Kayton, M.

Navigation Systems
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
109
avIgafIon Sysfems
109.1 Intioduction
109.2 Cooidinate Fiames
109.3 Categoiies of Navigation
109.4 Dead Reckoning
109.5 Radio Navigation
109.6 Celestial Navigation
109.7 Map Matching Navigation
109.8 Navigation Softwaie
109.9 Design Tiade-Offs
109.1 Intruductiun
Nagaon is the deteimination of the position and velocity of a moving vehicle on land, at sea, in the aii, oi
in space. The thiee components of position and the thiee components of velocity make up a six-component
state vector that fully desciibes the tianslational motion of the vehicle because the diffeiential equations of
motion aie of second oidei. Suiveyois aie beginning to use the same sensois as navigatois but aie achieving
highei accuiacy as a iesult of longei peiiods of obseivation, a fxed location, and moie complex, non-ieal-time
data ieduction.
In the usual navigation system, the state vectoi is deiived on-boaid, displayed to the ciew, iecoided on-
boaid, oi tiansmitted to the giound. Navigation infoimation is usually sent to othei on-boaid subsystems; foi
example, to the waypoint steeiing, engine contiol, communication contiol, and weapon-contiol computeis.
Some navigation systems, called oson-|otaon sysems, measuie a vehicle`s state vectoi using sensois on the
giound oi in anothei vehicle (Section 109.5). The exteinal sensois usually tiack passive iadai ietuins oi a
tianspondei. Position-location systems usually supply infoimation to a dispatch oi contiol centei.
Tiaditionally, s| nagaon included the ait of pilotage-enteiing and leaving poit, making use of wind
and tides, and knowing the coasts and sea conditions. Howevei, in modein usage, navigation is confned to
the measuiement of the state vectoi. The handling of the vehicle is called tonnng foi ships, [g| tonro| foi
aiiciaft, and auJe tonro| foi spaceciaft.
The teim guJante has two meanings, both of which aie diffeient than nagaon:
1. Steeiing towaid a destination of known position fiom the vehicle`s piesent position, as measuied by a
navigation system. The steeiing equations on a planet aie deiived fiom a plane tiiangle foi neaiby
destinations and fiom a spheiical tiiangle foi distant destinations.
2. Steeiing towaid a destination without calculating the state vectoi explicitly. A guided vehicle homes on
iadio, infiaied, oi visual emissions. Guidance towaid a mong taiget is usually of inteiest to militaiy
tactical missiles in which a steeiing algoiithm assuies impact within the maneuvei and fuel constiaints
of the inteiceptoi. Guidance towaid a fxeJ taiget involves beam iiding, as in the Instiument Landing
System, Section 109.5.
Nyron Kayfon
Koyron ngneerng Co.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
109.2 Cuurdinate Frames
Navigation is with iespect to a cooidinate fiame of the designei`s choice. Shoit-iange iobots navigate with
iespect to the local teiiain oi a building`s walls. Foi navigation ovei hundieds of kilometeis (e.g., automobiles
and tiucks), vaiious map giids exist whose cooidinates can be calculated fiom latitude-longitude (Fig. 109.1).
NATO land vehicles use a Univeisal Tiansveise Meicatoi giid. Long-iange aiiciaft and ships navigate ielative
to an eaith-bound cooidinate fiame, the most common of which aie latitude-longitude-altitude and iectangulai
x, y, z (Fig. 109.1). The most accuiate woild-wide iefeience ellipsoid is desciibed in WGS-84, 1991]. Spaceciaft
in oibit aiound the eaith navigate with iespect to an eaith-centeied, ineitially noniotating cooidinate fiame
whose : axis coincides with the polai axis of the eaith and whose x axis lies along the equatoi. Inteiplanetaiy
spaceciaft navigate with iespect to a sun-centeied, ineitially noniotating cooidinate fiame whose : axis is
peipendiculai to the ecliptic and whose x axis points to a convenient stai Battin, 1987].
109.3 Categuries ul Navigatiun
Navigation systems can be categoiized as:
1. |so|ue nagaon sysems that measuie the state vectoi without iegaid to the path tiaveled by the
vehicle in the past. These aie of two kinds:
Radio systems (Section 109.5). They consist of a netwoik of tiansmitteis (sometimes also ieceiveis)
on the giound oi in satellites. A vehicle detects the tiansmissions and computes its position ielative
to the known positions of the stations in the navigation cooidinate fiame. The vehicle`s velocity is
measuied fiom the Dopplei shift of the tiansmissions oi fiom a sequence of position measuiements.
Celestial systems (Section 109.6). They measuie the elevation and azimuth of celestial bodies ielative
to the land level and Noith. Electionic stai sensois aie used in special-puipose high-altitude aiiciaft
and in spaceciaft. Manual celestial navigation was piacticed at sea foi millennia (see Bowditch).
