Aristotle The History of Animals

Book I 1 OF the parts of animals some are simple: to wit, all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves, as, for instance, the hand does not divide into hands nor the face into faces! And of such as these, some are called not parts merely, "ut lim"s or mem"ers! #uch are those parts that, while entire in themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts: as for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts "elon$in$ to them! All those parts that do not su"divide into parts uniform with themselves are composed of parts that do so su"divide, for instance, hand is composed of flesh, sinews, and "ones! Of animals, some resem"le one another in all their parts, while others have parts wherein they differ! #ometimes the parts are identical in form or species, as, for instance, one man%s nose or eye resem"les another man%s nose or eye, flesh flesh, and "one "one and in like

manner with a horse, and with all other animals which we reckon to "e of one and the same species: for as the whole is to the whole, so each to each are the parts severally! In other cases the parts are identical, save only for a difference in the way of e&cess or defect, as is the case in such animals as are of one and the same $enus! By '$enus% I mean, for instance, Bird or Fish, for each of these is su"(ect to difference in respect of its $enus, and there are many species of fishes and of "irds! )ithin the limits of $enera, most of the parts as a rule e&hi"it differences throu$h contrast of the property or accident, such as colour and shape, to which they are su"(ect: in that some are more and some in a less de$ree the su"(ect of the same property or accident and also in the way of multitude or fewness, ma$nitude or parvitude, in short in the way of e&cess or defect! Thus in some the te&ture of the flesh is soft, in others firm some have a lon$ "ill, others a short one some have a"undance of feathers, others have only a small *uantity! It happens further that some have parts that others have not: for instance, some have spurs and others not, some have crests and others not "ut as a $eneral rule, most parts and those that $o to make up the "ulk of the "ody are either identical with one another, or differ from one another in the way of contrast and of e&cess and defect! For 'the more% and 'the less% may "e represented as 'e&cess% or 'defect%! Once a$ain, we may have to do with animals whose parts are neither identical in form nor yet identical save for differences in

the way of e&cess or defect: "ut they are the same only in the way of analo$y, as, for instance, "one is only analo$ous to fish+"one, nail to hoof, hand to claw, and scale to feather for what the feather is in a "ird, the scale is in a fish! The parts, then, which animals severally possess are diverse from, or identical with, one another in the fashion a"ove descri"ed! And they are so furthermore in the way of local disposition: for many animals have identical or$ans that differ in position for instance, some have teats in the "reast, others close to the thi$hs! Of the su"stances that are composed of parts uniform ,or homo$eneous- with themselves, some are soft and moist, others are dry and solid! The soft and moist are such either a"solutely or so lon$ as they are in their natural conditions, as, for instance, "lood, serum, lard, suet, marrow, sperm, $all, milk in such as have it flesh and the like and also, in a different way, the superfluities, as phle$m and the e&cretions of the "elly and the "ladder! The dry and solid are such as sinew, skin, vein, hair, "one, $ristle, nail, horn ,a term which as applied to the part involves an am"i$uity, since the whole also "y virtue of its form is desi$nated horn-, and such parts as present an analo$y to these! Animals differ from one another in their modes of su"sistence, in their actions, in their ha"its, and in their parts! .oncernin$ these differences we shall first speak in "road and $eneral terms, and su"se*uently we shall treat of the same with close reference to each particular $enus!

/ifferences are manifested in modes of su"sistence, in ha"its, in actions performed! For instance, some animals live in water and others on land! And of those that live in water some do so in one way, and some in another: that is to say, some live and feed in the water, take in and emit water, and cannot live if deprived of water, as is the case with the $reat ma(ority of fishes others $et their food and spend their days in the water, "ut do not take in water "ut air, nor do they "rin$ forth in the water! 0any of these creatures are furnished with feet, as the otter, the "eaver, and the crocodile some are furnished with win$s, as the diver and the $re"e some are destitute of feet, as the water+snake! #ome creatures $et their livin$ in the water and cannot e&ist outside it: "ut for all that do not take in either air or water, as, for instance, the sea+nettle and the oyster! And of creatures that live in the water some live in the sea, some in rivers, some in lakes, and some in marshes, as the fro$ and the newt! Of animals that live on dry land some take in air and emit it, which phenomena are termed 'inhalation% and 'e&halation% as, for instance, man and all such land animals as are furnished with lun$s! Others, a$ain, do not inhale air, yet live and find their sustenance on dry land as, for instance, the wasp, the "ee, and all other insects! And "y 'insects% I mean such creatures as have nicks or notches on their "odies, either on their "ellies or on "oth "acks and "ellies!

And of land animals many, as has "een said, derive their su"sistence from the water "ut of creatures that live in and inhale water not a sin$le one derives its su"sistence from dry land! #ome animals at first live in water, and "y and "y chan$e their shape and live out of water, as is the case with river worms, for out of these the $adfly develops! Furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic! #tationary animals are found in water, "ut no such creature is found on dry land! In the water are many creatures that live in close adhesion to an e&ternal o"(ect, as is the case with several kinds of oyster! And, "y the way, the spon$e appears to "e endowed with a certain sensi"ility: as a proof of which it is alle$ed that the difficulty in detachin$ it from its moorin$s is increased if the movement to detach it "e not covertly applied! Other creatures adhere at one time to an o"(ect and detach themselves from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so+called sea+nettle for some of these creatures seek their food in the ni$ht+time loose and unattached! 0any creatures are unattached "ut motionless, as is the case with oysters and the so+called holothuria! #ome can swim, as, for instance, fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans, such as the crawfish! But some of these last move "y walkin$, as the cra", for it is the nature of the creature, thou$h it lives in water, to move "y walkin$! Of land animals some are furnished with win$s, such as "irds and "ees, and these are so furnished in different ways one from

