Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

Buddhism
by Dr. F. Otto Schrader
Published in 1914 Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, hennai !"adras# $ndia The Theosophist %&&ice, Adyar, "adras. $ndia "%'T (isitors to $ndia )ho come to understand to )hat an e*tent the religious li&e o& the country is go(erned by the Brahmins, descendants o& the ancient sacerdotal caste, are li+ely to ta+e it as a matter o& course that all religions o& Hindu origin ha(e been &ounded by members o& that caste. This, ho)e(er, is a complete error. "any, i& not most, o& the religious systems o& ancient $ndia ha(e been &ounded by members o& the ,shatriya or )arrior caste, and only their later elaboration is, as a rule, due to the Brahmins. Among the ancient $ndian religions &ounded by noblemen and more or less opposed to the Brahmanic orthodo*y, at least originally, there are three )hich deser(e particular attention, because they ha(e in common one remar+able &eature not to be &ound in any other o& the e*isting religions o& the )orld. These three religions are- that o& the Bhaga(atas, that o& the .ainas, and that o& the Buddhists/ and the peculiar &eature they ha(e in common is the belie& in periodical appearances o& 'a(iours, i.e., in 'a(iours appearing successi(ely, )ithin &i*ed periods, in order to start a&resh or to restore to its purity the same religious system )hich all o& their predecessors ha(e preached. The ancient religion o& the Bhaga(atas, no) +no)n as 0aishna(ism, teaches that 1od, i.e., 0ishnu, incarnates at certain times o& religious decadence in the body o& some terrestrial being, animal or man, such an incarnation being called an A(atara or 23escent4. The most &amous is the ,rishna A(atara, and the ne*t to come is the ,al+i A(atara. The .ainas belie(e that in the cycle o& time in )hich )e are li(ing 5the length o& )hich is e*pressed by a number co(ering about t)o millions o& ciphers6, t)enty7&our 'a(iours, called .ainas 5 on8uerors6 or Tirthan+aras 5Pathma+ers6, ha(e appeared successi(ely. The last o& these, called "aha(ira, )as a contemporary o& the Buddha, and )e +no) that his predecessor, Parsh(antha, is also a historical person/ a suspicion has 8uite recently arisen that e(en one or t)o more o& these apparently in(ented personalities, although o& course not the dates to )hich they are assigned, may pro(e to be historical. Buddhism also has the doctrine that, as there is an in&inite number o& )orld cycles, so there is an in&inite number o& 'a(iours o& the )orld, these 'a(iours being called Buddhas or A)a+ened %nes, i.e., men )ho ha(e arisen &rom the sleep o& e*istence. $t is &rom these that Buddhism 5)hich ought to be Bauddhism6 has ta+en its name, 9ust as .ainism 5or .inism6 has &rom the .inas, and 0aishna(ism &rom 0ishnu, the incarnating 1od. %ut o& the innumerable numbers o& Buddhas some o& the Buddhist te*ts mention by name only the last se(en, others mention t)enty7&our 5o& )hich, as o& the t)enty7&our .inas, there is a short biography6, and some e(en t)enty7se(en. There are some ,alpas or ,osmic periods in )hich no Buddha appears, the so7called 2:mpty ,alpas4/ )hile in others there are &rom one to &i(e Buddhas. ;e are no) li(ing in a ,alpa blessed )ith &i(e Buddhas o& )hom the last, the Buddha "etteyya or "aitreya, Page 1