2. DeaJ-ret|onng nagaon sysems that deiive theii state vectoi fiom a continuous seiies of measuiements
beginning at a known initial position. Theie aie two kinds, those that measuie vehicle heading and eithei
FIGURE 109.1 Latitude-longitude-altitude cooidinate fiame. geodetic latitude; OP is noimal to the ellipsoid at B;
geodetic longitude; h BP altitude above the iefeience ellipsoid altitude above mean sea level.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
speed oi acceleiation (Section 109.4) and those that measuie emissions fiom continuous-wave iadio
stations whose signals cieate ambiguous lanes" (Section 109.5).
Dead ieckoning systems must be ieinitialized as eiiois accumulate and if powei is lost.
3. Mang nagaon sysems that obseive and iecognize images of the giound, piofles of altitude,
sequences of tuins, oi exteinal featuies (Section 109.7). They compaie theii obseivations to a stoied
database, often on compact disc.
109.4 Dead Reckuning
The simplest dead-ieckoning systems measuie vehicle heading and speed, iesolve speed into the navigation
cooidinates, then integiate to obtain position (Fig. 109.3). The oldest heading sensoi is the magnetic compass,
a magnetized needle oi electiically excited toioidal coie (called a [ux gate), as shown in Fig. 109.2. It measuies
the diiection of the eaith`s magnetic feld to an accuiacy of 2 degiees at a steady velocity below 60-degiees
magnetic latitude. The hoiizontal component of the magnetic feld points towaid magnet nor|. The angle
fiom tiue to magnetic noith is called magnet araon and is stoied in the computeis of modein vehicles as
a function of position ovei the iegion of anticipated tiavel Quinn, 1996]. Magnet Jeaons caused by iion
in the vehicle can exceed 30 degiees and must be compensated in the navigation computei oi, in oldei ships,
by placing compensating magnets neai the sensoi.
A moie complex heading sensoi is the gyrotomass, consisting of a spinning wheel whose axle is constiained
to the hoiizontal plane (often by a pendulum). The ships` veision points noith, when piopeily compensated
foi vehicle motion, and exhibits eiiois less than a degiee. The aiiciaft veision (moie piopeily called a Jretona|
gyrostoe) holds any pieset heading ielative to eaith and diifts at 50 deg/hi oi moie. Inexpensive gyioscopes
(some built on silicon chips as vibiating beams with on-chip signal conditioning) aie often coupled to magnetic
compasses to ieduce maneuvei-induced eiiois.
The simplest speed-sensoi is a wheel odometei that geneiates electiical pulses. Ships use a dynamic-piessuie
piobe oi an electiic-feld sensoi that measuies the speed of the hull thiough the conductive watei. Aiiciaft
FIGURE 109.2 Satuiated coie (ux-gate") magnetometei, mounted on a compass engine" boaid. The two oithogonal
sensing coils (visible) and the diive coil, wound on the toioidal coie, measuie two components of the magnetic feld in the
plane of the toioid. (Couitesy of KVH Industiies, Inc.)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
measuie the dynamic piessuie of the aii stieam fiom which they deiive aiispeed in an ar-Jaa computei. The
velocity of the wind oi sea cuiient must be vectoiially added to that of the vehicle, as measuied by a dynamic-
piessuie sensoi (Fig. 109.3). Hence, unpiedicted wind oi cuiient will intioduce an eiioi into the dead-ieckoning
computation. Most sensois aie insensitive to the component of aiispeed oi wateispeed noimal to theii axis
(|eeway in a ship, Jr[ in an aiiciaft). A Dopplei iadai measuies the fiequency shift in iadai ietuins fiom the
giound oi watei below the aiiciaft, fiom which speed is infeiied. A Dopplei sonai measuies a ship`s speed
ielative to the watei layei oi ocean ooi fiom which the beam ieects. Multibeam Dopplei iadais oi sonais
can measuie all the components of the vehicle`s velocity. Dopplei iadais aie widely used on militaiy helicopteis.
The most complex dead-ieckoning system is an nera| nagaor in which acceleiometeis measuie the
vehicle`s acceleiation while gyioscopes measuie the oiientation of the acceleiometeis. An on-boaid computei
iesolves the acceleiations into navigation cooidinates and integiates them to obtain velocity and position. The
gyioscopes and acceleiometeis aie mounted in eithei of two ways:
1. In seivoed gimbals that angulaily isolate them fiom iotations of the vehicle.
2. Fastened diiectly to the vehicle (stiap-down"), wheieupon the sensois aie exposed to the maximum
angulai iates and acceleiations of the vehicle (Fig. 109.4).
