Engg Seismology

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY 1
INTRODUCTION
Engineering Seismology is a branch of geology which

deals with the study of earthquakes and the sources producing
them. An Earthquake is a sudden movement of earth’s crust or
lithosphere at or below the surface. Seismologists are a scientist
who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.
Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the
propagation of elastic waves through the Earth. The field also
includes studies of earthquake effects, such as tsunamis as well
as diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic,
atmospheric, and artificial processes (such as explosions). A
related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past
earthquakes is paleoseismology. A recording of earth motion as a
function of time is called a seismogram. Earthquakes are the
earth’s natural means of releasing the stress. About 90% of the
earthquakes result from tectonic events, primarily movements on
the faults. The remaining is related to volcanism, collapse of
subterranean cavities or man made effects. Tectonic earthquakes
are caused when the accumulated strain energy exceeds the
shearing strength of rocks. The two general types of vibrations
produced by earthquakes are surface waves, which travel along
the Earth's surface, and body waves, which travel through the
Earth. The first indication of an earthquake is often a sharp thud,
signalling the arrival of compressional waves. The vibrations
produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured
by instruments call seismographs. The zigzag line made by a
seismograph, called a "seismogram," reflects the changing
U V C E, BANGALORE UNIVERSITY
intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the

ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data expressed
in seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the
epicentre, the focal depth, and the type of faulting of an
earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released.
The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in
several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake, usually expressed
by the Richter scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic
waves. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are
commonly considered major; great earthquakes have magnitude
of 8 or more on the Richter scale. Earthquakes of large
magnitude do not necessarily cause the most intense surface
effects. The effect in a given region depends to a large degree on
local surface and subsurface geologic conditions. An area
underlain by unstable ground (sand, clay, or other unconsolidated
materials), for example, is likely to experience much more
noticeable effects than an area equally distant from an
earthquake's epicentre but underlain by firm ground such as
granite. In general, earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains
affect a much larger area than earthquakes west of the Rockies.
An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In
addition to magnitude and the local geologic conditions, these
factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicentre,
and the design of buildings and other structures. The extent of
damage also depends on the density of population and
construction in the area shaken by the quake. Elastic rebound
theory provides the physics involved behind the earthquake
genesis.
This report includes elastic rebound theory, plate

tectonics, earthquake size, earthquake frequency and energy,
seismic waves, local site effects on the ground motion
characteristics, interior of the earth and seismicity of India.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
EARTH QUAKES are classified into two following types
1) Natural earthquakes.
2) Man-Made earthquakes.
Natural earthquakes includes the tectonic earthquakes, the

volcanic eruptions (fig 1.0), collapse of the cavity, rock falls,
micro seism,
Man-made earthquakes include the nuclear explosions,

construction of reservoirs, mining activities, traffic, noise...
The type of earthquake depends on the region where it occurs

and the geological make-up of that region. The most common are
tectonic earthquakes. These occur when rocks in the earth's crust
break due to geological forces created by movement of tectonic
plates. Another type, volcanic occurs in conjunction with volcanic
activity. Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in
underground caverns and mines, and explosion earthquakes
result from the explosion of nuclear and chemical devices. We
can measure motion from large tectonic earthquakes using GPS
because rocks on either side of a fault are offset during this type
of earthquake.
Fig 1.0: Volcanic eruption.
Formation of Earth and its Interior
Long time ago, a huge collection of material masses called as

“nebulae” coalesced to form Earth. A huge amount of heat
was released due to fusion reaction. Slowly as earth cooled
down, heavier and denser materials settled at the centre and
lighter ones rose to top. The differential earth consists of the
(FIG 2.0) inner core (radius 1290 km), the outer core
(thickness 2200 km), the mantle (thickness 2900km) and the
crust (thickness 5 to 40 km). The inner core is solid and
consists of heavy metals like nickel, iron... while the crust
consists of light materials like basalts and granites.
Fig 2.0: CROSS SECTION OF EARTH
Convection currents develop in the viscous mantle

due to prevailing high temperatures and pressure gradients
between the crust and the core, like the convective flow of
water when heated in a beaker. The energy for the
circulations is derived from the heat produced from the decay
of radioactive elements in the rocks throughout the earth’s
interior.
These convective currents result in a circulation of the earth’s
mass; the temperature difference causes interlayer
movement. The hot molten lava rises and cold rock mass sinks
into the earth.
FIG 3.0: CIRCULATIONS INSIDE THE EARTH
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
PLATE TECTONICS deals with the study of the motion