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

is still e*pected to come <,=== years a&ter the historical Buddha, i.e., about >,<== years hence/ or, according to another statement )hich does not 8uite agree )ith this, )hen the a(erage li&e period o& men, a&ter ha(ing reached its lo)er limit o& 1= years, )ill ha(e again increased to ?=,=== years. That the three Buddhas o& this ,alpa prior to the historical one )ere, i& not historical persons, yet actually )orshiped as such during the &irst centuries a&ter the rise o& Buddhism, is pro(ed by an inscription in&orming us that the great Buddhist :mperor Asho+a ga(e orders t)ice during his reign to ele(ate a certain arti&icial hill supposed to contain relics o& the Buddha ,onagamana. ,onagamana according to the Buddhist scripture )as the predecessor o& ,assapa, and ,assapa )as &ollo)ed by the historical Buddha. Buddhism is the most interesting and the most )idely spread o& the three religions mentioned, and it is an outline o& this religion )hich $ propose to place be&ore you this e(ening. $ shall pass o(er )ith as &e) )ords as possible all that appears to me unessential &or the understanding o& this religion, in order to de(ote special attention to its philosophical basis, and particularly to the t)o points )hich ha(e been most misunderstood both in $ndia and in the ;est, the doctrine o& the soul and that o& Nir(ana. The claim o& Buddhism to be studied in pre&erence to the other $ndian @eligions lies in the &act, that, apart &rom its doctrines, Buddhism alone o& all $ndian religions has become a )orld7religion. The Brahmanic community is closed to all &oreigners, and so is that o& the .ains/ no &oreigner, ho)e(er intense may be his de(otion &or 0ishnu or 'hi(a or the .inas, can e(er become a member o& the communities concerned, e*cept by a ne) birth/ but the door o& Buddhism is open, no) as e(er, to people o& any nationality, and it is surely a signi&icant &act that increasing numbers o& :uropeans and Americans are actually 9oining the Buddhist community, some o& them e(en entering the monastic order. $ do not +no) )hether the current statement that the Buddhist community counts at present <1= millions o& souls is 8uite correct, &or the ciphers obtainable &rom hina are (ery doubt&ul/ but this much is certain, that it &ar outnumbers any other religious community in the )orld, not e*cluding hristianity all o& )hose sects together reach only the number o& AA= million souls. $t is also certain that Buddhism alone o& the three great )orld7religions has reached its success )ithout e(er staining the memory o& its Bounder )ith bloodshed. Buddhism )as &ounded in the si*th century be&ore the hrist by Prince 'iddhartha o& the 'ha+ya &amily. The 'ha+yas )ere the rulers o& a small +ingdom )ith hardly more than a million inhabitants, occupying the slopes o& the Nepalese Himalaya about the region o& the modern to)n o& 1ora+hpur, 1== miles appro*imately to the north7)est o& Benares. Though recogniCing as their supreme ruler the ,ing o& ,oshala, they )ere essentially independent/ and they are described as a haughty clan tracing bac+ their lineage to the ancient ,ing $+sh(a+u, &amous in $ndian legend. Their capital )as ,apila(astu. The neighbouring +ingdoms included, besides ,oshala, the :mpire o& "agadha )hose capital )as @a9agriha, the ,ingdom o& the 0atsas, that o& the A(antis, and the on&ederation o& the 0ri99is comprising eight states one o& the latter being the @epublic o& the Diccha(i, o& 0aishali. There is e(ery reason to belie(e that the condition o& Northern $ndia at that time )as a prosperous one, and not at all the picture o& misery )hich )riters on Buddhism used to construct in order to account &or the appearance o& that religion. $t is also 8uite )rong to suppose that Buddhism appeared as something altogether uni8ue and unheard o&, li+e the religion o& "ohammed in Arabia &or e*ample. The time o& the Buddha )as saturated )ith religious ideas o& e(ery description, ne) systems springing up and disappearing li+e mushrooms a&ter the rain. The 23iscourse o& the Philosophical Net4 5Brahmajala-Sutta6 in )hich the Buddha declares that he has caught all the speculations o& his time, mentions E> Page >

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

philosophical standpoints/ )hile the 'cripture o& the .ains brings the number o& the Darshanas e(en up to AEA. ;e are also no) in a position to clearly recogniCe the nature o& the rain )hich had caused such a lu*uriant gro)th/ it )as the &eeling o& intellectual &reedom a&ter a period o& sacerdotal rule, )hich had seiCed the $ndian mind. Among the si* &amous teachers mentioned so o&ten in the Nikayas as the principal ri(als o& the Buddha, there is not one representati(e o& the 0edic doctrines. 'uch being the conditions o& the country, it is surely not (ery strange that e(en the cro)n7prince o& a little +ingdom should ha(e &elt the call to renounce his com&ort in order to ta+e part in the &e(erish search a&ter Truth. Tradition reports that ,ing 'huddhodana, the &ather o& 'iddhartha, recei(ed a prophecy a&ter the birth o& the latter telling him that his son )ould renounce the )orld to become a great saint/ and that, )ishing to pre(ent the prophecy &rom coming true, he did e(erything in his po)er to ma+e the )orld pleasant &or him. He seemed to succeed &or a )hile/ but in his t)enty7ninth year the young man had a series o& (isions/ &irst o& a man bent do)n by old age, then o& a leper, then o& a corpse, and &inally o& an ascetic, radiant )ith serenity. This became the turning point o& his li&e/ as he tells us himsel& in the MajjhimaNikaya, he had the hairs o& his head and beard sha(ed, put on the yello) robe o& the )andering ascetic, and, in spite o& the lamentations and tears o& his parents, 2)ent out &rom home into homelessness4. The problem the prince had be&ore him )as ho) to get rid o& old age, disease, and death, )hich is tantamount, &rom the Hindu standpoint, to the 8uestion as to ho) to be liberated &rom the necessity o& being born again and again. Not a metaphysical but a practical problem. Not actually the 8uestion 2;hat is TruthF4 but the 8uestion, 2Ho) to attain Per&ectionF4 The $ndian philosopher, &undamentally di&&erent in this respect &rom his )estern colleague, does not and ne(er did )ant to disco(er Truth &or the sa+e o& Truth, that is to say merely in order to know/ but he )anted it solely as a means to liberation. There )ere many at the time o& Buddha, as indeed also pre(iously, )ho pretended to ha(e sol(ed the problem o& Diberation, and all o& these solutions apparently belonged to one o& three classes- &irstly there )as that o& the orthodo* or 0aidi+as, )ho insisted &aith in the 0edas and sacri&ice )as the one path to be &ollo)ed/ secondly there )as the belie& as old as the 0edas that asceticism, understood as a (ictory o& the mind o(er the body, )as the sa&est )ay to per&ection/ and lastly there )as that o& the philosophers )ho asserted that +no)ledge, i.e., the per&ect comprehension o& the special philosophical system they se(erally proclaimed, )ith or )ithout a certain practice o& concentration called Goga, )as essential &or the attainment o& the highest goal. The &irst o& these three paths had ceased to be &ashionable at the time in )hich )e are interested, or at least in those regions o& Northern $ndia )ith )hich )e are concerned/ so the Prince )hen starting upon his search a&ter truth (acillated bet)een the other t)o, and actually tried both o& them, one a&ter the other, &irst philosophy and then asceticism. He became successi(ely the disciple o& t)o &amous philosophers, li(ing as recluses some)here in or near the Nepalese Himalaya, named Alara ,alama and Hdda+a @amaputta, both o& )hom taught a (ariety o& the philosophy +no)n as 'am+hya7Goga &rom the great epic Mahabharata. He succeeded in mastering so completely these t)o systems that Alara as+ed him to become his associate, )hile Hdda+a )as e(en prepared to ma+e him the leader o& his school. Neither system, ho)e(er, satis&ied our Prince, because in his opinion the liberation taught )as incomplete in both cases- the so7called liberated soul )as not actually liberated &rom the limitations o& indi(iduality and )as deemed to return to )orldly e*istence, although only a&ter an enormous period o& rest. He then turned to asceticism, and, +no)ing that patience )as essential here, practiced many (arieties o& Page A

