 0.43)
Stationary
H7 Recoil pressure Stationary
H8 Recoil pressure +buoyancy Stationary
H9 Recoil pressure +arc pressure Stationary
H10 Recoil pressure +drag Stationary
H11 Recoil pressure +EMF Stationary
H12 Recoil pressure +Marangoni (0.43) Stationary
H13 Recoil pressure +Marangoni (0.43) Stationary
H14 All driving forces Stationary
error in some cases. It can be concluded that recoil pressure is the
dominant driving force in laserGTA hybrid welding.
As aforementioned, in addition to the models of the GMAW
and laser welding, the additional conservation equation is used for
calculating the distributions of alloying elements. The separation
between the arc and laser is 3mmwith the GMA leading the laser,
and the laser and arc power is 6kWand about 6.5kW(231A, 28V),
respectively. For adding the droplet in the simulation, the droplet is
assumed to move at an angle of 61 degrees to the horizontal plane
with measured values of velocity and generation rate. Its tempera-
ture is assumed to be 2400K. In addition, the droplet diameter can
be calculated using the measured droplet generation rate and wire
feed rate of 8m/min. For calculating the alloying element distribu-
tions, chromiumand nickel are addressed and their concentrations
are all zero in the case of a SS400 workpiece, while they are 20%
and 10% in the case of droplets of Y308 solid wire. The case of 1.8-s
laserGMA hybrid welding and a 1.2-s cooling process is simulated
and analyzed.
Fig. 50shows the temperature andCr distributions withthe ow
patterns inthe longitudinal cross sections duringhybridwelding. In
the gures, maximumtemperature and concentration values of Cr
are set to 1768K and 8%, respectively. First, the molten pool with
the ow patterns is analyzed. At the keyhole front, where a high
intensity laser beamis directly irradiated, the material is removed
without a thin molten layer, a process that resembles the laser cut-
ting and drilling process. The laser beam reected at the keyhole
front reaches the other position of the keyhole wall and is then
absorbed. As shown in the gures, not only can the incident beam
reach the keyhole wall easily, but also the reected beam can be
collected around a specic point, if the shape of the keyhole is not
smooth but rather has a bulge. In particular, the region is rapidly
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Fig. 50. Simulation results in longitudinal cross sections during hybrid welding [42].
expanded by the excessive recoil pressure, if the reected laser
beam is concentrated at the rear part of the keyhole surrounded
by the molten metal. For this reason, complex ows with relatively
high velocity are observed near the keyhole and can make the key-
hole unstable. Meanwhile, it is observed that clockwise-rotating
vortices forma quasi-steady state owpattern in the wide molten
region located away fromthe keyhole. It can be inferred that these
vortices are driven by the strong ow at the keyhole. Because the
vortices extending a relatively wide range of the molten pool not
only have highCr content but also rotate inthe same direction, they
help mix Cr in the molten pool and thus Cr is distributed uniformly
in the wide molten region. However, the outer clockwise-rotating
vortexwithrelativelyhighor lowCr content passes througharound
the solidliquid interface, and thus Cr can be entrapped and make
a pattern like the teeth of a comb. In this simulation, this type of
alloying element distribution pattern can be observed but is not
severe, when compared to the results of full penetration hybrid
welding experiments, although the experiments were carried out
with different welding parameters and ller metal [71]. For the
region around the keyhole bottom, strong up-and-back owarises
and pushes out the ow having high content of alloying elements
because of the fast cooling rate and small accompanying molten
region. Therefore, low content of alloying elements exists in the
keyhole bottom.
Fig. 51 shows the simulation results of fusion zone and Cr and
Ni distributions in the transverse and longitudinal cross sections
after solidication of the molten pool. In these gures, maximum
content values of Cr and Ni are set to 8% and 4%, respectively, for
clear comparison with experiments. In the experiment, the weld
was polished and etched to analyze the fusion zone. EPMA was
used to investigate the alloying elements of Cr and Ni in the weld,
andthe experimental results are showninFig. 52. For the calculated
fusion zone in Fig. 51(a), the penetration depth and melting width
is predictedconsiderably accurately, while the fusionzone is a little
wider at the middle region in comparison with the experimental
result of Fig. 52(a). Given the observation of a uctuating fusion
zone both in Fig. 51(b) and (b), it appears that the laser induced
keyhole is rather unstable which can be explained by the unstable
nature of the keyhole.