another others are furnished with feet! Of the animals that are furnished with feet some walk, some creep, and some wri$$le! But no creature is a"le only to move "y flyin$, as the fish is a"le only to swim, for the animals with leathern win$s can walk the "at has feet and the seal has imperfect feet! #ome "irds have feet of little power, and are therefore called Apodes! This little "ird is powerful on the win$ and, as a rule, "irds that resem"le it are weak+footed and stron$ win$ed, such as the swallow and the drepanis or ,1- Alpine swift for all these "irds resem"le one another in their ha"its and in their pluma$e, and may easily "e mistaken one for another! ,The apus is to "e seen at all seasons, "ut the drepanis only after rainy weather in summer for this is the time when it is seen and captured, thou$h, as a $eneral rule, it is a rare "ird!A$ain, some animals move "y walkin$ on the $round as well as "y swimmin$ in water! Furthermore, the followin$ differences are manifest in their modes of livin$ and in their actions! #ome are $re$arious, some are solitary, whether they "e furnished with feet or win$s or "e fitted for a life in the water and some partake of "oth characters, the solitary and the $re$arious! And of the $re$arious, some are disposed to com"ine for social purposes, others to live each for its own self! 2re$arious creatures are, amon$ "irds, such as the pi$eon, the crane, and the swan and, "y the way, no "ird furnished with

crooked talons is $re$arious! Of creatures that live in water many kinds of fishes are $re$arious, such as the so+called mi$rants, the tunny, the pelamys, and the "onito! 0an, "y the way, presents a mi&ture of the two characters, the $re$arious and the solitary! #ocial creatures are such as have some one common o"(ect in view and this property is not common to all creatures that are $re$arious! #uch social creatures are man, the "ee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane! A$ain, of these social creatures some su"mit to a ruler, others are su"(ect to no $overnance: as, for instance, the crane and the several sorts of "ee su"mit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures are every one his own master! And a$ain, "oth of $re$arious and of solitary animals, some are attached to a fi&ed home and others are erratic or nomad! Also, some are carnivorous, some $raminivorous, some omnivorous: whilst some feed on a peculiar diet, as for instance the "ees and the spiders, for the "ee lives on honey and certain other sweets, and the spider lives "y catchin$ flies and some creatures live on fish! A$ain, some creatures catch their food, others treasure it up whereas others do not so! #ome creatures provide themselves with a dwellin$, others $o without one: of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant, the "ee of the latter kind are many insects and *uadrupeds! Further, in respect to locality of dwellin$ place, some creatures

dwell under $round, as the li3ard and the snake others live on the surface of the $round, as the horse and the do$! make to themselves holes, others do not #ome are nocturnal, as the owl and the "at others live in the dayli$ht! 0oreover, some creatures are tame and some are wild: some are at all times tame, as man and the mule others are at all times sava$e, as the leopard and the wolf and some creatures can "e rapidly tamed, as the elephant! A$ain, we may re$ard animals in another li$ht! For, whenever a race of animals is found domesticated, the same is always to "e found in a wild condition as we find to "e the case with horses, kine, swine, ,men-, sheep, $oats, and do$s! Further, some animals emit sound while others are mute, and some are endowed with voice: of these latter some have articulate speech, while others are inarticulate some are $iven to continual chirpin$ and twitterin$ some are prone to silence some are musical, and some unmusical "ut all animals without e&ception e&ercise their power of sin$in$ or chatterin$ chiefly in conne&ion with the intercourse of the se&es! A$ain, some creatures live in the fields, as the cushat some on the mountains, as the hoopoe some fre*uent the a"odes of men, as the pi$eon! #ome, a$ain, are peculiarly salacious, as the partrid$e, the "arn+ door cock and their con$eners others are inclined to chastity, as

the whole tri"e of crows, for "irds of this kind indul$e "ut rarely in se&ual intercourse! Of marine animals, a$ain, some live in the open seas, some near the shore, some on rocks! Furthermore, some are com"ative under offence others are provident for defence! Of the former kind are such as act as a$$ressors upon others or retaliate when su"(ected to ill usa$e, and of the latter kind are such as merely have some means of $uardin$ themselves a$ainst attack! Animals also differ from one another in re$ard to character in the followin$ respects! #ome are $ood+tempered, slu$$ish, and little prone to ferocity, as the o& others are *uick tempered, ferocious and unteacha"le, as the wild "oar some are intelli$ent and timid, as the sta$ and the hare others are mean and treacherous, as the snake others are no"le and coura$eous and hi$h+"red, as the lion others are thorou$h+"red and wild and treacherous, as the wolf: for, "y the way, an animal is hi$h"red if it come from a no"le stock, and an animal is thorou$h+"red if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics! Further, some are crafty and mischievous, as the fo& some are spirited and affectionate and fawnin$, as the do$ others are easy+ tempered and easily domesticated, as the elephant others are cautious and watchful, as the $oose others are (ealous and self+ conceited, as the peacock! But of all animals man alone is capa"le of deli"eration!

0any animals have memory, and are capa"le of instruction "ut no other creature e&cept man can recall the past at will! )ith re$ard to the several $enera of animals, particulars as to their ha"its of life and modes of e&istence will "e discussed more fully "y and "y! 4 .ommon to all animals are the or$ans where"y they take food and the or$ans where into they take it and these are either identical with one another, or are diverse in the ways a"ove specified: to wit, either identical in form, or varyin$ in respect of e&cess or defect, or resem"lin$ one another analo$ically, or differin$ in position! Furthermore, the $reat ma(ority of animals have other or$ans "esides these in common, where"y they dischar$e the residuum of their food: I say, the $reat ma(ority, for this statement does not apply to all! And, "y the way, the or$an where"y food is taken in is called the mouth, and the or$an whereinto it is taken, the "elly the remainder of the alimentary system has a $reat variety of names! 5ow the residuum of food is twofold in kind, wet and dry, and such creatures as have or$ans receptive of wet residuum are invaria"ly found with or$ans receptive of dry residuum "ut such as have or$ans receptive of dry residuum need not possess or$ans receptive of wet residuum! In other words, an animal has a "owel or intestine if it have a "ladder "ut an animal may have a "owel