Ineitial-quality gyioscopes measuie vehicle oiientation within 0.1 degiee foi steeiing and pointing. Most
acceleiometeis consist of a giam-sized pioof-mass mounted on exuie pivots. The newest acceleiometeis, not
yet of ineitial giade, aie etched into silicon chips. Oldei gyioscopes contained metal wheels iotating in ball
beaiings oi gas beaiings. The newest gyioscopes aie evacuated cavities oi optical fbeis in which countei-
iotating lasei beams aie compaied in phase to measuie the sensoi`s angulai velocity ielative to inertial space
about an axis noimal to the plane of the beams. Vibiating hemispheies and iotating vibiating tines aie the
basis of some navigation-quality gyioscopes (diift iates less than 0.1 deg/h).
Fault-toleiant confguiations of cleveily oiiented iedundant gyioscopes and acceleiometeis (typically foui
to six) detect and coiiect sensoi failuies. Ineitial navigatois aie used aboaid naval ships, in aiilineis, in most
militaiy fxed-wing aiiciaft, in space boosteis and entiy vehicles, in manned spaceciaft, in tanks, and on laige
mobile aitilleiy pieces.
FIGURE 109.3 Geometiy of dead ieckoning.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
109.5 Radiu Navigatiun
Scoies of iadio navigation aids have been invented and many of them have been widely deployed, as summaiized
in Table 109.1.
The most piecise is the global positioning system (GPS), a netwoik of 24 satellites and a half-dozen giound
stations foi monitoiing and contiol. A vehicle deiives its thiee-dimensional position and velocity fiom ianging
signals at 1.575 GHz ieceived fiom foui oi moie satellites (militaiy useis also ieceive 1.227 GHz). The foimei
Soviet Union deployed a similai system, called GLONASS. GPS offeis bettei than 100-m ianging eiiois to civil
useis and 15-m ianging eiiois to militaiy useis. Simple ieceiveis weie available foi less than $300 in 1997.
They aie used on highways, in low-iise cities, at sea, in aiiciaft, and in low-oibit spaceciaft. GPS piovides
continuous woildwide navigation foi the fist time in histoiy. It will make dead ieckoning unnecessaiy on
many vehicles and will ieduce the cost of most navigation systems. Figuie 109.5 is an aitist`s diawing of a GPS
Block 2F spaceciaft, scheduled foi launch in the yeai 2002.
D[[erena| CPS (DGPS) employs one oi moie giound stations at known locations, that ieceive GPS signals
and tiansmit measuied eiiois on a iadio link to neaiby ships and aiiciaft. DGPS impioves accuiacy (centimeteis
foi fxed obseiveis) and detects faults in GPS satellites. In 1997, the U.S. was conducting expeiiments with a
nationwide DGPS system of about 25 stations. This VJe rea ugmenaon Sysem (WAAS) could eventually
ieplace VORTAC and Categoiy I ILS. A densei netwoik of DGPS stations and GPS-emulating pseudolites, whose
stations aie located at aiipoits, might ieplace ILS and MLS (below). In 1997, the cost, accuiacy, and ieliability
of such a Lota| rea ugmenaon Sysem (LAAS) weie still being compaied to existing landing aids but maiine
LAAS weie in opeiation foi navigation into haibois in Noith Ameiica, the Noith Sea, and the Baltic Sea.
The most widely used maiine iadio aid in 1997 was Loian-C (see Table 109.1). The 100-kHz signals aie
usable within 1000 nautical miles (nmi) of a chain" consisting of thiee oi foui stations. Chains covei the
United States, paits of westein Euiope, Japan, Saudi Aiabia, and a few othei aieas. The foimei Soviet Union
has a compatible system called Chaika. The vehicle-boine ieceivei measuies the diffeience in time of aiiival of
pulses emitted by two stations, thus locating the vehicle on one bianch of a hypeibola. Two oi moie station
paiis give a two-dimensional position fx whose typical accuiacy is 0.25 nmi, limited by piopagation uncei-
tainties ovei the teiiain between the tiansmitting station and the usei. The measuiement of 100-miciosecond
FIGURE 109.4 Ineitial iefeience unit. Two lasei gyioscopes (at discs), an acceleiometei, an electiical connectoi, and thiee
shock mounts aie visible. This unit is used in Aiibuses and many militaiy aiiciaft such as the F-18 and Comanche helicoptei.
(Couitesy of Litton Guidance and Contiol Systems.)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
time diffeience is possible with low-quality clocks in the vehicles. Loian is also used by geneial aviation aiiciaft
foi en-ioute navigation and foi nonpiecision appioaches to aiipoits (in which the cloud bottoms aie moie
than 200 feet above the iunway). Loian seivice will piobably be discontinued at the beginning of the 21st
centuiy.
The most widely used aiiciaft iadio aid is VORTAC, whose stations offei thiee seivices:
1. Analog beaiing measuiements at 108 to 118 MHz (called VOR). The vehicle compaies the phases of a
iotating caidioid pattein and an omnidiiectional sinusoid emitted by the giound station.