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

it &or si* long years. To)ards the end o& this period he li(ed at Hru(ela, near Buddhagaya, in the company o& &i(e other ascetics, )ho had recogniCed his greatness, and had resol(ed to )ait until 2the ascetic 1otama4 as he )as called 5a&ter the branch o& the &amily o& the 'ha+yas to )hich he belonged6 )ould ha(e reached enlightenment. But they )aited in (ain/ &or, a&ter ha(ing reduced his body to almost a s+eleton 5there is a beauti&ul sculpture in the alcutta "useum sho)ing him in this state6 he &ell do)n one day on the &loor unconscious, and he )as belie(ed to be dead. He reco(ered, ho)e(er, and then the bitter +no)ledge da)ned upon him that he had been on the )rong path &or so many years. 2;hate(er hard austerities there are in the )orld,4 so he is reported to ha(e said to himsel&, 2all those austerities $ ha(e e*perienced. And $ ha(e not reached that incomparable highest peace. 'urely, this is not the right )ay to Diberation.4 'o he began again to ta+e regular &ood, and his companions, belie(ing that he had &allen &rom the ideal, abandoned him and )ent to Benares. He then sat do)n under a &ig7tree 5)hich became &amous a&ter)ard as the Bodhi Tree or Tree o& :nlightenment6 and began to re&lect deeply. He remembered ho) once in the days o& his boyhood, )hile he )as sitting under a tree in the garden o& the palace, he attained in(oluntarily a certain mental state )hich ga(e him supreme satis&action/ and suddenly he +ne) that it )as through the 3hyanas 5.hanas6 or stages o& mystical meditation, )hich he had already practiced under his t)o 'am+hya Goga teachers, that he )ould reach enlightenment/ so he too+ to the 3hyanas again, and, a&ter ha(ing reached the &ourth and highest o& them, e*perienced at last )hat he had sought &or so long- the Mahabodhi or 1reat :nlightenment. The 1reat :nlightenment is said to ha(e ta+en place during the three parts o& that same night in the &ollo)ing )ay- in the &irst place the Prince )as able to trace bac+ his &ormer e*istences, one by one up to a (ery remote past. $n the second part he obtained an insight into the )or+ing o& the la) o& ,arman, or @etribution, by seeing the beings ascending to higher births and descending to lo)er ones in strict accordance )ith their deeds. $n the third part the great doctrine o& all the Buddhas )as re(ealed to him, namely, that indi(idual e*istence, including the highest one )e can concei(e o&, is essentially su&&ering/ that the desire &or such e*istence is the only cause o& it/ that conse8uently the complete abandonment o& such desire is Diberation/ and that the e&&icacious means conducing to &a(ourable births and &inally to Diberation is the 2Noble :ight&old Path,4 consisting o& @ight 0ie)s, @ight Aims, @ight ;ords, @ight Beha(iour, @ight "ode o& Di(elihood, @ight :*ertion, @ight "ind&ulness, @ight "editation and Tran8uility. ;hat all this means )e shall see later on/ here it su&&ices to state the t)o points in )hich the doctrine o& the Buddha )as belie(ed by himsel& to di&&er essentially &rom those o& his teachers, and o& most or perhaps all religious teachers be&ore him. These are- the +no)ledge that )ithout the complete abandonment o& any clinging to indi(idual e*istence there can be no 8uestion o& Diberation, and the disco(ery that morality is indispensable &or religious progress. The great enlightenment o& Prince 'iddhartha had the immediate e&&ect o& completely e*tinguishing all his passions/ that is to say, in that blessed night he attained Nir(ana, )hich means nothing else than 2e*tinguishing,4 and conse8uently Diberation. The &orce dri(ing to rebirth, the Thirst 5tanha, trishna6 as the Buddhists call it, had ceased to e*ist &or him in this so called Samditthika Nibbana or 2:*tinction during li&e,4 and it )as certain, there&ore, that the remainder, namely, his body and mind without Thirst, )ould also cease to e*ist in the Parinirvana or 2 omplete :*tinction4 at the time o& his death. A&ter the night under the Bodhi tree the Buddha, as the Prince rightly called himsel& &rom that time, hesitated about proclaiming his +no)ledge, because the doctrine o& Nir(ana and that o& the concatenation o& causes 5Pratityasamutpada6 )ere sure to be misunderstood. But his intense lo(e and compassion &or su&&ering humanity at last con8uered his doubt, and he made up his mind to bring the good ne)s &irst to his t)o teachers, Alara and Hdda+a, &or )hom he had a lo(ing memory. He learnt, ho)e(er, that both o& them had died a (ery short time pre(iously, so he started &or Benares in order to meet and instruct the &i(e Page 4