and "e without a "ladder! And, "y the way, I may here remark that the or$an receptive of wet residuum is termed '"ladder%, and the or$an receptive of dry residuum 'intestine or '"owel%! 6 Of animals otherwise, a $reat many have, "esides the or$ans a"ove+mentioned, an or$an for e&cretion of the sperm: and of animals capa"le of $eneration one secretes into another, and the other into itself! The latter is termed 'female%, and the former 'male% "ut some animals have neither male nor female! .onse*uently, the or$ans connected with this function differ in form, for some animals have a wom" and others an or$an analo$ous thereto! The a"ove+mentioned or$ans, then, are the most indispensa"le parts of animals and with some of them all animals without e&ception, and with others animals for the most part, must needs "e provided! One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals+the sense of touch! .onse*uently, there is no special name for the or$an in which it has its seat for in some $roups of animals the or$an is identical, in others it is only analo$ous! 7 8very animal is supplied with moisture, and, if the animal "e deprived of the same "y natural causes or artificial means, death ensues: further, every animal has another part in which the

moisture is contained! These parts are "lood and vein, and in other animals there is somethin$ to correspond "ut in these latter the parts are imperfect, "ein$ merely fi"re and serum or lymph! Touch has its seat in a part uniform and homo$eneous, as in the flesh or somethin$ of the kind, and $enerally, with animals supplied with "lood, in the parts char$ed with "lood! In other animals it has its seat in parts analo$ous to the parts char$ed with "lood "ut in all cases it is seated in parts that in their te&ture are homo$eneous! The active faculties, on the contrary, are seated in the parts that are hetero$eneous: as, for instance, the "usiness of preparin$ the food is seated in the mouth, and the office of locomotion in the feet, the win$s, or in or$ans to correspond! A$ain, some animals are supplied with "lood, as man, the horse, and all such animals as are, when full+$rown, either destitute of feet, or two+footed, or four+footed other animals are "loodless, such as the "ee and the wasp, and, of marine animals, the cuttle+ fish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have more than four feet! 9 A$ain, some animals are viviparous, others oviparous, others vermiparous or '$ru"+"earin$%! #ome are viviparous, such as man, the horse, the seal, and all other animals that are hair+coated, and, of marine animals, the cetaceans, as the dolphin, and the so+called #elachia! ,Of these latter animals, some have a tu"ular air+passa$e

and no $ills, as the dolphin and the whale: the dolphin with the air+ passa$e $oin$ throu$h its "ack, the whale with the air+passa$e in its forehead others have uncovered $ills, as the #elachia, the sharks and rays!)hat we term an e$$ is a certain completed result of conception out of which the animal that is to "e develops, and in such a way that in respect to its primitive $erm it comes from part only of the e$$, while the rest serves for food as the $erm develops! A '$ru"% on the other hand is a thin$ out of which in its entirety the animal in its entirety develops, "y differentiation and $rowth of the em"ryo! Of viviparous animals, some hatch e$$s in their own interior, as creatures of the shark kind others en$ender in their interior a live foetus, as man and the horse! )hen the result of conception is perfected, with some animals a livin$ creature is "rou$ht forth, with others an e$$ is "rou$ht to li$ht, with others a $ru"! Of the e$$s, some have e$$+shells and are of two different colours within, such as "irds% e$$s others are soft+skinned and of uniform colour, as the e$$s of animals of the shark kind! Of the $ru"s, some are from the first capa"le of movement, others are motionless! However, with re$ard to these phenomena we shall speak precisely hereafter when we come to treat of 2eneration! Furthermore, some animals have feet and some are destitute thereof! Of such as have feet some animals have two, as is the case with men and "irds, and with men and "irds only some have four,

as the li3ard and the do$ some have more, as the centipede and the "ee "ut allsoever that have feet have an even num"er of them! Of swimmin$ creatures that are destitute of feet, some have win$lets or fins, as fishes: and of these some have four fins, two a"ove on the "ack, two "elow on the "elly, as the $ilthead and the "asse some have two only,+to wit, such as are e&ceedin$ly lon$ and smooth, as the eel and the con$er some have none at all, as the muraena, "ut use the sea (ust as snakes use dry $round+and "y the way, snakes swim in water in (ust the same way! Of the shark+kind some have no fins, such as those that are flat and lon$+tailed, as the ray and the stin$+ray, "ut these fishes swim actually "y the undulatory motion of their flat "odies the fishin$ fro$, however, has fins, and so likewise have all such fishes as have not their flat surfaces thinned off to a sharp ed$e! Of those swimmin$ creatures that appear to have feet, as is the case with the molluscs, these creatures swim "y the aid of their feet and their fins as well, and they swim most rapidly "ackwards in the direction of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttle+fish or sepia and the calamary and, "y the way, neither of these latter can walk as the poulpe or octopus can! The hard+skinned or crustaceous animals, like the crawfish, swim "y the instrumentality of their tail+parts and they swim most rapidly tail foremost, "y the aid of the fins developed upon that mem"er! The newt swims "y means of its feet and tail and its tail resem"les that of the sheatfish, to compare little with $reat!

Of animals that can fly some are furnished with feathered win$s, as the ea$le and the hawk some are furnished with mem"ranous win$s, as the "ee and the cockchafer others are furnished with leathern win$s, as the flyin$ fo& and the "at! All flyin$ creatures possessed of "lood have feathered win$s or leathern win$s the "loodless creatures have mem"ranous win$s, as insects! The creatures that have feathered win$s or leathern win$s have either two feet or no feet at all: for there are said to "e certain flyin$ serpents in 8thiopia that are destitute of feet! .reatures that have feathered win$s are classed as a $enus under the name of '"ird% the other two $enera, the leathern+win$ed and mem"rane+win$ed, are as yet without a $eneric title! Of creatures that can fly and are "loodless some are coleopterous or sheath+win$ed, for they have their win$s in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer and the dun$+"eetle others are sheathless, and of these latter some are dipterous and some tetrapterous: tetrapterous, such as are comparatively lar$e or have their stin$s in the tail, dipterous, such as are comparatively small or have their stin$s in front! The coleoptera are, without e&ception, devoid of stin$s the diptera have the stin$ in front, as the fly, the horsefly, the $adfly, and the $nat! Bloodless animals as a $eneral rule are inferior in point of si3e to "looded animals thou$h, "y the way, there are found in the sea some few "loodless creatures of a"normal si3e, as in the case of certain molluscs! And of these "loodless $enera, those are the

