Footnotes

Footnotes are really important to historians. However, learning how to footnote is possibly one of the more difficult skills you will need to master whilst at university, partly because they appear so pedantic, and partly because every discipline has their own ways of doing things. Even within history, different journals have different ways of doing referencing: The Australian Economic History Review has truncated footnotes and a bibliography; History Australia, Labour History and Australian Historical Studies use footnotes alone; the Journal of Australian Studies uses endnotes. Get used to being flexible employers value flexibility and agility of thinking! Footnotes have three main purposes, and a fourth subsidiary role. First, history is a discipline which builds on accumulated knowledge; new understandings of the past always bear some relationship to the prevailing knowledge, by expanding on an idea, finessing a point of view, or refuting a particular perspective in light of new evidence. All knowledge workers (whether highly qualified academics or students) are joining the discourse the historical conversation by adding their opinions, and it is considered terribly disrespectful to butt in without acknowledging the conversation thus far. In this instance footnotes are used to credit the originality of ideas to their rightful creators. Ideas are intellectual property, and to use them without acknowledging the creator is not only theft, but also fraud: you are holding yourself out to be someone you are not. It might help you to think of footnotes as a small gesture of thanks: when we stand on the shoulders of giants, its nice to say thank you for the improved view. Bear in mind also that what you have read tells us about the type of scholar that you are. Some of us look first at your footnotes and bibliography before reading your work and our judgements of what you write are formed by what you have read, and how well you have incorporated the material into your narrative. Please realise that we judge you by the academic company that you keep: if you only read lightweight material, we will be disappointed; if you have read nothing of academic rigour we will be dismayed; if you have only looked at anonymous web references we will be truly horrified! Second, historians like to check on sources of information, so footnotes are where we document those sources, whether they are primary sources or secondary sources. Primary sources will require an indication of where the material is housed, eg is it at the National Archives of Australia, in which case you will need to specify the file number, or is it a diary still held by the family of origin? Is it an oral history that you have conducted over the phone? Or a family history written and researched by late Aunt Maud? You need to specify where the information is coming from (and personally I would double check everything late Aunt Maud has said before I relied on it). If you have come across a primary source through a secondary reading,

it is not your primary source. This includes family histories. You will need to refer to it as cited in whatever book or article you found it. It can be your primary source, if you bother to track down the original documents, but not in any other circumstances. Third, we avoid at all costs the potential to be called a plagiarist, by clearly signifying quotations and where we sourced them. It is really important to do this correctly, and you will need to review the Turnitin requirements to ensure to dont trigger their system alerts though your lack of attention to detail. Having said that, where you have made it clearly known where the source is, and then you utilise a number of short quotations in your paragraph, you can place one reference at the end of the sentence, rather than individually noting each quote. The fourth point will probably not relate to you at this early stage of your writing career, but may become more relevant as you progress: footnotes are a great way to include explanatory information which is not entirely relevant to your argument, particularly if you have a problem with the word count. However, if the explanation is necessary, then it is probably required in the body of your essay. Sometimes historians will include an author who holds a dissenting idea in the footnotes, as a way of acknowledging that they are aware of the perspective, but have chosen to ignore it. Again, look at how the various authors you are reading are using their footnotes. Footnote numbers are to be placed at the end of the quotation or relevant sentence, after your punctuation marks. Let me provide you with an example of the correct way to do this when your sentence has quotes included: Between the expectations of 1900 and the realities of 2000 was a century of unpredicted change which one American historian summarised as the chaos, the rich ambiguity of historical moments, lifes bafflements, the accidents and contingencies*all] of whichmust be retained if history is to be a true account of human experience.1 Its worth noting the following points about the above quote: I purposely indented the quote because it was lengthy; I did not put quotation marks around the whole quote because indentation signifies it is a quotation. (You should only indent the quotes if they are more than three lines long its best to avoid doing so, because many readers automatically skip indentations) The ellipses, ie three dots signify missing words. The square brackets signify the addition of words to make a particular quote make sense in the authors chosen context. Usually the addition is a minor word or two.