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

ascetics )ho had been his companions. %n the )ay there t)o merchants, Tapussa and Bhalli+a, o&&ered him &ood and became his &irst lay disciples. The &i(e ascetics at &irst re&used to ac+no)ledge him as a Buddha, but a&ter he had deli(ered to them his &irst sermon 5the so7called 'ermon o& Benares6 on the t)o e*tremes to be a(oided, namely, )orldliness and asceticism, and on the &our Noble Truths concerning 'u&&ering and Diberation, they 9oined him as personal disciples. The ne*t lay con(ert )as a rich young man called Gashas, )hose e*ample )as &ollo)ed by most o& his relati(es and &riends/ and a&ter this the community gre) so rapidly that the BuddhaIs audience at his second sermon consisted o& a thousand mon+s. This second sermon, )hich )as, li+e the &irst, a pri(ate lecture to the mon+s, is called the Buddhist 2'ermon on the "ount,4 because it )as deli(ered on the hill 1ayashirsha. A better name, re&erring to its contents, is 2The 'ermon on Bire,4 e(erything e*isting, especially the passions, being compared )ith &lames in it. Buddha then )ent to @a9agriha, the capital o& ,ing Bimbisara )ho became one o& his sincerest admirers and protectors and presented the %rder )ith a large par+, the 0elu(ana. Here also )ere )on by the Buddha those t)o disciples )ho )ere to play the most important rJles a&ter himsel& in the community, 'hariputra and the "audgaCayana. %n a second (isit to @a9agriha, &our more important disciples 9oined the Buddha, namely, his cousins Ananada and 3e(adatta, and Anuruddha and Hpali. Ananda is the 'aint .ohn o& Buddhism, that disciple o& )hom the Dord )as especially &ond/ in a poem said to be composed by himsel& he says- 2$ ha(e ser(ed the Dord &or t)enty7&i(e years, )ith lo(e, )ith my heart, mouth, and hands, not abandoning him, li+e his shado).4 3e(adatta is the traitor o& the Buddha, he undertoo+ to murder the Dord, a&ter the latter had declined to nominate him as his successor and place him at the head o& the community. He &ailed ho)e(er, but then he caused a schism by persuading a number o& mon+s to lead, under his guidance, a more ascetic li&e than the one prescribed by the Buddha, by li(ing only in &orests, ne(er begging in (illages, ne(er accepting an in(itation, strictly a(oiding &ish and meat, and so &orth. This %rder o& 3e(adatta still e*isted in the se(enth century A.3. as a Buddhist sect )hich did not recogniCe the historical Buddha, but only the preceding Buddhas. ;hen Buddha (isited his nati(e to)n ,apila(astu, he had a (ery cold reception, his relati(es considering it as an o&&ence to their noble &amily that he )ent about as a beggar. 'oon, ho)e(er, they bo)ed to his greatness, and his son @ahula entered the %rder. Not long a&ter)ards 'huddhodana, the &ather o& the Buddha, died, and his )i&e "ahapra9apati, the BuddhaIs stepmother, demanded to be admitted into the %rder. Thrice the Buddha declined her entreaty. At last, on the re8uest o& Ananda, he consented to the establishment o& an %rder &or nuns, but not )ithout adding the prophecy that no) the pure doctrine )ould e*ist only &or <== instead o& 1,=== years. About three months be&ore the death o& the Buddha t)o e(ents are reported to ha(e happened )hich sho) ho) great had become the esteem in )hich he )as held, the second one being characteristic o& him also in another )ay- he succeeded in pre(enting a )ar bet)een ,ing A9atashatru and 0ri99is o& 0aishali, and he accepted an in(itation to dinner &rom the 2to)n7beauty4 o& 0aishali, the courtesan Amrapali/ hearing o& her success some young Diccha(i nobleman tried in (ain to purchase that honour &rom her &or 1==,=== gold coins. Dater on Amrapali became a nun, li+e some others o& her pro&ession, and the stanCas ascribed to her in the Theri atha belong to the &inest o& that collection. %& the end o& the "aster )e ha(e a touching report )ritten in beauti&ul old Pali prose, the Mahaparinibbana Sutta. ;e learn &rom it that the Buddha )hen he )as eighty years old, a&ter ha(ing reco(ered &rom a se(ere illness in Belu(a near 0aishali )here he had passed the rainy season, started &or ,ushinagara, the capital o& the "allas, and on the )ay became ill again o)ing to a meal o& mushrooms 5or i& the usual interpretation o& the )ord is correct, o& por+6 o&&ered to him by the smith, Page <