and deformation of the Earth’s crust. This type of study is
based on the theory that the lithosphere is divided into seven
major and several minor plates that are all moving in relation
to each other as well as in relation to fixed “Hot Spots” which
are areas of up welling mantle material. Plates move in
different direction and at different speeds relative to each
other. Plate tectonic theory tries to account for the movement
of the crust throughout geologic time. Motion of crust is that
of a rigid body, which accounts for the style of deformation we
see.
Plate tectonic theory is based on several assumptions
about tectonic processes: 1) that new material is generated by
sea floor spreading at the mid ocean ridges, which once
formed become a part of a plate, 2) that surface area is
conserved, therefore plate material must be destroyed

through another process, and 3) motion of plates is
accommodated only along plate boundaries.
FIG 4.0: TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY
Plates are rigid bodies of rock that essentially float

atop a region of partial melt called the asthenosphere. The
plates comprise the lithosphere, composed of the crust and
the solid portion of the upper mantle. The crust is of two basic
types, continental and oceanic, that differ on the basis of
composition. (FIG 4.0)
Continental crust is mostly of granitic composition. This
means that the rocks contain an abundance of quartz and
feldspars, which are called Felsic minerals. Oceanic crust, on
the other hand, is of basaltic composition. Basalts contain
minerals such as olivine and plagioclase feldspar, which are
called mafic minerals. The two different types of crust differ

in density and thickness as well as in composition--continental
crust is much less dense than oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is 7-
10 km thick, while continental crust is 35-70 km thick.
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
Sliding tectonic plates due to circulation causing an increase in

“elastic strain energy” which gets released along the weaker
region (faults). These sudden slip at the fault causes the
earthquake. Elastic strain energy is released in huge amount
that spreads waves which travel along the surface and through
the body of the earth. After earthquake, strain energy build
up at the modified interface between rocks starts once again,
this stage is termed “elastic rebound theory” by Mr. Reid. The
cyclic process of energy build up and energy release is an
ever-ongoing process.
Following the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Henry
Fielding Reid examined the displacement of the ground
surface around the San Andreas Fault. From his observations
he concluded that the earthquake must have been the result
of the elastic rebound of previously stored elastic strain
energy in the rocks on either side of the fault. In an
interseismic period the earth's plates (see plate tectonics)
move relative to each other except at most plate boundaries
where they are locked. Thus if a road is built across the fault
as in the figure panel Time 1 it is perpendicular to the fault
FIG 5.1: ROADS GETTING DISPLACED WHICH IS BUILT ON FAULT
trace at the point E where the fault is locked. The far field
plate motions (large arrows) cause the rocks in the region of
the locked fault to accrue elastic deformation, figure panel
Time 2. The deformation builds at the rate of a few
centimetres per year, over a time period of many years. When
the accumulated strain is great enough to overcome the
strength of the rocks an earthquake occurs. During the
earthquake the portions of the rock around the fault that were
locked and had not moved 'spring' back, relieving the
displacement in a few seconds that the plates moved over the
entire interseismic period (D1 and D2 in Time 3). The time
period between Time 1 and Time 2 could be months to
hundreds of years, while the change from Time 2 to Time 3 is
seconds. Like an elastic band the more the rocks are strained
the more elastic energy is stored and the greater potential for
the event. The stored energy is released during the rupture
partly as heat, partly in damaging the rock and partly as elastic
waves. Modern measurements using GPS largely support Reid’s
theory as the basis of seismic movement, though actual events
are often more complicated.
FIG 5.2: PICTURE SHOWING THE WOOD BUILT COMPOUND

DISPLACED ALONG THE FAULT
EARTHQUAKE OCCURANCE
Rocks are elastic materials and so elastic strain energy stored in

them during the deformation due to tectonic plate actions in the
earth. When rocks along a weaker region in the crust are
exceeded by the strength by build up of stress, sudden movement
or slips takes place. Slip releases the large strain energy stored in
the form of seismic wave causing an earthquake.
SEISMIC WAVES
Three basic types of elastic waves make up the shaking that is