lar$est that dwell in milder climates, and those that inha"it the sea are lar$er than those livin$ on dry land or in fresh water! All creatures that are capa"le of motion move with four or more points of motion the "looded animals with four only: as, for instance, man with two hands and two feet, "irds with two win$s and two feet, *uadrupeds and fishes severally with four feet and four fins! .reatures that have two win$lets or fins, or that have none at all like serpents, move all the same with not less than four points of motion for there are four "ends in their "odies as they move, or two "ends to$ether with their fins! Bloodless and many footed animals, whether furnished with win$s or feet, move with more than four points of motion as, for instance, the dayfly moves with four feet and four win$s: and, I may o"serve in passin$, this creature is e&ceptional not only in re$ard to the duration of its e&istence, whence it receives its name, "ut also "ecause thou$h a *uadruped it has win$s also! All animals move alike, four+footed and many+footed in other words, they all move cross+corner+wise! And animals in $eneral have two feet in advance the cra" alone has four! : ;ery e&tensive $enera of animals, into which other su"divisions fall, are the followin$: one, of "irds one, of fishes and another, of cetaceans! 5ow all these creatures are "looded!

There is another $enus of the hard+shell kind, which is called oyster another of the soft+shell kind, not as yet desi$nated "y a sin$le term, such as the spiny crawfish and the various kinds of cra"s and lo"sters and another of molluscs, as the two kinds of calamary and the cuttle+fish that of insects is different! All these latter creatures are "loodless, and such of them as have feet have a $oodly num"er of them and of the insects some have win$s as well as feet! Of the other animals the $enera are not e&tensive! For in them one species does not comprehend many species "ut in one case, as man, the species is simple, admittin$ of no differentiation, while other cases admit of differentiation, "ut the forms lack particular desi$nations! #o, for instance, creatures that are *udapedal and unprovided with win$s are "looded without e&ception, "ut some of them are viviparous, and some oviparous! #uch as are viviparous are hair+ coated, and such as are oviparous are covered with a kind of tessellated hard su"stance and the tessellated "its of this su"stance are, as it were, similar in re$ard to position to a scale! An animal that is "looded and capa"le of movement on dry land, "ut is naturally unprovided with feet, "elon$s to the serpent $enus and animals of this $enus are coated with the tessellated horny su"stance! #erpents in $eneral are oviparous the adder, an e&ceptional case, is viviparous: for not all viviparous animals are hair+coated, and some fishes also are viviparous!

All animals, however, that are hair+coated are viviparous! For, "y the way, one must re$ard as a kind of hair such prickly hairs as hed$eho$s and porcupines carry for these spines perform the office of hair, and not of feet as is the case with similar parts of sea+urchins! In the $enus that com"ines all viviparous *uadrupeds are many species, "ut under no common appellation! They are only named as it were one "y one, as we say man, lion, sta$, horse, do$, and so on thou$h, "y the way, there is a sort of $enus that em"races all creatures that have "ushy manes and "ushy tails, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the (ennet, and the animals that are called Hemioni in #yria,+from their e&ternally resem"lin$ mules, thou$h they are not strictly of the same species! And that they are not so is proved "y the fact that they mate with and "reed from one another! For all these reasons, we must take animals species "y species, and discuss their peculiarities severally% These precedin$ statements, then, have "een put forward thus in a $eneral way, as a kind of foretaste of the num"er of su"(ects and of the properties that we have to consider in order that we may first $et a clear notion of distinctive character and common properties! By and "y we shall discuss these matters with $reater minuteness! After this we shall pass on to the discussion of causes! For to do this when the investi$ation of the details is complete is the proper and natural method, and that where"y the su"(ects and the premisses of our ar$ument will afterwards "e rendered plain!

In the first place we must look to the constituent parts of animals! For it is in a way relative to these parts, first and foremost, that animals in their entirety differ from one another: either in the fact that some have this or that, while they have not that or this or "y peculiarities of position or of arran$ement or "y the differences that have "een previously mentioned, dependin$ upon diversity of form, or e&cess or defect in this or that particular, on analo$y, or on contrasts of the accidental *ualities! To "e$in with, we must take into consideration the parts of 0an! For, (ust as each nation is wont to reckon "y that monetary standard with which it is most familiar, so must we do in other matters! And, of course, man is the animal with which we are all of us the most familiar! 5ow the parts are o"vious enou$h to physical perception! However, with the view of o"servin$ due order and se*uence and of com"inin$ rational notions with physical perception, we shall proceed to enumerate the parts: firstly, the or$anic, and afterwards the simple or non+composite! < The chief parts into which the "ody as a whole is su"divided, are the head, the neck, the trunk ,e&tendin$ from the neck to the privy parts-, which is called the thora&, two arms and two le$s! Of the parts of which the head is composed the hair+covered portion is called the 'skull%! The front portion of it is termed

'"re$ma% or 'sinciput%, developed after "irth+for it is the last of all the "ones in the "ody to ac*uire solidity,+the hinder part is termed the 'occiput%, and the part intervenin$ "etween the sinciput and the occiput is the 'crown%! The "rain lies underneath the sinciput the occiput is hollow! The skull consists entirely of thin "one, rounded in shape, and contained within a wrapper of fleshless skin! The skull has sutures: one, of circular form, in the case of women in the case of men, as a $eneral rule, three meetin$ at a point! Instances have "een known of a man%s skull devoid of suture alto$ether! In the skull the middle line, where the hair parts, is called the crown or verte&! In some cases the partin$ is dou"le that is to say, some men are dou"le crowned, not in re$ard to the "ony skull, "ut in conse*uence of the dou"le fall or set of the hair! = The part that lies under the skull is called the 'face%: "ut in the case of man only, for the term is not applied to a fish or to an o&! In the face the part "elow the sinciput and "etween the eyes is termed the forehead! )hen men have lar$e foreheads, they are slow to move when they have small ones, they are fickle when they have "road ones, they are apt to "e distrau$ht when they have foreheads rounded or "ul$in$ out, they are *uick+tempered! >