Bernard Bailyn, Context in History, (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1995) 8 as quoted in Eric Richards, Destination Australia: Migration to Australia Since 1901, (Sydney: UNSW Press, 2008) 26

Footnotes are to be numbered consecutively right through the essay. All word processing programs have a function that will do this for you. If you have not used this function previously, may I suggest you seek out someone who can show you how to do it, BEFORE the first essay is due. Footnotes are placed at the foot of the page. Endnotes are grouped together at the end of the text. In text citations are embedded in the text itself (in brackets). You should always use footnotes, not endnotes or in text citations, in History essays. Footnotes should be single-spaced. Be sure to separate clearly the footnotes from the text by leaving a blank line (this is normally done automatically by your computer). FOOTNOTE FORMAT The library has created an excellent guide to assist you with referencing: http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/referencing-tool/oxford. The following examples of common footnote formats replicate what you will find in the library guide, however, as you might need a quick reference, I have collated the following examples to indicate what information must be included, the order in which it should be cited and the way in which it should be presented. You should note that book and journal titles are italicised. books: initials (or first name), surname of author, full title of the book (italicised), place, publisher, and year of publication, and the relevant page or pages. e.g. Roland Burke, Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights, (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010) 21. articles: initials (or first name), surname of author, title of article in single inverted commas, title of journal (italicised), volume, number, month and year of publication (in brackets), and the relevant page or pages. e.g. Tracey Banivanua Mar, Consolidating Violence and Colonial Rule: Discipline and protection in colonial Queensland, Postcolonial Studies, 8:3 (2005), 3056. chapters in edited collections: initials (or first name), surname of author of chapter, title of chapter in single inverted commas, initial and surname of editor of book, ed. (in brackets) or eds. if multiple editors, title of book (underlined), place, publisher, and year of publication, and page number or numbers. e.g. Katie Holmes, Day mothers and night sisters: World War 1 nurses and sexuality, in Joy Damousi and Marilyn Lake (eds.), Gender and War, (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 45.

newspapers: newspaper titles are italicised and the is usually omitted entirely except in the case of The Times of London and The Economist. It is helpful to include the place of publication, in brackets but not italicised, after the title, e.g. Advertiser (Bendigo); Advertiser (Adelaide). However note that sometimes a place name forms part of the title, e.g. Sydney Morning Herald, New York Times. Reference to a newspaper usually only requires a date and page number (omit editor and publisher and volume number) although it is sometimes useful to include the column, e.g. Age (Melbourne), 15 November 1899, p. 4, col. 3. documents: when referring to a document in a collection of documents, or to a document cited in a secondary source, cite the document first and then the source in which you found it. e.g. House of Commons Papers for 1812, Vol. II, Paper No. 341, quoted in M. Clark, ed., Sources of Australian History, (London: Oxford University Press, 1957) 110. Neil Black to Robert Leadbetter, 4 November, 1877, quoted in Margaret Kiddle, Men of Yesterday: A Social History of the Western District of Victoria, 18341890, (Parkville: Melbourne University Press, 1961) 289.

the web: when referring to a source from the internet, cite the author and title of the document, the name of the site at which it was found, the address of that site, the date of its last update and the date of your access to it. e.g. John Germov, Get Great Marks for Your Essays, Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1996, pp. 34, extracted in Writing Essays, eStudy Centre, http://www.allen-unwin.com.au/estudy.htm, updated 24 December 1999, accessed 6 January 2000. Please do not dump three lines of web address into your footnotes each time you access something from the web. Apart from being unsightly, invariably it is unnecessary too. Eg. Keir Reeves, Sojourners or a new diaspora? Economic implications of the movement of Chinese miners to the south-west pacific goldfields, Australian Economic History Review, 50:2, 2010, 178 - 192: http://0onlinelibrary.wiley.com.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au/doi/10.1111/j.14678446.2010.00300.x/pdf The web is the area of biggest concern for academics. For one thing, we avoid using web sources that are unscholarly, eg Wikipedia. By all means have a look at it, and perhaps even chase through some of the material that has been cited in creating the item. But please dont rely on it as a source of historical information, because it reflects poorly on you as a scholar. Similarly any web page that does not have a detailed bibliography should be