felt and causes damage in an earthquake (fig 6.0). These waves
are similar in many important ways to the observed waves in air,
water and elastic solids, but only two of these waves propagate
within a body of solid rock and soil. The faster of these body
waves is appropriately called the primary or P wave. Its motion is
the same as that of a sound wave, in that, as it spreads out, it
alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock.
These P waves, just like acoustic waves, are able to travel
through both solid rock, such as granite and alluvium, and liquid
material, such as volcanic magma and the water of lakes and
oceans.
The slower seismic wave through rocks and soil is called the
secondary or S wave. As an S wave propagates, it shears the rocks
sideways at right angles to the direction of travel. Thus, at the
ground surface, S waves can produce both vertical (SV) and
horizontal (SH) motions. The S waves cannot propagate in the
liquid parts of the earth, such as lakes, so that, as expected from
the theory, their amplitudes are significantly reduced in partially
liquefied soil. The speed of P and S seismic waves depends on the
density and elastic properties of the rocks and soil through which
they pass. In earthquakes, P waves are felt first. The effect is
similar to a sonic boom that bumps and rattles windows. Some
seconds later, S waves arrive with their significant component of
side to side motion, so that, for upward wave incidence, the
ground shaking is both vertical and horizontal.
The third basic type of earthquake wave is called s surface wave

because its motion is restricted to near the Earth’s surface. Such
waves correspond to ocean waves that do not disturb the water
at depth. Similarly, as the depth below the ground surface
increases, the soil or rock displacements decrease.
Surface waves in earthquakes are of two types. The first is called
a Love wave. Its motion is the same as that of SH waves as that
have no vertical displacement; it moves the ground side to side
in a horizontal plane parallel to the earth’s surface, but at right
angles to the direction of propagation. The second type of
surface wave is called a Rayleigh wave. Like ocean waves, the
particles of rock displaced by a Rayleigh wave move both
vertically and horizontally in a vertical plane oriented in the
direction in which the waves are travelling. Each point in the
rock moves in an ellipse as the waves pass.
Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves and love
waves travel faster than Rayleigh waves in the same geological
formation. It follows that as the seismic waves radiate outward
from the earthquake point source into the rocks of the earth’s
crust, the different types of waves separate out from one
another in a predictable pattern. However, because large
earthquake sources are spacially extended faults, overlapping
waves often obscure this separation of wave types.
As body seismic waves move through layers of rock in the crust
they are reflected or refracted at the interfaces between rock
types. To complicate matters further, whenever either one is
reflected and refracted; some of the energy of one type is
converted to waves of the other type. When the elastic moduli
differ from one layer to another, the layers act as wave filters
that amplify the waves at some frequencies and de amplify them
at others. Marked resonance effects occur at certain frequencies.
On P and S waves reaching the surface of the ground, most of
their energy is reflected back into the crust, so that the surface
is affected almost simultaneously by upward and downward
moving waves. For this reason considerable amplification of
shaking typically occurs near the surface-sometimes doubling the
Fig 6.0: Seismic waves
Amplitude of the upcoming waves. This surface amplification

enhances the shaking damage produced at the surface of the
earth. In deed, in many earthquakes mineworkers below ground
report less shaking than do people on the surface.
It should be noted that seismic S waves travel through the rocks
and soils of the earth with a rotational component. Such torsional
components of ground motion are thought to have important
effects on the response of certain types of structures. Some
building codes now take rotational ground motion into
consideration.
FAULTS
Surfaces of the earth along which rocks have fractured and been
displaced are called as faults. A fault, in the geologic sense, is a
roughly planar fracture in the earth’s crust along which slip--the
relative offset of the two sides--has occurred. Faults can be
active, meaning that they currently hold the potential for
producing earthquakes, or inactive, meaning that although they
once slipped and produced earthquakes, they are now “frozen”
solid. If the tectonic environment of an area changes, however,
inactive faults can sometimes be activated.
In terms of size, faults can be anywhere from less than a meter
to over a thousands of kilometre in length, with a width of a
similar scale. The depth of very large faults is constrained by the
thickness of that portion of the earth’s crust and lithosphere in
which brittle fracture can occur. Large faults can also produce
minor earthquakes, if they rupture only in part, and not along
their entire length.