2. Pulse distance measuiements (DME) at 1 GHz by measuiing the time delay foi an aiiciaft to inteiiogate
a VORTAC station and ieceive a ieply,
3. Tacan beaiing infoimation conveyed in the amplitude modulation of the DME ieplies fiom the VORTAC
stations.
Omega is a woildwide iadio aid consisting of eight iadio stations that emit continuous sine waves at 10 to
13 kHz. Vehicles with piecise clocks measuie theii iange to a station by obseiving the absolute time of ieception.
Othei vehicles measuie the iange diffeiences between two stations in the foim of phase diffeiences between
the ieceived sinusoids. Diffeiential Omega cieates hypeibolic lanes" that aie 10 to 150 nmi wide. The lanes
aie indistinguishable fiom each othei by measuiing phase; hence the vehicle must count lanes fiom a point of
known position. Eiiois aie about 2 nmi due to iadio piopagation iiiegulaiities. Omega is used by submaiines,
TABLE 109.1 Woildwide Radio Navigation Aids
Fiequency
Numbei of
Numbei of Useis in 1996
System Hz Band Stations Aii Maiine Space Land
Omega 10-13 kHz VLF 8 15,000 10,000 0 0
Loian-C/Chaika 100 kHz LF 50 120,000 550,000 0 25,000
Decca 70-130 kHz LF 150 2,000 20,000 0 0
Beacons 200-1600 kHz MF 4000 130,000 500,000 0 0
Instiument Landing
{
108-112 MHz
329-335 MHz
VHF 1500 150,000 0 0 0
System (ILS) UHF
VOR 108-118 MHz VHF 1500 180,000 0 0 0
SARSAT/COSPAS 121.5 MHz
{
243,406 MHz
VHF 5 satellites 200,000 200,000 0 100,000
UHF
Tiansit 150, 400 MHz VHF 7 satellites 0 0 0 0
PLRS 420-450 MHz UHF None 0 0 0 2,000
JTIDS 960-1213 MHz L None 500 0 0 0
DME 962-1213 MHz L 1500 90,000 0 4 0
Tacan 962-1213 MHz L 850 15,000 0 4 0
Secondaiy Suiveillance 1030, 1090 MHz L 800 250,000 0 0 0
Radai (SSR)
Identifcation Fiiend
oi Foe (IFF)
GPS-GLONASS 1227, 1575 MHz L 24 - 24 satellites 120,000 275,000 4 125,000
Satellite Contiol
{
1760-1850 MHz
2200-2300 MHz
S 10 0 0 200 0
Netwoik (SCN) S
Spaceight Tiacking
{
2025-2150 MHz
2200-2300 MHz
S 3 satellites 0 0 50 0
and Data Netwoik 10 giound
(STDN)
Radai Altimetei 4200 MHz C None 20,000 0 0 0
MLS 5031-5091 MHz C 30 100 0 0 0
FPQ-6, FPQ-16 iadai 5.4-5.9 GHz C 10 0 0 0 0
Weathei/map iadai 10 GHz X None 10,000 0 0 0
Shuttle iendezvous iadai 13.9 GHz Ku None 0 0 4 0
Aiiboine Dopplei iadai 13-16 GHz Ku None 20,000 0 0 0
SPN-41 caiiiei-landing monitoi 15 GHz Ku 25 1600 0 0 0
SPN-42/46 caiiiei-landing iadai 33 GHz Ka 25 1600 0 0 0
Standaidized by Inteinational Civil Aviation Oiganization.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
ovei-ocean geneial-aviation aiiciaft, and a few inteinational aii caiiieis. It was scheduled to be decommissioned
in 1997.
Landing guidance thioughout the westein woild, and incieasingly in China, India, and the foimei Soviet
Union, is with the Instiument Landing System (ILS). Tiansmitteis adjacent to the iunway cieate a hoiizontal
guidance signal neai 110 MHz and a veitical guidance signal neai 330 MHz. Both signals aie modulated such
that the nulls inteisect along a line in space that leads an aiiciaft fiom a distance of about 10 nmi to within 50
ft above the iunway. ILS gives no infoimation about wheie the aiiciaft is located along the beam except at two
oi thiee veitical mar|er |eatons. Most ILS installations aie ceitifed to the Inteinational Civil Aviation Oiga-
nization`s (ICAO) Caegory I, wheie the pilot must aboit the landing if the iunway is not visible at an altitude
of 200 ft. One hundied ILSs (in 1996) weie ceitifed to Caegory II, which allows the aiiciaft to descend to 100
ft befoie aboiting foi lack of visibility. Caegory III allows an aiiciaft to land at still lowei weathei ceilings.
Categoiy III landing aids aie of special inteiest in Westein Euiope, which has the woist ying weathei in the
developed woild. Categoiy III ILS detects its own failuies and switches to a iedundant channel within one
second to piotect aiiciaft that aie aiing-out (within 50 ft of the iunway) and can no longei execute a missed
appioach. Once above the iunway, the aiiciaft`s bottom-mounted iadai altimetei measuies altitude and eithei
the electionics oi the pilot guides the aie maneuvei. Landing aids aie desciibed by Kayton and Fiied 1997].