?nderneath the forehead are two eye"rows! #trai$ht eye"rows are a si$n of softness of disposition such as curve in towards the nose, of harshness such as curve out towards the temples, of humour and dissimulation such as are drawn in towards one another, of (ealousy! ?nder the eye"rows come the eyes! These are naturally two in num"er! 8ach of them has an upper and a lower eyelid, and the hairs on the ed$es of these are termed 'eyelashes%! The central part of the eye includes the moist part where"y vision is effected, termed the 'pupil%, and the part surroundin$ it called the '"lack% the part outside this is the 'white%! A part common to the upper and lower eyelid is a pair of nicks or corners, one in the direction of the nose, and the other in the direction of the temples! )hen these are lon$ they are a si$n of "ad disposition if the side toward the nostril "e fleshy and com"+like, they are a si$n of dishonesty! All animals, as a $eneral rule, are provided with eyes, e&ceptin$ the ostracoderms and other imperfect creatures at all events, all viviparous animals have eyes, with the e&ception of the mole! And yet one mi$ht assert that, thou$h the mole has not eyes in the full sense, yet it has eyes in a kind of a way! For in point of a"solute fact it cannot see, and has no eyes visi"le e&ternally "ut when the outer skin is removed, it is found to have the place where eyes are usually situated, and the "lack parts of the eyes ri$htly situated, and all the place that is usually devoted on the outside to eyes:

showin$ that the parts are stunted in development, and the skin allowed to $row over! 1@ Of the eye the white is pretty much the same in all creatures "ut what is called the "lack differs in various animals! #ome have the rim "lack, some distinctly "lue, some $reyish+"lue, some $reenish and this last colour is the si$n of an e&cellent disposition, and is particularly well adapted for sharpness of vision! 0an is the only, or nearly the only, creature, that has eyes of diverse colours! Animals, as a rule, have eyes of one colour only! #ome horses have "lue eyes! Of eyes, some are lar$e, some small, some medium+si3ed of these, the medium+si3ed are the "est! 0oreover, eyes sometimes protrude, sometimes recede, sometimes are neither protrudin$ nor recedin$! Of these, the recedin$ eye is in all animals the most acute "ut the last kind are the si$n of the "est disposition! A$ain, eyes are sometimes inclined to wink under o"servation, sometimes to remain open and starin$, and sometimes are disposed neither to wink nor stare! The last kind are the si$n of the "est nature, and of the others, the latter kind indicates impudence, and the former indecision! 11

Furthermore, there is a portion of the head, where"y an animal hears, a part incapa"le of "reathin$, the 'ear%! I say 'incapa"le of "reathin$%, for Alcmaeon is mistaken when he says that $oats inspire throu$h their ears! Of the ear one part is unnamed, the other part is called the 'lo"e% and it is entirely composed of $ristle and flesh! The ear is constructed internally like the trumpet+shell, and the innermost "one is like the ear itself, and into it at the end the sound makes its way, as into the "ottom of a (ar! This receptacle does not communicate "y any passa$e with the "rain, "ut does so with the palate, and a vein e&tends from the "rain towards it! The eyes also are connected with the "rain, and each of them lies at the end of a little vein! Of animals possessed of ears man is the only one that cannot move this or$an! Of creatures possessed of hearin$, some have ears, whilst others have none, "ut merely have the passa$es for ears visi"le, as, for e&ample, feathered animals or animals coated with horny tessellates! ;iviparous animals, with the e&ception of the seal, the dolphin, and those others which after a similar fashion to these are cetaceans, are all provided with ears for, "y the way, the shark+ kind are also viviparous! 5ow, the seal has the passa$es visi"le where"y it hears "ut the dolphin can hear, "ut has no ears, nor yet any passa$es visi"le! But man alone is una"le to move his ears, and all other animals can move them! And the ears lie, with man, in the same hori3ontal plane with the eyes, and not in a plane a"ove them as is the case with some *uadrupeds! Of ears, some are fine, some

are coarse, and some are of medium te&ture the last kind are "est for hearin$, "ut they serve in no way to indicate character! #ome ears are lar$e, some small, some medium+si3ed a$ain, some stand out far, some lie in close and ti$ht, and some take up a medium position of these such as are of medium si3e and of medium position are indications of the "est disposition, while the lar$e and outstandin$ ones indicate a tendency to irrelevant talk or chatterin$! The part intercepted "etween the eye, the ear, and the crown is termed the 'temple%! A$ain, there is a part of the countenance that serves as a passa$e for the "reath, the 'nose%! For a man inhales and e&hales "y this or$an, and snee3in$ is effected "y its means: which last is an outward rush of collected "reath, and is the only mode of "reath used as an omen and re$arded as supernatural! Both inhalation and e&halation $o ri$ht on from the nose towards the chest and with the nostrils alone and separately it is impossi"le to inhale or e&hale, owin$ to the fact that the inspiration and respiration take place from the chest alon$ the windpipe, and not "y any portion connected with the head and indeed it is possi"le for a creature to live without usin$ this process of nasal respiration! A$ain, smellin$ takes place "y means of the nose,+smellin$, or the sensi"le discrimination of odour! And the nostril admits of easy motion, and is not, like the ear, intrinsically immova"le! A part of it, composed of $ristle, constitutes, a septum or partition, and part is an open passa$e for the nostril consists of two separate

channels! The nostril ,or nose- of the elephant is lon$ and stron$, and the animal uses it like a hand for "y means of this or$an it draws o"(ects towards it, and takes hold of them, and introduces its food into its mouth, whether li*uid or dry food, and it is the only livin$ creature that does so! Furthermore, there are two (aws the front part of them constitutes the chin, and the hinder part the cheek! All animals move the lower (aw, with the e&ception of the river crocodile this creature moves the upper (aw only! 5e&t after the nose come two lips, composed of flesh, and facile of motion! The mouth lies inside the (aws and lips! Aarts of the mouth are the roof or palate and the pharyn&! The part that is sensi"le of taste is the ton$ue! The sensation has its seat at the tip of the ton$ue if the o"(ect to "e tasted "e placed on the flat surface of the or$an, the taste is less sensi"ly e&perienced! The ton$ue is sensitive in all other ways wherein flesh in $eneral is so: that is, it can appreciate hardness, or warmth and cold, in any part of it, (ust as it can appreciate taste! The ton$ue is sometimes "road, sometimes narrow, and sometimes of medium width the last kind is the "est and the clearest in its discrimination of taste! 0oreover, the ton$ue is sometimes loosely hun$, and sometimes fastened: as in the case of those who mum"le and who lisp! The ton$ue consists of flesh, soft and spon$y, and the so+called 'epi$lottis% is a part of this or$an!