This is one of the basic connections between faults and the
earthquakes they generate. With few exceptions, the size of the
fault rupture area is directly proportional to the size of the
earthquake produced by the slip along that area. In other words,
the greater the fault area that slips, the greater the earthquake
produced. Though, the actual rupture area of an earthquake is
not always equal to the total surface area of the fault that
ruptures--often, only a small fraction of the total area actually
slips.
Three types of faults are strike slip fault, normal fault and
reverse fault. The dip of a fault is the angle that the fault
surface makes with a horizontal plane and the strike is the
direction of the fault line exposed or projected at the ground
surface relative to the north. A strike-slip fault, sometimes called
a transcurrent fault, involves displacements of rock laterally,
parallel to the strike. If when we stand on one side of the fault
and see that the motion on the other side is from left to right,
the fault is right-lateral strike slip. Similarly, we can identify left-
lateral strike slip. A dip-slip fault is one in which the motion is
largely parallel to the dip of the fault and thus has vertical
components of displacements. A normal fault is one in which the
rock above the inclined fault surface moves downward relative to
the underlying crust. Faults with an almost vertical slip are also
included in this category.
Fig 7.1: Three types of fault
A reverse fault is one in which the crust above the inclined fault
surface moves upward relative to the block below the fault.
Thrust faults belong to this category but are generally restricted
to cases when the dip angle is small. In blind thrust faults, the
slip surface does not penetrate to the ground surface. In most
cases, fault slip is a mixture of strike slip and dip slip and is
called oblique faulting.
For over a decade it has been known that displacement in fault
zones occurs not only by sudden rupture producing an earthquake
but also by slow differential slippage of the sides of the fault.
The fault is said to be undergoing tectonic creep. Slippage rates
range from a few millimetres to several centimetres so that over
time they may have critical engineering consequences.

Sometimes a seismic slip is observed at the ground surface along
or in the vicinity of a ruptured faults that as produced an earlier
substantial earthquake.
Three main types of faulting characterizes the plate boundary,
normal faulting is associated with crustal extension and so can be
found at divergent boundaries, reverse faulting is associated with
crustal shortening and so can be found at convergent boundaries
and strike slip faulting is associated with lateral motion of the
crust and so can be found at transform boundaries.
Fig 7.2: Three types of plate

boundary
AN INERTIA FORCES IN STRUCTURES
Earthquakes shake the ground. A building resting on it will

initially experience motion at its base. From Newton’s first law of
motion, even though the base of the building moves with the
ground, the roof has a tendency to stay in its original position.
But since the walls and columns are connected to it, they drag
the roof along with them. This is much like the situation that you
are faced with when the bus you are standing in suddenly starts;
your feet move with the bus, but your upper body tends to stay
back making you fall backwards!! This tendency to continue to
remain in the previous position is known as INERTIA. In the
building, since the walls or columns are flexible, the motion of
the roof is different from that of the ground.
Consider a building whose roof is supported on columns. Coming

back to the analogy of yourself on the bus: when the bus
suddenly starts, you are thrown backwards as if someone has
applied a force on the upper body. Similarly, when the ground
moves, even the building is thrown backwards, and the roof
experiences a force, called inertia force. If the roof has a mass M
and experiences an acceleration a, then from Newton’s second
law of motion, the inertia force F1 us M times acceleration a, and
its direction is opposite to that of the acceleration. Clearly, more
mass means higher inertia force. Therefore, lighter buildings
sustain the earthquake shaking better.
DETECTION AND RECORDING
Earthquakes vary in size. Those that do the most damage are

extremely large, but some are so small they are almost
undetectable.
Geologists use seismographs to record the surface and body
waves. Inside a seismograph designed to measure horizontal
motion (FIG 8.1), a weight is freely suspended. As waves from
earthquakes reach the seismograph the mass stays in relatively
the same place, while the ground and support move around it.
This movement is recorded on magnetic tape by a pen attached
to the mass. In a seismograph designed to measure vertical
motion (FIG 8.2), the mass is connected to a spring, so as the
ground and support move up and down, the pen on the mass
measures the vertical motion. The metal tape which the motion
is recorded on is marked with lines that correspond to one
minute intervals. When motion is recorded a seismogram is
created, which tells about the waves; how big they were and how
long they lasted. P waves are recorded first, followed by S
waves. While surface waves are the last to reach the
seismograph, they last the longest time.
Using the information from the seismogram, the epicentre and
focus of the earthquake can be determined. The focus is the
point on the fault at which the first movement or break
occurred. The epicentre is the point on the surface directly
above the focus. Once several seismograph stations have
determined their distance from the epicentre, the actual
epicentre can be located, using triangulation, on a map.
FIG 8.1: HORIZONTAL SEISMOGRAPH
FIG 8.2: VERTICAL SEISMOGRAPH
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
Seismic intensity is assessed from field observations of damage to