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

hunda, in the (illage, Pa(a. $n a little gro(e under t)o blossoming 'al trees, he had his last couch prepared by Ananda. He instructed Ananda to tell hunda that he )ould ha(e a (ery great re)ard &or the meal the latter had gi(en him/ and he discussed )ith him details about his &uneral and about other things concerning the %rder. ;hen at last Ananda could not restrain his grie&, going aside and )eeping bitterly, the Buddha called him bac+ and com&orted him )ith great and +ind )ords. Then a Brahmin philosopher, 'ubhadra, arri(ed in order to as+ the Buddha some 8uestions, and he became his last con(ert. ;hen the "aster &elt his end approaching he turned to the mon+s and spo+e those )ords )hich )ere the last to &all &rom his lips- !anta d"ni, bhikkhave "mantay"mi vo# vayadhamm" sankh"r" appam"dena samp"dadetha$ 2No) then, ye mon+s, $ am spea+ing to you- all thing are sub9ect to decay/ be on your guard and )or+ out your per&ectionK4 He then entered the 3hyanas, 9ust as he had done on the e(e o& his :nlightenment, and passed a)ay. His body )as cremated )ith royal honours by the "allas in )hose country his death had occurred, and his ashes )ere distributed by the Brahmin 3rona among the se(eral Princes )ho )ere present. The portion that &ell to the share o& the 'ha+yas )as disco(ered 1E years ago, an inscription on the urn containing it lea(ing no doubt about its genuineness. The uni8ue success o& the Buddha may be ascribed to &our causes- The &irst cause lay in the &a(ourable social condition o& his time )hich )as one o& transition, a religious interregnum, as it )ere, bet)een the 0edic period o& childli+e belie& and the long period o& intellectual sla(ery )hich has not ended e(en yet. To understand this, )e need only imagine a nobleman li+e the Buddha appearing no), say in the Tamil country, and trying to con(ert the Brahmins o& hidambaram or the 8uarrelling 0aishna(as o& on9ee(aram. His success )ould hardly be greater than that o& the Brahma 'ama9. Bor not only )ere religious pre9udices, generally spea+ing, much less accentuated than they are no), but also the rigorous caste rules no) obtaining did not yet e*ist in the BuddhaIs time, as is pro(ed, apart &rom other things, by the occasional mention in the Buddhist te*ts o& people changing their pro&essions. The second cause o& the BuddhaIs success )as, o& course, the e*cellence o& his doctrine, its broadness, its suitability &or the needs o& the $ndia o& his time. The third cause )as the eminently practical )ay in )hich the doctrine )as preached by directly appealing to the people through similes, and by strictly a(oiding metaphysical discussions. And last, not least, )e ha(e to ta+e into account the o(er)helming greatness o& the personality o& the Buddha, o& )hich there are many testimonials o& an historical character in the Pitakas, e. ., the &re8uent reports o& a complot o& Brahmins )ho came to re&ute publicly the Buddha in a certain premeditated )ay but gre) dumb as soon as they sa) him/ or the complaint o& a +ing about the noisiness o& his ministers )hen he addressed them, )hile a lea& might be heard &alling to the ground e(en in an assembly o& thousands o& people as soon as the Buddha opened his mouth. 'o much about the li&e o& the Buddha, his time and his personality. ;e )ill no) try to understand his principal doctrines. %& these the most important one, both &rom the metaphysical and the ethical points o& (ie), and the one )hich has been most misunderstood, is the doctrine o& the anatt" 5an"tman6 or Not7 'el&. $t came to be interpreted in 8uite di&&erent manners e(en among the Buddhists themsel(es, and a long discussion on the sub9ect arose bet)een them and the 0edanta philosophers, )hich ended only a &e) centuries ago )hen practically all Buddhists had le&t $ndia. $n :urope it )as at one time concluded &rom this doctrine that Nir(ana meant absolute annihilation, and that the Buddha taught metempsychosis )ithout a psy%he, i.e., that he taught reincarnation but denied that there )as a reincarnating soul. The source o& all errors on the BuddhaIs doctrines o& the Not7'el& is the ambiguity o& t)o )ords. The 'ams+rit )ord "tman or 'el&, Pali att", must ha(e meant originally the indi(idual soul concei(ed o& Page E