avoided, and especially avoid pages that have no attributable author. The second issue historians have is regarding the use of databases. All the reputable journals publish in hard format as well as on the web. A few journals are e-journals only, and therefore how you come to find them is perhaps relevant. However, historians do not need to explain where they find their secondary sources - be it in a bookshop, at a friends house or in a library so why should it matter whether you accessed History Australia via APAFT or Informit or Google Scholar? Believe me, all historians utilise the web on a regular basis to find relevant articles, but youd never be able to discern that from their footnotes. Look at the footnotes of the books and journals you are reading: how many lines of web-text are replicated in there? The best way possible to learn is to follow the examples set for you by your scholarly peers. films: when referring to a film cite the title of the film, in italics, the director, place, production house and date. e.g. My Colour, Your Kind in Shifting Sands: From sand to celluloid, dir. Danielle Maclean, Victoria, Australian Film Institute in association with the Indigenous Branch of the Australian Film Commission and SBS Independent, 1998. catalogues: exhibition catalogues can be generally be treated like an edited book (see c above), but there are some special cases: e.g. Becker, E. et al., eds., Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, exh. cat., Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, and Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, 1996. [for an exhibition with more than one venue] e.g. Washington D.C. 1986: The Age of Bruegel: Netherlandish Drawings in the Sixteenth Century, exh. cat., Washington D.C., National Gallery of Art, Cambridge, Mass., 1986. [for an exhibition catalogue that has no author note the site of the exhibition is substituted for the authors name+ images / visual material: Art history essays and some History essays may need to include illustrations. Works of art should be referred to in the body of the essay as figure numbers, and the images appended to the end of the essay where they should be accompanied by captions, as follows: Fig. 1 Artist, Title of the work, date, medium, size, location (city), Location: Art Museum (source of image). e.g. Fig. 1. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Woman with a Parrot, 1871, oil on canvas, 92.1 x 65.1 cm, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, Thannhauser Collection, (Reed, 2003, fig. 46, 116).

ABBREVIATIONS IN FOOTNOTES To avoid unnecessary repetition in footnotes, a number of standard abbreviations are used. You are EXPECTED to abbreviate where appropriate it is not okay to cut and paste each footnote over and over again in full. Ibid.: (From the Latin ibidem meaning in the same place.) The first time a book or article is mentioned in the footnotes it is necessary to include the full reference. However, if you refer to the same work again in the footnote immediately following, it is permissible to use ibid. Do not italicise, underline or put in inverted commas. Surname/short title: If you refer to the same work again in the footnotes but not consecutively, use only the author's surname and the page number(s). If you refer to more than one work by the same author, use short, abbreviated titles after the first, full, footnote reference. Omit the place of publication, publisher, and date of publication in second references. (As a general rule, avoid the use of op. cit. and loc. cit., but if you do use them make sure you have checked on the correct usage.) Page references: when referring to pages, use p. for a single page and pp. for the plural. e.g. p. 128; pp. 12833. If information is scattered throughout the book or article use passim (Latin term for scattered).

Finally, a cautionary word on abbreviations: you would do well to abbreviate only after you have finished the editing process. Otherwise, you may find that moving text around shifts the meaning of the ibid . you so carefully positioned.

SAMPLE FOOTNOTES Tim Minchin, From Rights to Economics: The ongoing struggle for Black equality in the U.S. South, (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007) 146 ibid. [Refers to preceding footnote, same page] ibid., pp. 29799. [Refers to preceding footnote but to different pages] A. James Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in nineteenthcentury married life, (London: Routledge, 1992) 123.