works of humans, of changes to the ground surface and of human
reaction to the shaking. Because such earthquake intensity
assessments do not depend on instruments, but on the actual
reporting of the effects in the meizoseismal zone, intensities can
be assigned even to historical earthquakes, and in this way, still
form a vital part of modern estimates of seismological risk.
In the United States, the traditional intensity scale is the
Modified Mercalli Scale (MMI) of 1931. Essentially similar scales
are used in other countries. MMI (TABLE 1.0) has 12 levels, I
through XII, and its description is widely available. An inherent
weakness in the MMI and most other scales is the difficulty in
inferring wave frequency information of the type critical for
engineering resistant design.
The instrumental measure of earthquake size began with a
definition by C. Richter, whereby the magnitude of a local
earthquake was the logarithm to base ten of the maximum
seismic wave amplitude in microns recorded on a Wood-Anderson
seismograph located at a distance of 100 km from the earthquake
epicentre, and has been significantly extended. Thus, one unit
increase in magnitude implies a ten-fold increase in the
amplitude of the earthquakes waves. Because the fundamental
period of the Wood-Anderson seismograph is about 0.8 sec, it
selectively amplifies those seismic waves with periods ranging
from 0.5 to 1.5 sec. It follows that since the natural period of
many building structures is within the range, the local or Richter
magnitudes of more than 5.5 before significant damage occurs

even the source of the waves.
The definition of the magnitude entails that it has no theoretical
upper or lower limits. However, the size of an earthquake is
limited at the at the upper end by the strength of the rocks of
the earth’s crust. Since 1935, only a few earthquakes have been
recorded on seismographs that have had a magnitude over 8.0. At
the other extreme, highly sensitive seismographs can record
earthquakes with a magnitude of less than -2.
Today a variety of magnitude scales based on different formulas
for epicentre distance and ways of choosing and measuring
appropriate wave amplitude have emerged:
Surface wave magnitude(Ms) is based on measuring the amplitude
of surface waves with a period of 20 sec. surface waves with a
period around 20 sec are often dominant on the seismograph
records.
Body wave magnitude (Mb) measures the amplitudes of the P
waves, which is not affected by the focal depth of the source,
where as deep focus earthquakes have no trains of surface
waves.
Moment magnitude (Mw) scale was devised because of the
shortcomings of Ml, Mb, and to a lesser degree Ms in
distinguishing between the sizes of great earthquakes. This scale
assigns a magnitude to the earthquake in accordance with its
seismic moment (Mo), which is a direct mechanical measure of
the size of the earthquake source.
TABLE 1.0: The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Intensity Description Characteristic effects
I Instrumental Not felt by people, only detected by seismographs.
II Feeble Felt only by a few people at rest, especially on upper floors of

buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing.
III Slight Felt noticeably indoors; like the vibrations due to a passing truck.
Standing motor cars may rock slightly.
IV Moderate Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few. Dishes, windows,

doors rattle. May awaken some sleepers. Standing cars rocked
noticeably.
V Rather strong
Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes and
windows broken; occasional cracked plaster; unstable objects
overturned. Some disturbance of trees, poles and other tall
objects.
VI Strong Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy
furniture moved; some falling plaster or damaged chimneys.
Damage slight.
VII Very strong

General alarm; people run outside. Walls crack; chimneys fall.
Considerable damage in poorly designed structures. Noticed by
persons in moving vehicles.
VIII Destructive
Considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial
collapse. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Changes in well water. Car
drivers seriously disturbed.
IX Ruinous Considerable damage with partial collapse of substantial buildings.

Buildings moved off foundations; ground cracks conspicuous.
Underground pipes broken.
X Disastrous Ground cracks badly; landslides on river banks and steep slopes;
rails bent; many buildings destroyed.
XI Very disastrous
Broad fissures in ground; major landslides and earth slumps;
floods. Few buildings remain standing; bridges destroyed; nearly
all services (railways, underground pipes, cables) out of action.
XII Catastrophic
Total destruction. Ground rises and falls in waves; lines of sight
and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
TABLE 1.1: Richter Magnitude Scale
Number of earthquakes Typical intensity