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

as 2breath,4 as is sho)n by the undeniable connection o& the )ord "tman )ith the 1erman )ord &or breath, namely "tem, and also by the 1ree+ )ord pneuma meaning both breath and spirit. But in the 0edic time preceding the rise o& Buddhism it came to be used in t)o other senses by descending, as it )ere to a lo)er, and on the other hand rising to a higher plane, namely 516 in the sense o& 2body,4 and 5>6 in the sense o& the 2Absolute,4 i.e., 1od as the impersonal ground o& the )orld, )hich is our 'el& in so &ar as it is in us as the e(er7present ultimate root o& our e*istence. Thus it came about that the immutability o& the Highest 'el&, or the Timeless 'el& as )e may call it, )as erroneously trans&erred to the indi(idual soul, so that the latter came to mean something permanent, a substance, )hich is philosophically an absurdity because )e cannot really concei(e o& a thing e*isting in time but not sub9ect to change. $t is this absurdity to )hich, more than a thousand years a&ter the Buddha, e(en the great philosopher 'han+aracharya &ell a (ictim in e*plaining memory by means o& the permanence o& the 'el&/ and it is this absurdity and nothing else )hich the Buddha meant to combat in his innumerable )arnings ne(er to consider as a 2'el&L anything e*isting in the )orld. ;hy he laid so much stress on it )e shall understand later on, )hen )e come to his ethics/ but )e must here e*plain )hy the Highest 'el& o& Brahmanism the Param Brahma or Paramatma, )as not re&erred to by him as the true 'el&, but on the contrary )as also considered as Not7'el&. The reason is- that 9ust as attributes o& the Timeless 'el& had been erroneously trans&erred to the indi(idual 'el&, so the &ormer has been mi*ed up )ith the latter, by attributing to it consciousness and other &eatures )hich it is in reality impossible to imagine as separated &rom time, i.e., the )orld. The Highest Brahman, there&ore, )as to the Buddha, although not a non7entity, yet not essentially di&&erent &rom the Do)er Brahman, the @uler o& a solar system, )ith )hom indeed it appears to ha(e become amalgamated, as a rule, in the Brahmanism o& the BuddhaIs time. 'till, it might be as+ed, )hy did not the Buddha %orre%t the Brahmanic conception o& the AbsoluteF To this the ans)er is that he did correct it, but by silence. Bor three reasons he re&rained &rom spea+ing on this point- &irstly, because it )as a principle )ith him to strictly a(oid philosophical discussions 7 he declined to be a philosopher, nay, )arned against philosophy, and made a sharp di&&erence bet)een philosophical +no)ledge and pa&&" praj&a, i.e., spiritual insight obtainable by his doctrine/ secondly, he +ne) &rom the Brahmanic systems that it )as dangerous to spea+ about the Absolute/ and thirdly, he +ne) that in his case it )as super&luous, because his doctrine )as the sa&est )ay to realiCe that )hich can ne(er be described but merely stated as 2a negati(e border7idea.4 5 ein ne ativer 'ren(be ri))6, to use an e*pression o& the most reno)ned 1erman philosopher. The other )ord )hich is responsible &or the misinterpretation o& the theory o& the Not7'el&, and more particularly &or the strange assertion that the Buddha taught metempsychosis )ithout a psy%he, is the )ord vij&"na, Pali vij&&"na, )hich means spirit or consciousness. The Buddha e*cluded the )ord 2'el&4 &rom the terminology o& his system on account o& the philosophical error )hich had become associated )ith it- his declaration that there is no)here a 'el& in the )orld means simply and solely that there e*ists no permanent indi(iduality. But Pro&essor @hys 3a(ids and other )riters on Buddhism understood it to mean that there is no soul at all, and they belie(ed that this interpretation )as corroborated by the BuddhaIs doctrine o& the '+andhas, Pali *handhas, '+andha means 2stem,4 also 2comple*,4 2department,4 or 2section.4 The )ord )as used by the Buddha to designate the &i(e classes o& phenomena )hich he &ound to be e*pressed in e(ery human being, namely, 516 the body, 5>6 the &eelings 5pleasure and pain6, 5A6 the sensations, 546 the sams+aras, or latent impressions, including most o& )hat )e call character, and 5<6 the vij&"na or thought. This classi&ication becomes less strange i& )e remember that &or the $ndian there is not that sharp di(iding line bet)een matter and consciousness )hich is so conspicuous in :uropean philosophy, consciousness ha(ing al)ays been regarded by him as a sort o& &ine matter. No) the teaching is, that at the time o& death these &i(e '+andhas disintegrate in order to be replaced by a ne) set o& '+andhas at the time o& rebirth, )hich ne) set is in e(ery respect the e*act continuation o& the old one. $t )ould seem, then, that there is no connecting lin+ bet)een the Page 7

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

old and the ne) set/ that is to say, that there is missing here the j+v"tm" or indi(idual soul o& Brahmanism, )hich runs li+e a thread through the innumerable e*istences o& each indi(idual. Ho)e(er, the j+v"tm" is not missing in Buddhism, although it is ne(er called there by that )ord because the )ord "tman or 'el&, as )e ha(e seen, )as debarred. The )ord used &or it is vij&"na# but this vij&"na is not the same as the '+andha mentioned abo(e, &or it is the 2element4 called consciousness, the vij&"na-dh"tu. This is, according to Buddhism, a si*th element to be added to earth, )ater, &ire, )ind and ether/ and )hile the human body, i.e., the &irst or material '+andha, is a %ompound o& these &i(e other elements, the vij&"na, or soul7element, as )e may no) call it , is a unit o& )hich the &our other '+andhas are mere mani&estations during li&e. ;hat really happens, then, at the time o& death is this- the &our 2 onsciousness7'+andhas4 5%etasik" khandh"6 as they are called become latent in the unit underlying them, and that unit, called in this condition, in )hich it has no mani&estations, the patisandhi-vi&&"na, or 2rebirth7consciousness,4 transmigrates immediately or later to the particular being by )hich it is attracted in the act o& conception. There are passages in the Buddhist 'criptures spea+ing o& the 2descent4 o& vij&"na into the )omb o& the mother, )hich lea(e no doubt as to the correctness o& our e*planation, )hich moreo(er is su&&iciently )arranted by the (ery e*istence o& the )ord patisandhi-vi&&"na 2rebirth7 consciousness4, To be 8uite Buddhistic, ho)e(er, )e must add the remar+ that the soul7element is more permanent than the body only in that its &lo), as it )ere, is not interrupted by death. $n itsel& it is changing e(ery moment, its (ibrations being so rapid that in this regard the Buddha once called it less permanent than the body. This soul7unit, though outli(ing the death o& innumerable bodies, at last has also its deathit comes to a sudden end in the death o& the Diberated. ;hat then ta+es place at this &inal death, the Parinir(anaF The older disciples o& the Buddha +ne) that the sub9ect belongs to the A(ya+hatas or things )hich ha(e not been, and cannot be, e*plained 7 to the mysteries. But the younger ones, as )ell as laymen and strangers, o&ten as+ed the Buddha this 8uestion, )ithout e(er obtaining a de&inite ans)er. onse8uently it has been con9ectured by Pro&essor @hys 3a(ids and many others, that the Parinir(ana has no positi(e side at all but signi&ies absolute annihilation, and that the Buddha pre&erred to be silent about it because he )as a&raid that the un(eiled truth )ould be an obstacle to the spread o& his doctrine. That argument sounds 8uite plausible, but it shares )ith the abo(e7mentioned e*planation o& Not7'el& as Not7'oul, the de&ect o& being a 9udgment based on incomplete material. $ ha(e sho)n nine years ago, in an article on the 2 Problem o) Nirvana4 published in the ,ournal o) the Pali Te-t So%iety, that the Parinir(ana has undoubtedly a positi(e side. Nothing has been published since )hich )ould contro(ert my arguments/ )hile, in this connection, a 1erman scholar )ho agrees )ith me, has called attention to a scholastic saying )hich sounds as i& it had been coined )ith special regard to our problem, though it author o& course +ne) nothing o& Buddhism, namely - Ne% taliter ne% aliter sed totaliter aliter, )hich means- 2Neither in such a )ay nor in a di&&erent )ay, but in a totally di&&erent )ay4, or )hen translated into Buddhist language, in the )ords o& the SuttaNipata in a passage on the condition o& the Diberated %ne a&ter death- 2To say o& him- MHe e*ists,I that is not correct/ nor is it correct to say- MHe does not e*istI/ )here e(erything imaginable has ceased, there all possibilities o& speech ha(e also ceased.4 $n another te*t )e read that a mon+ )as once cited be&ore the Buddha and rebu+ed by him because he had concei(ed the heretical opinion that the Diberated %ne a&ter death is completely annihilated. These and similar passages, i& ta+en together, pro(e beyond a shado) o& doubt that Parinir(ana, though meaning indeed 2the total decomposition o& the mental and the physical indi(iduality,4 means at the same time 2the passing o& conditioned being into unconditioned being4. ! Da&cadio Hearn.# ;e must no) consider the doctrine o& karman, )hich $ ha(e pre(iously mentioned )ithout going into details. The doctrine o& karman, Pali kamma teaches that e(ery karman, or 2)or+4 )hich )e do )ith Page ?