A. James Hammerton, Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Emigration, 1830-1914, (London: Croom Helm, 1979), 55. Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship, p. 144 [short title to distinguish which of Hammertons books is being referred to+ Richard Broome, Aboriginal Australians: A history since 1788, (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 4th edn, 2010) 113. Broome, 125 [As Broome is only listed once, the abbreviation can be his name alone] R.E.N. Twopeny, Town Life in Australia, 5, quoted in Katie Holmes and Diane Kirkby, Hidden Lives: Stories of everyday Australia, (La Trobe University Studies in History, Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1997), p. 3. Arthur Phillip, Memorandum of c. September, 1786, CO 201/2:92, quoted in Alan Frost, ArthurPhillip, 17381814: His Voyaging, (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1987), 45. Eric Richards, How did Poor People Emigrate from the British Isles to Australia in the Nineteenth Century?, Journal of British Studies, 23:3, July 1993, 250-279. Eric Richards, A Voice from below: Benjamin Boyce in South Australia, 1839-1846, Labour History, 27, Nov 1974, 65-75. Richards, A Voice from below, 70 Richards, How did Poor People Emigrate?, 260. NOTE: In footnotes, the given name always precedes the surname of the author; in bibliographies, the surname always precedes the given name.

Bibliographies
A bibliography must be attached to your essay or other written assignment. It is a list of all the books, articles and primary sources you have used in preparing the assignment (not just those you have referenced). As a prominent historian once said, Bibliographies usually perform two functions: to display the authors industriousness, and to guide further reading or research in related fields.2 Often the bibliography is the first page considered by your tutor ideas are formed about how much work has gone into an essay by seeing what you have read. Reading the essay will tell us how well you utilised your readings, and whether they were appropriate. Normally, the bibliography is divided into two sections which distinguish between primary and secondary sources. It is not double spaced, but a line between each listing is welcome. It may sometimes be advisable to include other headings such as official sources, interviews, or newspapers. Consult your tutor for more information on this. In the bibliography, the surname of the author or editor comes first and is followed by the initials or first name. All authors are listed in alphabetical order within each section. When listing books, please include the place of publication, the name of the publisher, and the date of publication. When listing articles in journals or chapters/papers in edited collections, include the first and last page numbers. You may be asked for an annotated bibliography. This is a bibliography which includes a few lines of comment assessing the relevance of each item for the particular topic.

SAMPLE BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Bendigo Advertiser (1899) 17 July Land Selection Files, Public Records Office Victoria, VPRS 626 P0 Unit 299/19.20 The Currie Diary 18731914. MS 10886. State Library Victoria, Australian Manuscripts Collection. Photocopy. 7 vols. Victoria (1889) Parliamentary Paper, Paper C10
2

David Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation: Personal Accounts of Irish Migration to Australia, (Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 1995) 629

Secondary Sources Beaven, Lisa, Cardinal Camillo Massimo as art agent of the Altieri, in M. Bury and J. Burke (eds), Art and Identity in Early Modern Rome, (London: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 17187. Fahey, Charles, A Fine Country for the Irish, Australian Journal of Irish Studies, Vol. 4 (2004), 190201. Haake, Claudia, The State, Removal and Indigenous Peoples in the United States and Mexico, 16202000, (New York: Routledge, 2007). Jones, Adrian, Word and Deed: Why a Post-Poststructural history is needed, and how it might look, The Historical Journal, 43:2, (2000), 517 541. Jordan, Caroline, Picturesque Pursuits: Colonial women artists and the amateur tradition, (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2005). Kirkby, Diane, Voices from the Ships, (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2008). Lake, Marilyn, Faith: Faith Bandler, gentle activist, (Crows Nest, N.S.W: Allen & Unwin, 2002) Minchin, Timothy J., Forging a Common Bond: Labor and environmental activism during the BASF lockout, (Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2003). Modesti, Adelina, The making of a cultural heroine : Elisabetta Sirani "pittrice cellebrissima" di Bologna (1638 - 1665), Arte Documento,. 8 (2001), 399404.