Magnitude
per year globally at epicentre
>8.0 0.1 - 0.2 XII
7.4 - 8.0 4 XI
7.0 - 7.3 15 X
6.2 - 6.9 100 VIII - IX
5.5 - 6.1 500 VII
4.9 - 5.4 1,400 VI
4.3 - 4.8 4,800 IV - V
3.5 - 4.2 30,000 II - III
2.0 - 3.4 800,000 I - II
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES:
BASED ON LOCATION
Interplate: - occurs along the boundaries of Tectonic

plates.
Intraplate: - occurs within the plate and are due to movement of
Pre-existing faults.
BASED ON EPI-CENTRAL DISTANCES
Local < 1 degree, Regional-1 to 10 degree, Teleseismic >10

degree
BASED ON FOCAL DEPTH
Shallow depth-0 to 71 km, Intermediate depth-71 to 300 km,

Deep depth > 300 km
BASED ON MAGNITUDE
Micro < 3, Intermediate-3 to 4, Moderate-5 to 5.9, Strong-6 to

6.9, Major-7 to 7.0.
PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA
FIG 9.0: PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA
A number of significant earthquakes occurred in and around India

over the past century. Some of these occurred in populated and
urbanized areas, and hence caused great damage. Many went
unnoticed, as they deep under the earth’s surface or in relatively
un-inhabited places. Most earthquakes occur along the Himalayan
plate boundary, but a number of earthquakes have also occurred
in the peninsular region.
Four great earthquakes (M<8) occurred in a span of 53 years from
1897 to 1950; the January 2001 Bhuj earthquake (M7.7) is almost
as large. Each of these caused disasters, but also allowed us to
learn about earthquake and to advance earthquake engineering.
For instance, 1819 Cutch earthquake produced an unprecedented

3m high uplift of the ground over 100km. The 1897 Assam
earthquake caused severe damage up to 500 km radial distances;
the type of damage sustained led to improvements in the
intensity scale from I-X to I-XII. Extensive liquefaction of the
ground took place over a length of 300km during 1934 Bihar-
Nepal earthquake in which many buildings and structures went
float, when the ground liquefied.
SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA
The varying geology at different locations in the country

implies that the likelihood of damaging earthquakes taking place
at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone map is
required so that buildings and other structures located in
different regions can be designed to withstand different level of
ground shaking. The seismic zone map of 1984 subdivided India
into five zones-I, ii, iii, IV and v. The maximum Modified Mercalli
intensity of seismic shaking expected in these zones were v or
less, vi, vii, viii and ix and higher, respectively. Parts of
Himalayan boundary in the north and northeast, and the Kachchh
area in the west were classified as zone v.
The seismic zone maps are revised from time to time
as more understanding is gained on the geology, the seism
tectonics and the seismic activity in the country. For instance,
the koyna earthquake of 1967 occurred in an area classified in
zone I as per map of 1966. The 1970 version of code upgraded the
area around Koyna to zone IV. The Killari earthquake of 1993
occurred in zone I. the current Indian seismic zone map places

this area in zone iii. The zone map now has only four seismic
zones-ii, iii, iv and v. the areas falling in seismic zone I in the
1984 map was merged with those of seismic zone ii. Also, the
seismic zone map in the peninsular region; Madras now comes
under seismic zone iii as against zone ii in 1984 map.
The national seismic zone map presents a large scale view of the
seismic zones in the country. Local variations in soil type and
geology cannot be represented at that scale. Therefore, for
important projects, such as a major dam or a nuclear power
plant, the seismic hazard is evaluated specially for that site.
Also, for the purposes of urban planning, metropolitan areas are
micronized. Seismic microzonation accounts for local variations
in geology, local soil profile,
FIG 10.0: SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF INDIA
TERMINOLOGIES:
 HYPOCENTRE: ALSO CALLED AS FOCUS POINT LOCATED AT

SOME DEPTH UNDERGROUND AT WHICH THE SLIP OF AN
EARTH QUAKE BEGINS.
 EPICENTERPOINT ON EARTH’S SURFACE DIRECTLY ABOVE

THE FOCUS.
 FOCAL DEPTHDEPTH OF FOCUS FROM THE EPICENTRE.
 EPTCENTRAL DISTANCE DISTANCE FROM THE EPICENTRE

TO ANY POINT OF INTEREST.
 BEFORE BIG EARTHQUAKE SOME SMALLER EARTHQUAKES

WOULD HAVE TAKESN PLACE AND ARE CALLED AS
FORESHOCKS AND ONES AFTER ARE CALLED AFTERSHOCKS.
Conclusion
 SEISMOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF GENERATION, PROPAGATION