That part of the mouth that splits into two "its is called the 'tonsils% that part that splits into many "its, the '$ums%! Both the tonsils and the $ums are composed of flesh! In the $ums are teeth, composed of "one! Inside the mouth is another part, shaped like a "unch of $rapes, a pillar streaked with veins! If this pillar $ets rela&ed and inflamed it is called 'uvula% or '"unch of $rapes%, and it then has a tendency to "rin$ a"out suffocation! 14 The neck is the part "etween the face and the trunk! Of this the front part is the laryn& land the "ack part the ur The front part, composed of $ristle, throu$h which respiration and speech is effected, is termed the 'windpipe% the part that is fleshy is the oesopha$us, inside (ust in front of the chine! The part to the "ack of the neck is the epomis, or 'shoulder+point%! These then are the parts to "e met with "efore you come to the thora&! To the trunk there is a front part and a "ack part! 5e&t after the neck in the front part is the chest, with a pair of "reasts! To each of the "reasts is attached a teat or nipple, throu$h which in the case of females the milk percolates and the "reast is of a spon$y te&ture! 0ilk, "y the way, is found at times in the male "ut with the male the flesh of the "reast is tou$h, with the female it is soft and porous!

16 5e&t after the thora& and in front comes the '"elly%, and its root the 'navel%! ?nderneath this root the "ilateral part is the 'flank%: the undivided part "elow the navel, the 'a"domen%, the e&tremity of which is the re$ion of the 'pu"es% the flank is the $ut+cavity! #ervin$ as a "race $irdle to the hinder parts is the pelvis, and hence it $ets its name ,osphus-, for it is symmetrical ,isophues- in appearance of the fundament the part for restin$ on is termed the 'rump%, and the part whereon the thi$h pivots is termed the 'socket% ,or aceta"ulum-! The 'wom"% is a part peculiar to the female and the 'penis% is peculiar to the male! This latter or$an is e&ternal and situated at the e&tremity of the trunk it is composed of two separate parts: of which the e&treme part is fleshy, does not alter in si3e, and is called the $lans and round a"out it is a skin devoid of any specific title, which inte$ument if it "e cut asunder never $rows to$ether a$ain, any more than does the (aw or the eyelid! And the conne&ion "etween the latter and the $lans is called the frenum! The remainin$ part of the penis is composed of $ristle it is easily suscepti"le of enlar$ement and it protrudes and recedes in the reverse directions to what is o"serva"le in the identical or$an in cats! ?nderneath the penis are two 'testicles%, and the inte$ument of these is a skin that is termed the 'scrotum%! a"ove the navel the 'hypochondrium% the cavity common to the hypochondrium and

Testicles are not identical with flesh, and are not alto$ether diverse from it! But "y and "y we shall treat in an e&haustive way re$ardin$ all such parts! 17 The privy part of the female is in character opposite to that of the male! In other words, the part under the pu"es is hollow or recedin$, and not, like the male or$an, protrudin$! Further, there is an 'urethra% outside the wom" which or$an serves as a passa$e for the sperm of the male, and as an outlet for li*uid e&cretion to "oth se&es-! The part common to the neck and chest is the 'throat% the 'armpit% is common to side, arm, and shoulder and the '$roin% is common to thi$h and a"domen! The part inside the thi$h and "uttocks is the 'perineum%, and the part outside the thi$h and "uttocks is the 'hypo$lutis%! The front parts of the trunk have now "een enumerated! The part "ehind the chest is termed the '"ack%! 19 Aarts of the "ack are a pair of 'shoulder"lades%, the '"ack+"one%, and, underneath on a level with the "elly in the trunk, the 'loins%! .ommon to the upper and lower part of the trunk are the 'ri"s%, ei$ht on either side, for as to the so+called seven+ri""ed Bi$yans we have not received any trustworthy evidence!

0an, then, has an upper and a lower part, a front and a "ack part, a ri$ht and a left side! 5ow the ri$ht and the left side are pretty well alike in their parts and identical throu$hout, e&cept that the left side is the weaker of the two "ut the "ack parts do not resem"le the front ones, neither do the lower ones the upper: only that these upper and lower parts may "e said to resem"le one another thus far, that, if the face "e plump or mea$re, the a"domen is plump or mea$re to correspond and that the le$s correspond to the arms, and where the upper arm is short the thi$h is usually short also, and where the feet are small the hands are small correspondin$ly! Of the lim"s, one set, formin$ a pair, is 'arms%! To the arm "elon$ the 'shoulder%, 'upper+arm%, 'el"ow%, 'fore+arm%, and 'hand%! To the hand "elon$ the 'palm%, and the five 'fin$ers%! The part of the fin$er that "ends is termed 'knuckle%, the part that is infle&i"le is termed the 'phalan&%! The "i$ fin$er or thum" is sin$le+(ointed, the other fin$ers are dou"le (ointed! The "endin$ "oth of the arm and of the fin$er takes place from without inwards in all cases and the arm "ends at the el"ow! The inner part of the hand is termed the palm%, and is fleshy and divided "y (oints or lines: in the case of lon$+lived people "y one or two e&tendin$ ri$ht across, in the case of the short+lived "y two, not so e&tendin$! The (oint "etween hand and arm is termed the 'wrist%! The outside or "ack of the hand is sinewy, and has no specific desi$nation! There is another duplicate lim", the 'le$%! Of this lim" the dou"le+ kno""ed part is termed the 'thi$h+"one%, the slidin$ part of the