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

either our body or our speech or our mind, i.e., e(ery action, e(ery )ord and e(ery thought o& ours, so &ar as they are not ethically indi&&erent 5neither good nor bad6, lea(es in the mind a certain impression 7 or, as Pro&essor Pischel humourously calls it, a bacillus 7 )hich in the near or remote &uture ine(itably de(elops into some pleasant or pain&ul condition or e(ent in our li&e, accordingly as the causati(e deed )as a good one or a bad one. As has o&ten been pointed out, the doctrine o& ,arman is, as it )ere, an e*act elaboration o& the Biblical saying- 2;hatsoe(er a man so)eth, that shall he also reap.4 There is, ho)e(er, a remar+able di&&erence bet)een the Brahmanical and the Buddhistic conception o& ,arman- according to the &ormer the samsk"ra or disposition created by karman, $ mean the bacillus re&erred to, being in itsel& unconscious, re8uires a conscious superintendent )ho ta+es care that the right e&&ect o& a deed comes out at the right time, and this post o& a superintendent o& ,arman is gi(en in the Brahmanic religions to the 1od Brahma 5)ho, by the )ay, )ould seem to ha(e nothing to do other)ise6, or to 0ishnu, or to 'hi(a/ )hereas Buddhism re9ects the possibility o& any such super(ision, &or the simple reason that the superintendents sho) by their being engaged in )or+s that they are not liberated, and conse8uently re8uire to be superintended themsel(es. Buddhism there&ore holds that ,arman )or+s automatically, and that there is not, as the Brahmins belie(e, a possibility o& its being altered by the grace o& a 1od or suppressed by asceticism. :(en the Diberated %ne 7 )ho is rid o& his ,arman according to Brahmanism 7 is in Buddhism still sub9ected to the conse8uences o& his &ormer deeds until his Parinir(ana. Another di&&erence bet)een Brahmanism and Buddhism as regards ,arman, is that Buddhism, at least the Buddhism o& eylon and Burther $ndia 5)hich on the )hole represents the oldest stage o& Buddhism +no)n to us6 denies that everythin is the e&&ect o& &ormer deeds, the deeds themsel(es &or e*ample being not such e&&ects but ne) beginnings as it )ere. This is )hy the Buddhist belie& in ,arman is no)here &ound to produce that paralyCing e&&ect )hich is so o&ten obser(ed in Brahmanic $ndia, )here ,arman is to many really not much more than &ate. ,arman is particularly acti(e at the time o& birth/ &or the ne) birth is entirely determined by the sum o& 'ams+aras present at that time. $& the balance had been &a(ourable the indi(idual )ould ha(e risen to some hea(enly )orld, i& un&a(ourable it )ould ha(e sun+ do)n to hell or to an animal )omb or to the realm o& Pretas or ghosts/ but in both cases there is a return to human e*istence )hen the good or bad ,arman is e*hausted. The Milindapa&ha spea+s o& the increasing &eeling o& sadness )hich a god e*periences )hen he comes into the last period o& his long li&e. There is one class o& gods )hich is e*empt &rom return to the )orld o& men, the gods o& the &our (ery highest hea(ens, the so called Arupa7 Do+as or 'piritual ;orlds i.e., realms in )hich r.pa or matter does not e*ist, but only consciousness in its sublimest &orms. Those &ortunate ones, there&ore, )ho ha(e )or+ed out their sal(ation so &ar that only one more e*istence is necessary &or them, are reborn either as men, or as gods in one o& the Arupa7 Do+as. ;e must no) turn our attention once more to the doctrine o& the Not7'el&, in order to understand the important part it plays in Buddhist morals. 2Bight against passion4 is the )atch)ord o& Buddhism, because only by the cessation o& thirst or desire &or e*istence can Diberation be reached. Any clinging to the 2$4 and to the 2mine4 must there&ore be o(ercome. No), according to the BuddhaIs doctrine, this egoistic clinging is based on an error, on the )rong belie& that there is something permanent in me as an indi(idual, some soul7substance )hich remains the same in spite o& all the changes $ undergo. This error is detected by the doctrine o& the Not7'el&, sho)ing that nothing )hate(er in the )orld is permanent e(en &or the space o& a moment/ that e(erything and e(ery being, i& care&ully analyCed, pro(es li+e the stem o& the plantain7tree to consist o& many lea(es rolled one o(er the other )ithout anything substantial in the centre. There is a seeming unity and permanency in indi(idual e*istence, but it is that o& the &lame consisting o& innumerable particles, each o& )hich changes e(ery moment. onse8uently he )ho has Page 9