Thioughout the westein woild, civil aiiciaft use VOR/DME wheieas militaiy aiiciaft use Tacan/DME foi
en-ioute navigation. In the 1990s, China and the successoi states to the Soviet Union weie installing ICAO-
standaid navigation aids (VOR, DME, ILS) at theii inteinational aiipoits and along the coiiidois that lead to
them fiom the boideis. Oveiying westein aiiciaft navigate ineitially, with Omega, oi with GPS. Domestic
ights within the Soviet Union depended on iadai tiacking, non-diiectional beacons, and an L-band iange-
angle system called RSBN". They will eventually upgiade to a satellite-based enioute and landing system.
U.S. Navy aiiciaft use a miciowave scanning system at 15.6 GHz to land on aiiciaft caiiieis; NASA`s space
shuttle uses the Navy system to land at its spacepoits. Anothei miciowave landing system (MLS) at 5 GHz was
supposed to ieplace the ILS in civil opeiations, especially foi Categoiies II and III. Howevei, expeiiments fiom
FIGURE 109.5 Global positioning satellite, Block 2F. (Couitesy of Rockwell.)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
1990 to 1997 showed that diffeiential GPS could achieve an accuiacy bettei than 1 m as a landing aid. Hence,
it is likely that a LAAS will ieplace oi supplement ILS, which has been guaianteed to iemain in seivice at least
until the yeai 2010 (Fedeial Radionavigation Plan). NATO may use MLS oi a LAAS as a poitable landing aid
foi tactical aiistiips.
All the space-faiing nations opeiate woildwide iadio netwoiks that tiack spaceciaft, compute theii state
vectois, and piedict futuie state vectois using complex models of giavity, atmospheiic diag, and lunisolai
peituibations. NASA opeiates thiee tiacking and data ielay satellites (TDRS) that tiack spaceciaft in low eaith
oibit with accuiacies of 10 to 50 m and 0.3 m/s. Specialized giound-based tiacking stations monitoi and ieposition
the woild`s many communication satellites Beilin, 1988]. Othei specialized stations tiack and communicate with
deep space piobes. They achieve accuiacies of 30 m and a few centimeteis pei second, even at enoimous intei-
planetaiy distances, due to long peiiods of obseivation and piecise oibit equations (see Yuan, 1983]).
Position-location and position-iepoiting systems monitoi the state vectois of many vehicles and usually
display the data in a contiol ioom oi dispatch centei. Some vehicles deiive theii state vectoi fiom the ianging
modulations; otheis meiely iepoit an independently deiived position. Table 109.1 lists SetonJary Sure||ante
RaJars that ieceive coded ieplies fiom aiiciaft so they can be identifed by human contiolleis and by collision-
avoidance algoiithms. The table also lists the U.S. NASA and militaiy spaceciaft-tiacking netwoiks (STDN and
SCN). Tiacking and iepoiting systems have long been in use at maiine poits, foi aiiplane tiaffc contiol and
foi space vehicles. They aie incieasingly being installed in fie tiucks, police cais, ambulances, and deliveiy-
tiuck eets that iepoit to a contiol centei. The aeionautical buieauciacy calls them uomat DeenJen
Sure||ante (ADS) systems. The continuous bioadcast of on-boaid-deiived position (piobably GPS-based)
may become the basis of the woildwide aii tiaffc contiol system of the eaily 21st centuiy.
Seveial commeicial communication satellites plan to offei digital-ianging seivices woildwide. The inteimit-
tent natuie of commeicial fxes would iequiie that vehicles dead-ieckon between fxes, peihaps using solid-
state ineitial instiuments. Thus, if taxpayeis insist on collecting fees foi seivice, piivate comm-nav netwoiks
may ieplace the goveinment-funded GPS and aii-tiaffc communication netwoik in the next centuiy. Woild-
wide tiaffc contiol ovei oceans and undeveloped land aieas would become possible.
Militaiy communication-navigation systems measuie the position of aii, land, and naval vehicles on battle-
felds and iepoit to headquaiteis; examples aie the Ameiican Joint Tactical Infoimation Distiibution System
(JTIDS) and the Position Location Repoiting System (PLRS).
A woildwide netwoik of SARSAT-COSPAS stations monitois signals fiom satellite-based tianspondeis lis-
tening on 121.5, 243, and 406 MHz, the thiee inteinational distiess fiequencies. Softwaie at the listening stations
calculates the position of Emeigency Location Tiansmitteis within 20 kilometeis, based on the obseived
Dopplei-shift histoiy, so that iescue vehicles can be dispatched. Thousands of lives have been saved woild-
wide, fiom aictic bush-pilots to tiopical fsheimen.