'kneecap%, the dou"le+"oned part the 'le$% the front part of this latter is termed the 'shin%, and the part "ehind it the 'calf%, wherein the flesh is sinewy and venous, in some cases drawn upwards towards the hollow "ehind the knee, as in the case of people with lar$e hips, and in other cases drawn downwards! The lower e&tremity of the shin is the 'ankle%, duplicate in either le$! The part of the lim" that contains a multiplicity of "ones is the 'foot%! The hinder part of the foot is the 'heel% at the front of it the divided part consists of 'toes%, five in num"er the fleshy part underneath is the '"all% the upper part or "ack of the foot is sinewy and has no particular appellation of the toe, one portion is the 'nail% and another the '(oint%, and the nail is in all cases at the e&tremity and toes are without e&ception sin$le (ointed! 0en that have the inside or sole of the foot clumsy and not arched, that is, that walk restin$ on the entire under+surface of their feet, are prone to ro$uery! The (oint common to thi$h and shin is the 'knee%! These, then, are the parts common to the male and the female se&! The relative position of the parts as to up and down, or to front and "ack, or to ri$ht and left, all this as re$ards e&ternals mi$ht safely "e left to mere ordinary perception! But for all that, we must treat of them for the same reason as the one previously "rou$ht forward that is to say, we must refer to them in order that a due and re$ular se*uence may "e o"served in our e&position, and in order that "y the enumeration of these o"vious facts due attention may "e

su"se*uently $iven to those parts in men and other animals that are diverse in any way from one another! In man, a"ove all other animals, the terms 'upper% and 'lower% are used in harmony with their natural positions for in him, upper and lower have the same meanin$ as when they are applied to the universe as a whole! In like manner the terms, 'in front%, '"ehind%, 'ri$ht% and 'left%, are used in accordance with their natural sense! But in re$ard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do not e&ist, and in others they do so, "ut in a va$ue way! For instance, the head with all animals is up and a"ove in respect to their "odies "ut man alone, as has "een said, has, in maturity, this part uppermost in respect to the material universe! 5e&t after the head comes the neck, and then the chest and the "ack: the one in front and the other "ehind! 5e&t after these come the "elly, the loins, the se&ual parts, and the haunches then the thi$h and shin and, lastly, the feet! The le$s "end frontwards, in the direction of actual pro$ression, and frontwards also lies that part of the foot which is the most effective of motion, and the fle&ure of that part "ut the heel lies at the "ack, and the ankle"ones lie laterally, earwise! The arms are situated to ri$ht and left, and "end inwards: so that the conve&ities formed "y "ent arms and le$s are practically face to face with one another in the case of man! As for the senses and for the or$ans of sensation, the eyes, the nostrils, and the ton$ue, all alike are situated frontwards the sense

of hearin$, and the or$an of hearin$, the ear, is situated sideways, on the same hori3ontal plane with the eyes! The eyes in man are, in proportion to his si3e, nearer to one another than in any other animal! Of the senses man has the sense of touch more refined than any animal, and so also, "ut in less de$ree, the sense of taste in the development of the other senses he is surpassed "y a $reat num"er of animals! 1: The parts, then, that are e&ternally visi"le are arran$ed in the way a"ove stated, and as a rule have their special desi$nations, and from use and wont are known familiarly to all "ut this is not the case with the inner parts! For the fact is that the inner parts of man are to a very $reat e&tent unknown, and the conse*uence is that we must have recourse to an e&amination of the inner parts of other animals whose nature in any way resem"les that of man! In the first place then, the "rain lies in the front part of the head! And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a "rain and all "looded animals are possessed thereof, and, "y the way, molluscs as well! But, takin$ si3e for si3e of animal, the lar$est "rain, and the moistest, is that of man! Two mem"ranes enclose it: the stron$er one near the "one of the skull the inner one, round the "rain itself, is finer! The "rain in all cases is "ilateral! Behind this,

ri$ht at the "ack, comes what is termed the 'cere"ellum%, differin$ in form from the "rain as we may "oth feel and see! The "ack of the head is with all animals empty and hollow, whatever "e its si3e in the different animals! For some creatures have "i$ heads while the face "elow is small in proportion, as is the case with round+faced animals some have little heads and lon$ (aws, as is the case, without e&ception, amon$ animals of the mane+and+tail species! The "rain in all animals is "loodless, devoid of veins, and naturally cold to the touch in the $reat ma(ority of animals it has a small hollow in its centre! The "rain+caul around it is reticulated with veins and this "rain+caul is that skin+like mem"rane which closely surrounds the "rain! A"ove the "rain is the thinnest and weakest "one of the head, which is termed or 'sinciput%! From the eye there $o three ducts to the "rain: the lar$est and the medium+si3ed to the cere"ellum, the least to the "rain itself and the least is the one situated nearest to the nostril! The two lar$est ones, then, run side "y side and do not meet the medium+si3ed ones meet+and this is particularly visi"le in fishes,+for they lie nearer than the lar$e ones to the "rain the smallest pair are the most widely separate from one another, and do not meet! Inside the neck is what is termed the oesopha$us ,whose other name is derived oesopha$us from its len$th and narrowness-, and the windpipe! The windpipe is situated in front of the oesopha$us in all animals that have a windpipe, and all animals have one that

are furnished with lun$s! The windpipe is made up of $ristle, is sparin$ly supplied with "lood, and is streaked all round with numerous minute veins it is situated, in its upper part, near the mouth, "elow the aperture formed "y the nostrils into the mouth+an aperture throu$h which, when men, in drinkin$, inhale any of the li*uid, this li*uid finds its way out throu$h the nostrils! In "etwi&t the two openin$s comes the so+called epi$lottis, an or$an capa"le of "ein$ drawn over and coverin$ the orifice of the windpipe communicatin$ with the mouth the end of the ton$ue is attached to the epi$lottis! In the other direction the windpipe e&tends to the interval "etween the lun$s, and hereupon "ifurcates into each of the two divisions of the lun$ for the lun$ in all animals possessed of the or$an has a tendency to "e dou"le! In viviparous animals, however, the duplication is not so plainly discerni"le as in other species, and the duplication is least discerni"le in man! And in man the or$an is not split into many parts, as is the case with some vivipara, neither is it smooth, "ut its surface is uneven! In the case of the ovipara, such as "irds and oviparous *uadrupeds, the two parts of the or$an are separated to a distance from one another, so that the creatures appear to "e furnished with a pair of lun$s and from the windpipe, itself sin$le, there "ranch off two separate parts e&tendin$ to each of the two divisions of the lun$! It is attached also to the $reat vein and to what is desi$nated the 'aorta%! )hen the windpipe is char$ed with air, the air passes on to the hollow parts of the lun$! These parts have divisions, composed