AND RECORDING OF ELASTIC WAVES IN THE EARTH AND OF
SOURCES THAT PRODUCE THEM.
 EARTHQUAKE IS A SUDDEN TREMOR OR MOVEMENT OF

EARTH’S CRUST WHICH ORIGINATES NATURALLY AT OR
BELOW THE SURFACE.
 ABOUT 90% OF THE EARTHQUAKE RESENT FROM TECTONIC

EVENTS, PRIMARILY MOVEMENTS OF THE FAULTS.
 EPICENTRE OF THE EARTHQUAKES IS NOT RANDOMLY

DISTRIBUTED OVER THE EARTH’S SURFACE.
 BANGALORE FALLS UNDER ZONE II OF SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF

INDIA
References
 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURE BY

PANKAJ AGARWAL AND MANISH SHRIKANDE, IIT, ROORKEE,
EDITION MAY 2007, CHAPTER 1.PG:-3-69.
 FROM THE WEBSITE

HTTP://WWW.SEE.LEEDS.AC.UK/STRUCTURE/FAULTS/INTR
ODUCTION.HTML.
 FROM UPSEIS, AN EDUCATIONAL SITE FOR BUDDING

SEISMOLOGISTS
HTTP://WWW.GEO.MTN.EDU/UPSEIS/WAVES.HTML.

Engg Seismology

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ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY 1

Engineering Seismology is a branch of geology which

intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the

This report includes elastic rebound theory, plate

EARTH QUAKES are classified into two following types

Natural earthquakes includes the tectonic earthquakes, the

Man-made earthquakes include the nuclear explosions,

The type of earthquake depends on the region where it occurs

Fig 1.0: Volcanic eruption.

Formation of Earth and its Interior

Long time ago, a huge collection of material masses called as

Fig 2.0: CROSS SECTION OF EARTH

Convection currents develop in the viscous mantle

FIG 3.0: CIRCULATIONS INSIDE THE EARTH

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

PLATE TECTONICS deals with the study of the motion

conserved, therefore plate material must be destroyed

FIG 4.0: TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY

Plates are rigid bodies of rock that essentially float

called mafic minerals. The two different types of crust differ

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Sliding tectonic plates due to circulation causing an increase in

FIG 5.1: ROADS GETTING DISPLACED WHICH IS BUILT ON FAULT

FIG 5.2: PICTURE SHOWING THE WOOD BUILT COMPOUND

Rocks are elastic materials and so elastic strain energy stored in

Three basic types of elastic waves make up the shaking that is

The third basic type of earthquake wave is called s surface wave

Fig 6.0: Seismic waves

Amplitude of the upcoming waves. This surface amplification

their entire length.

Fig 7.1: Three types of fault

time they may have critical engineering consequences.

Fig 7.2: Three types of plate

AN INERTIA FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Earthquakes shake the ground. A building resting on it will

Consider a building whose roof is supported on columns. Coming

DETECTION AND RECORDING

Earthquakes vary in size. Those that do the most damage are

FIG 8.1: HORIZONTAL SEISMOGRAPH

FIG 8.2: VERTICAL SEISMOGRAPH

Seismic intensity is assessed from field observations of damage to

magnitudes of more than 5.5 before significant damage occurs

TABLE 1.0: The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

Intensity Description Characteristic effects

I Instrumental Not felt by people, only detected by seismographs.

II Feeble Felt only by a few people at rest, especially on upper floors of

IV Moderate Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few. Dishes, windows,

VII Very strong

IX Ruinous Considerable damage with partial collapse of substantial buildings.

TABLE 1.1: Richter Magnitude Scale

Number of earthquakes Typical intensity

>8.0 0.1 - 0.2 XII

6.2 - 6.9 100 VIII - IX

5.5 - 6.1 500 VII

4.9 - 5.4 1,400 VI

4.3 - 4.8 4,800 IV - V

3.5 - 4.2 30,000 II - III

2.0 - 3.4 800,000 I - II

Interplate: - occurs along the boundaries of Tectonic

BASED ON EPI-CENTRAL DISTANCES

Local < 1 degree, Regional-1 to 10 degree, Teleseismic >10

BASED ON FOCAL DEPTH

Shallow depth-0 to 71 km, Intermediate depth-71 to 300 km,