109.6 Ce!estia! Navigatiun
Human navigatois use sextants to measuie the elevation angle of celestial bodies above the visible hoiizon. The
peak elevation angle occuis at local noon oi midnight:
elev angle (degiees) 90 - latitude - declination
Thus at local noon oi midnight, latitude can be calculated by simple aiithmetic. Tables of declination, the angle
of the sun oi stai above the eaith`s equatoiial plane, weie pait of the ancient navigatoi`s piopiietaiy loie. The
declination of the sun was fist publicly tabulated in the ffteenth centuiy in Spain. When time became
measuiable at sea, with a chionometei in the nineteenth centuiy and by iadio in the twentieth centuiy, off-
meiidian obseivations of the elevation of two oi moie celestial bodies weie possible at any known time of night
(cloud covei peimitting). These fxes weie hand-calculated using logaiithms, then plotted on chaits. In the
1930s, hand-held sextants weie built that measuied the elevation of celestial bodies fiom an aiiciaft using a
bubble-level iefeience instead of the hoiizon. The accuiacy of celestial fxes was 3-10 miles at sea and 5-20 miles
in the aii, limited by the unceitainty in the hoiizon and the inability to make piecise angulai measuiements
on a pitching, iolling vehicle. Kayton (1990) ieviews the histoiy of celestial navigation at sea and in the aii.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
The fist automatic stai tiackeis weie built in the late 1950s. They measuied the azimuth and elevation of
stais ielative to a gyioscopically stabilized platfoim. Appioximate position measuiements by dead ieckoning
allowed the telescope to point within a fiaction of a degiee of the desiied stai. Thus, a naiiow feld-of-view
was possible, peimitting the telescope and photodetectoi to tiack stais in the daytime. An on-boaid computei
stoied the iight ascension and declination of 20-100 stais and computed the vehicle`s position. Automatic stai
tiackeis aie used in long-iange militaiy aiiciaft and on space shuttles in conjunction with ineitial navigatois.
Clevei design of the optics and of stellai-ineitial signal-piocessing flteis achieves accuiacies bettei than 500 ft
Kayton and Fiied, 1997].
Spaceciaft use the line-of-sight to the sun and stais to measuie oiientation (foi auJe tonro|). Eaith-
pointing spaceciaft usually caiiy hoiizon scanneis that locate the centei of the eaith`s caibon-dioxide disc. All
spaceciaft navigate by iadio tiacking fiom eaith. When inteiplanetaiy spaceciaft appioach the taiget planet,
the navigation computeis (on eaith) tiansfoim fiom sun-centeied to planet-centeied cooidinates by obseiving
stai occultations and tiansmitting the images to eaith foi human inteipietation. Duiing the Apollo tianslunai
missions, ciews expeiimentally measuied the angle between celestial bodies and the eaith oi moon with a
specially designed manual sextant coupled to a digital computei which calculated the state vectoi. Othei
expeiiments have been made in which Ameiican and Soviet ciews used manual sextants to obseive the angle
between celestial bodies and landmaiks on eaith, fiom which state vectois weie calculated. Autonomous land
vehicles on othei planets and ceitain militaiy spaceciaft may need celestial navigation.
109.7 Map-Matching Navigatiun
As computei powei giows, map-matching navigation is becoming moie impoitant. On aiiciaft, mapping iadais
and optical sensois piesent a visual image of the teiiain to the ciew. Automatic map-matcheis have been built,
since the 1960s, that coiielate the obseived image to stoied images, choosing the closest match to update the
dead-ieckoned state vectoi. Moie commonly, aiiciaft and ciuise missiles measuie the veitical piofle of the
teiiain below the vehicle and match it to a stoied piofle. Matching piofles, peihaps houily, ieduces the long-
teim diift of theii ineitial navigatois. The piofle of the teiiain is measuied by subtiacting the ieadings of a
baio-ineitial altimetei (calibiated foi altitude above sea level) and a iadai altimetei (measuiing teiiain cleai-
ance). An on-boaid computei calculates the autocoiielation function between the measuied piofle and each
of many stoied piofles on possible paiallel paths of the vehicle. The on-boaid ineitial navigatoi usually contains
a digital fltei that coiiects the diift of the azimuth gyioscope as a sequence of fxes is obtained. Hence the
diiection of ight thiough the stoied map is known, saving the consideiable computation time that would be
needed to coiielate foi an unknown azimuth of the ight path. Maiine veisions piofle the seaooi with a
sonai and compaie the measuied piofle to stoied bottom maps.
GPS is adequate foi automotive navigation except in high-iise cities, in tunnels, and on stieets with heavy
foliage. To fll coveiage gaps, map-matching softwaie can take advantage of the fact that the vehicle iemains
on ioads. On the highway, dead-ieckoning oi GPS eiiois can be iectifed to the neaiest ioad. In cities, tuins
can be coiielated with the neaiest inteisection of matching geometiy. An accuiacy of seveial meteis is possible
if all stieets aie included on the stoied map (e.g., alleys, diiveways, and paiking gaiages).