From the simulation results for alloying element distributions
presented in Fig. 51(c) to (f), it is seen that the lower part of
the molten region is very narrow and has a relatively low con-
tent of alloying elements. On the other hand, the upper part of
the molten region is considerably wide and has a relatively high
content of alloying elements. Between these two parts, a transi-
tional region where high and low contents of alloying elements
coexist is observed and wave-shaped patterns are extended from
the bottom to the up-and-opposite direction of welding. Fig. 51
shows that strong up-and-back owwith lowCr content and outer
clockwise-rotating vortex with high Cr content is intersected in
this region. However, the pattern like the teeth of a comb is not
remarkable because the alloying element is distributed relatively
uniformly, when compared to the results of full penetration exper-
iments [71]. These simulation results are in fairly good agreement
with the experimental results in Fig. 52(c) to (f). Shown as dashed
lines in Fig. 52(a), (c), and (e), the boundaries of the fusion zone
and alloying elements are quite similar, indicating that the alloying
elements can be reached only at the molten region under these
welding conditions. Although the absolute content of Cr is twice
that of Ni in the solid wire, the distribution characteristics of Cr in
Fig. 52(c) and (d) are quite similar with those of Ni in Fig. 52(e) and
(f). Fromthe aforementioned results, it is thought that the distribu-
tions of the alloying element such as Cr and Ni are mainly affected
by the molten metal ow and also that their diffusive effects are
ARTICLE IN PRESS
G Model
Fig. 51. Simulation results in transverse and longitudinal cross sections after solidication [42].
negligible in this case. By the simulation where the diffusive effect
of each alloying element is not considered, identical patterns of Cr
and Ni are calculated as shown in Fig. 51(c) to (f).
3.3. Future trends
Using aforementioned models for laser and arc welding, the
reasonable predictions can be made based on the comparison of
fusion zone shape and alloying element distribution between the
numerical calculation and the experimental observation. However,
it should be pointed out that the developed models are far from
the full solutions to the welding process and developing a united
model for the welding is very challenging. Especially, in the hybrid
process the new phenomena such as the synergistic interaction of
the laser and electric arc and the effect of the coupled parameters
should be considered. The origins of those phenomena are not well
understood and many important questions related to such model-
ing are still unanswered, whichbring more difculties for modeling
of the hybrid welding. The main challenges for such modeling are
as follows [72].
First, the synergistic interaction of the laser and electric arc is
not well understoodinterms of the followingphenomena: the elec-
tric arc preheats the base metal that enhances the absorption of the
laser energy by the target metal; the electric arc dilutes the LIP and
hence reduces the ability of the plasma to absorb and reect the
laser energy; the laser beam stabilizes the electric arc; the laser
induced metal vapor and plasma distort the electric arc structure;
and the synergistic interaction of laserarc changes the energy
transfer and hence the welding process.
Second, the laser beamandthe laser inducedmetal vapor signif-
icantly inuence the features of metal transfer, but the underlying
physics is still unclear. The transient arc plasma and droplet gener-
ation were ignored, and/or the droplets were assumed to impinge
into the weld pool at a xed size and frequency in the exist-
ing models, which fail to couple the generation of arc plasma,
droplet formation, detachment and transfer during the hybrid
welding.
Third, theeffects of shieldinggas, includingits composition, ow
rate and injecting direction, are still unclear. The shielding gas has
signicant inuences on the plasma formation, the arc stability and
hence the weld quality in the hybrid welding, which depend on the
intrinsic properties of shielding gas. However, the effects of shiel-
ding gas in the hybrid welding are contradictory in some functions
for the individual welding process, which requires further research
to reduce the plasma shielding effect for the laser and also enhance
the electric arc stability.
Fourth, the fully penetrated laser keyhole welding process is
useful to apply in the industrial eld. However, the molten pool
owpatterns shouldbe very complex incase of the fully penetrated
welding. The authors group has conducted the fully penetrated
laser keyhole welding process using CFD and it will be reported
soon.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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Fig. 52. Experimental results in transverse and longitudinal cross sections [42].
Finally, a real united model of hybrid laserGMA welding will
need an excess computation time. Therefore, more advanced com-
puter technology and a more time efcient computation method
are required.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Brain
Korea 21 Project, Korean Ministry of Knowledge Economy (Grant
No.: 2012-10040108) and Mid-career 363 Researcher Program
through NRF (Grant No.: 2013-015605).
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F is the change of the volume fraction of uid associated with the

I. Some portion of the energy con-

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