Adyar Pamphlets

Buddhism

No. 47

realiCed that neither his body, nor his &eelings, nor his sensations, nor his (olitions, nor his ideas, nor all o& these together, nor any other thing or things constitute the supposed permanent :go, the 'el& &or )hich he used to toil in his )orldly underta+ings, that there is in &act no such 'el& at all, such a one is sure to get rid gradually o& his egotism and to approach Diberation at a corresponding rate. The Buddha, there&ore, recommended his mon+s, o(er and o(er again, to meditate on the body, or one o& the mental '+andhas, or on some e*ternal ob9ect )ith the constant thought- 2That is not mine/ $ am not that/ that is not mysel&.4 The doctrine o& the Not7'el& has produced the &inest &lo)er o& Buddhist ethics, namely- its practice o& lo(e 5maitri, Pali metta6. To understand that nothing in particular is mysel&, is tantamount to recogniCing everythin as mysel&. A change o& centre ta+es place and the mon+ +no)ing Anatta begins to loo+ at his &ello)7creatures as part and parcel o& himsel&. This is called the Diberation o& the "ind 5%etovimuki, Pali %etovimutti6, o& )hich the Buddha says in the /tivuttaka- 2All the means in this li&e, ye mon+s, to ac8uire religious merit ha(e not the (alue o& a si*teenth part o& lo(e, the Diberation o& the "ind.4 And in another passage he declares that to produce Do(e in oneIs mind &or a single moment is a more commendable deed that to distribute among the poor thrice a day a hundred pots o& &ood. The mon+s are recommended to sit do)n in a lonely place and to send out thoughts o& 2immeasurable lo(e4 &or all beings into the &our 8uarters, one a&ter the other, then to the Cenith and to the nadir- they should endea(our to actually lo(e all beings )ith the lo(e o& a mother )ho protects )ith her li&e her only child. $& somebody is un+ind to him, the mon+ has to permeate him )ith the spirit o& lo(e. :(en i& robbers torture him in the most cruel )ay, says the Majjhima-Nikaya, no bad )ords should escape his lips, but pity and lo(e only should he &eel to)ards them. This Buddhist lo(e is di&&erent &rom the hristian lo(e in that it does not admit o& any passion, or any &anaticism )hate(er, any (ictory o& &eeling o(er reason. Being passionless bene(olence, it is o& course also 8uite di&&erent &rom Bhakti or lo(e &or 1od, as this implies a clinging. $ may notice here, by the )ay, that Buddhism has no Personal 1od li+e the one o& Brahmanism and hristianity, and is there&ore in this sense really atheistic. The spirit o& lo(e so prominent in Buddhism sho)s itsel& also in the (ery &irst o& the &i(e precepts )hich e(ery Buddhist, layman and mon+, must promise to +eep, the precept not to destroy li&e, about )hich the Dhammika Sutta says the &ollo)ing- 2Det him not destroy or cause to be destroyed any li&e at all, or sanction the acts o& those )ho do so. Det him re&rain &rom e(en hurting any creature, both those that are strong and those that tremble in the )orld.4 The remaining &our precepts are - not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to tell lies, not to indulge in into*icating drin+s. "any more things might be said about the Buddhist moral code, but they re&er to minor points only/ su&&ice it to say that it has al)ays been much admired, e(en by those )ho came to con(ert these Buddhist pagans and atheists. There are also a &e) philosophical doctrines )hich $ ha(e not discussed, and $ ha(e not been able to say anything about the constitution o& the %rder or about the history o& Buddhism, )hich is e*ceedingly interesting. But i& $ ha(e succeeded in con(incing you that the Buddhist religion is (ery much more than a mere relic o& the past, that it is indeed li+ely to ha(e a greater &uture than most o& the e*isting religions, then perhaps you may endea(our to become ac8uainted )ith the )or+s on Buddhism and )ith the many translations already a(ailable o& parts o& one o& the grandest Page 1=

Adyar Pamphlets
'criptures o& the )orld.

Buddhism

No. 47

Page 11