The most complex mapping systems obseive theii suiioundings, usually by digitized video, and cieate theii
own map of the suiiounding teiiain. Guidance softwaie then steeis the vehicle. In 1997, such systems weie in
development foi hazaidous sites such as nucleai plants, waste-disposal facilities, and battlefelds, and foi
unmanned planetaiy exploiation.
Deliveiy iobots in buildings aie fuinished with a map and need only fnd theii successive destinations while
avoiding obstacles. They navigate by following stiipes on the ooi, by obseiving infiaied beacons, oi by
obseiving the ietuins fiom on-boaid ultiasonic sonai oi lasei iadai.
109.8 Navigatiun Sultvare
Navigation softwaie is sometimes embedded in a cential piocessoi with othei avionic-system softwaie, some-
times confned to one oi moie navigation computeis. The navigation softwaie contains algoiithms and data
2000 by CRC Press LLC
that piocess the measuiements made by each sensoi (e.g., ineitial oi aii data). It contains calibiation constants,
initialization sequences, self-test algoiithms, ieasonability tests, and alteinative algoiithms foi peiiods when
sensois have failed oi aie not ieceiving infoimation. In the simplest systems, the state vectoi is calculated
independently fiom each sensoi; most often, the navigation softwaie contains multisensoi algoiithms that
calculate the best estimate of position and velocity fiom seveial sensois. Piioi to 1970, the best estimate was
calculated fiom a least squaies algoiithm with constant weighting functions oi fiom a fiequency-domain fltei
with constant coeffcients. Now, a Ka|man f|er calculates the best estimate fiom mathematical models of the
dynamics of each sensoi.
Digital maps, often stoied on compact disc, aie caiiied on some aiiciaft and land vehicles so position can
be visually displayed to the ciew. Militaiy aiiciaft supeiimpose theii navigated position on a stoied map of
teiiain and cultuial featuies to aid in the penetiation of and escape fiom enemy teiiitoiy. Civil opeiatois had
not invested in digital data bases as of 1996. Algoiithms foi waypoint steeiing and foi contiol of the vehicle`s
attitude aie contained in the softwaie of the [g| managemen and [g| tonro| subsystems.
Specially equipped aiiciaft (sometimes ships) aie often used foi the ioutine calibiation of iadio navigation
aids, speed and velocity sensois, heading sensois, and new algoiithms.
109.9 Design Trade-Olls
The designeis of a navigation system conduct tiade-offs foi each vehicle to deteimine which navigation systems
to use. Tiadeoffs considei the following attiibutes:
Cos, including the constiuction and maintenance of tiansmittei stations and the puichase of on-boaid
electionics and softwaie. Useis aie conceined only with the costs of on-boaid haidwaie and softwaie.
tturaty of position and velocity, which is specifed as a ciiculai eiioi piobable (CEP, in meteis oi
nautical miles). The maximum allowable CEP is often based on the calculated iisk of collision on a
typical mission.
CS SITIIC SYSTN
ILIVRS HICH ACCIRACY
system foi ieal-time diffeiential GPS (DGPS) positioning will delivei submetei accuiacy to Eaith
satellites and giound-based useis woildwide. Developed at NASA`s Jet Piopulsions Laboiatoiy,
the system could impiove ieal-time position accuiacy to a few decimeteis foi single-fiequency
useis and 10 cm oi bettei foi dual fiequency useis. In addition to high accuiacy, the system piovides
neaily complete sepaiation of GPS oibit and clock coiiections and continuous deteimination of intei-
fiequency delay biases foi all GPS satellites and iefeience ieceiveis.
Key featuies include: the use of dynamic oibit estimation, which depends on high-accuiacy satellite
foice models, signal models, geophysical models, and geometiic models, in a Kalman fltei foimulation;
use of ieal-time stochastic estimation to minimize oibit and clock eiiois aiising fiom quasi-iandom
vaiiations in atmospheiic piopagation ielays and solai iadiation piessuie; simultaneous piocessing of
smoothed pseudoiange and continuous caiiiei phase data; and use of the stable solai-magnetic iefeience
fiame, iathei than an Eaith-fxed fiame, in computing the ionospheie coiiections.
System opeiation began in Januaiy 1997. Eaily tests show appioximate usei diffeiential iange eiiois
of less than 20 cm thioughout the coveiage aiea, with a Noith Ameiican iefeience netwoik only. Moie
compiehensive tests with additional global iefeience sites will be conducted. (Repiinted with peimission
of NS Tet| Bre[s, 20(10), 30, 1996).
A
2000 by CRC Press LLC
uonomy, the extent to which the vehicle deteimines its own position and velocity without exteinal
aids. Autonomy is impoitant to ceitain militaiy vehicles and to civil vehicles opeiating in aieas of
inadequate iadio-navigation coveiage.
Tme Je|ay in calculating position and velocity, caused by computational and sensoi delays.
Ceogra|t toerage. Radio systems opeiating below 100 kHz can be ieceived beyond line of sight on
eaith; those opeiating above 100 MHz aie confned to line of sight. On othei planets, new navigation
aids-peihaps navigation satellites oi giound stations-will be installed,
uomaon. The vehicle`s opeiatoi (on-boaid ciew oi giound contiollei) ieceives a diiect ieading of
position, velocity, and equipment status, usually without human inteivention. The navigatoi`s ciew
station disappeaied in aiiciaft in the 1970s. Human navigatois aie becoming scaice, even on ships, in
the 1990s, because electionic equipment automatically selects stations, calculates waypoint steeiing, and
accommodates failuies.
Dehning Terms
Circular Error Probable (CEP): Radius of a ciicle, centeied at the destination, that contains 50% of the
navigation measuiements fiom a laige sample.
Ecliptic: Plane of eaith`s oibit aiound the sun.
Inertial Space: Any cooidinate fiame whose oiigin is on a fieely falling (oibiting) body and whose axes aie
noniotating ielative to the fxed stais. It is defnable within 10
-7
degiee/h.
Lanes: Hypeibolic bands on the eaith`s suiface in which continuous-wave iadio signals iepeat in phase.
Nautical Mile (nmi): 1852 m, exactly. Appioximately 1 min of aic on the eaith`s suiface.
State vector: Six-component vectoi, thiee of whose elements aie position and thiee of whose elements aie
velocity.
Update: The inteimittent iesetting of the dead-ieckoned state vectoi based on absolute navigation measuie-
ments (see Section 109.3).
Re!ated Tupic
102.2 Communications Satellite Systems: Applications
Relerences
R.H. Battin, n InroJuton o |e Ma|emats anJ Me|oJs o[ sroJynamts, Washington: AIAA Piess, 1987,
796 pp.
P. Beilin, T|e Ceosaonary |taons Sae||e, Cambiidge: Cambiidge Univeisity Piess, 1988, 214 pp.
N. Bowditch, T|e mertan Pratta| Nagaor, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Goveinment Piinting Offce, 1995,
873 pp.
M. Kayton, Nagaon. LanJ, Sea, r, anJ Sate, New Yoik: IEEE Piess, 1990, 461 pp.
M. Kayton and W.R. Fiied, onts Nagaon Sysems, 2nd ed., New Yoik: Wiley, 1997, 773 pp.
R.A. Minznei, T|e U.S. SanJarJ mos|ere 1976, NOAA Repoit 76-1562, NASA SP-390, 1976 oi latest edition,
227 pp.
NASA, Sate Newor| Users CuJe, Gieenbelt, Md.: Goddaid Space Flight Centei, 1988 oi latest edition, 500 pp.
B.W. Paikinson and J.J. Spilkei, Eds., C|o|a| Posonng Sysem, T|eory anJ |taons, Ameiican Institute of
Aeionautics and Astionautics, 1996, 1300 pp., 2 vols.
J. Quinn, 1995 ievision of joint U.S./U.K. geomagnetic feld models," J. Ceomagnesm anJ Ceo-E|etrty, 1996.
U.S. Aii Foice, NVSTR-CPS Iner[ate Conro| Dotumen, Annapolis, Md.: ARINC Reseaich, 1991, 115 pp.
U.S. Goveinment, FeJera| RaJonagaon P|an, Depaitment of Tianspoitation, 1996, 229 pp., issued biennially
WGS-84, U.S. Defense Mapping Agency, Vor|J CeoJet Sysem 1984, Washington, D.C.: 1991.
J. Yuen, Dee Sate Te|etommuntaon Sysems Engneerng, New Yoik: Plenum Piess, 1983, 603 pp.
Y. Zhao, Ve|t|e Lotaon anJ Nagaon Sysems, Massachusetts: Aitech House, 1997, 345 pp.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Further Inlurmatiun
IEEE Transatons on erosate anJ E|etront Sysems, bimonthly thiough 1991, now quaiteily.
Pioceedings of the IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), biennially.
Nagaon, jouinal of the U.S. Institute of Navigation, quaiteily.
Journa| o[ Nagaon, Royal Institute of Navigation (UK), quaiteily.
I Journa| o[ CuJante anJ Conro|, bimonthly.
Commeicial aeionautical standaids pioduced by Inteinational Civil Aviation Oiganization (ICAO, Montieal),
Aeionautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC, Annapolis, Md.), Radio Technical Commission foi Aeionautics (RTCA,
Inc., Washington) and Euiopean Oiganization foi Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE, Paiis).