of $ristle, which meet at an acute an$le from the divisions run passa$es throu$h the entire lun$, $ivin$ off smaller and smaller ramifications! The heart also is attached to the windpipe, "y conne&ions of fat, $ristle, and sinew and at the point of (uncture there is a hollow! )hen the windpipe is char$ed with air, the entrance of the air into the heart, thou$h impercepti"le in some animals, is percepti"le enou$h in the lar$er ones! #uch are the properties of the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air only, and takes in nothin$ else either dry or li*uid, or else it causes you pain until you shall have cou$hed up whatever may have $one down! The oesopha$us communicates at the top with the mouth, close to the windpipe, and is attached to the "ack"one and the windpipe "y mem"ranous li$aments, and at last finds its way throu$h the midriff into the "elly! It is composed of flesh+like su"stance, and is elastic "oth len$thways and "readthways! The stomach of man resem"les that of a do$ for it is not much "i$$er than the "owel, "ut is somewhat like a "owel of more than usual width then comes the "owel, sin$le, convoluted, moderately wide! The lower part of the $ut is like that of a pi$ for it is "road, and the part from it to the "uttocks is thick and short! The caul, or $reat omentum, is attached to the middle of the stomach, and consists of a fatty mem"rane, as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are sin$le and which have teeth in "oth (aws!

The mesentery is over the "owels this also is mem"ranous and "road, and turns to fat! It is attached to the $reat vein and the aorta, and there run throu$h it a num"er of veins closely packed to$ether, e&tendin$ towards the re$ion of the "owels, "e$innin$ a"ove and endin$ "elow! #o much for the properties of the oesopha$us, the windpipe, and the stomach! 1< The heart has three cavities, and is situated a"ove the lun$ at the division of the windpipe, and is provided with a fatty and thick mem"rane where it fastens on to the $reat vein and the aorta! It lies with its taperin$ portion upon the aorta, and this portion is similarly situated in relation to the chest in all animals that have a chest! In all animals alike, in those that have a chest and in those that have none, the ape& of the heart points forwards, althou$h this fact mi$ht possi"ly escape notice "y a chan$e of position under dissection! The rounded end of the heart is at the top! The ape& is to a $reat e&tent fleshy and close in te&ture, and in the cavities of the heart are sinews! As a rule the heart is situated in the middle of the chest in animals that have a chest, and in man it is situated a little to the left+hand side, leanin$ a little way from the division of the "reasts towards the left "reast in the upper part of the chest! The heart is not lar$e, and in its $eneral shape it is not elon$ated in fact, it is somewhat round in form: only, "e it remem"ered, it is

sharp+pointed at the "ottom! It has three cavities, as has "een said: the ri$ht+hand one the lar$est of the three, the left+hand one the least, and the middle one intermediate in si3e! All these cavities, even the two small ones, are connected "y passa$es with the lun$, and this fact is rendered *uite plain in one of the cavities! And "elow, at the point of attachment, in the lar$est cavity there is a conne&ion with the $reat vein ,near which the mesentery lies- and in the middle one there is a conne&ion with the aorta! .anals lead from the heart into the lun$, and "ranch off (ust as the windpipe does, runnin$ all over the lun$ parallel with the passa$es from the windpipe! The canals from the heart are uppermost and there is no common passa$e, "ut the passa$es throu$h their havin$ a common wall receive the "reath and pass it on to the heart and one of the passa$es conveys it to the ri$ht cavity, and the other to the left! )ith re$ard to the $reat vein and the aorta we shall, "y and "y, treat of them to$ether in a discussion devoted to them and to them alone! In all animals that are furnished with a lun$, and that are "oth internally and e&ternally viviparous, the lun$ is of all or$ans the most richly supplied with "lood for the lun$ is throu$hout spon$y in te&ture, and alon$ "y every sin$le pore in it $o "ranches from the $reat vein! Those who ima$ine it to "e empty are alto$ether mistaken and they are led into their error "y their o"servation of lun$s removed from animals under dissection, out of which or$ans the "lood had all escaped immediately after death!

Of the other internal or$ans the heart alone contains "lood! And the lun$ has "lood not in itself "ut in its veins, "ut the heart has "lood in itself for in each of its three cavities it has "lood, "ut the thinnest "lood is what it has in its central cavity! ?nder the lun$ comes the thoracic diaphra$m or midriff, attached to the ri"s, the hypochondria and the "ack"one, with a thin mem"rane in the middle of it! It has veins runnin$ throu$h it and the diaphra$m in the case of man is thicker in proportion to the si3e of his frame than in other animals! ?nder the diaphra$m on the ri$ht+hand side lies the 'liver%, and on the left+hand side the 'spleen%, alike in all animals that are provided with these or$ans in an ordinary and not preternatural way for, "e it o"served, in some *uadrupeds these or$ans have "een found in a transposed position! These or$ans are connected with the stomach "y the caul! To outward view the spleen of man is narrow and lon$, resem"lin$ the self+same or$an in the pi$! The liver in the $reat ma(ority of animals is not provided with a '$all+"ladder% "ut the latter is present in some! The liver of a man is round+shaped, and resem"les the same or$an in the o&! And, "y the way, the a"sence a"ove referred to of a $all+"ladder is at times met with in the practice of au$ury! For instance, in a certain district of the .halcidic settlement in 8u"oea the sheep are devoid of $all+"ladders and in 5a&os nearly all the *uadrupeds have one so lar$e that forei$ners when they offer sacrifice with such victims are "ewildered with

fri$ht, under the impression that the phenomenon is not due to natural causes, "ut "odes some mischief to the individual offerers of the sacrifice! A$ain, the liver is attached to the $reat vein, "ut it has no communication with the aorta for the vein that $oes off from the $reat vein $oes ri$ht throu$h the liver, at a point where are the so+ called 'portals% of the liver! The spleen also is connected only with the $reat vein, for a vein e&tends to the spleen off from it! After these or$ans come the 'kidneys%, and these are placed close to the "ack"one, and resem"le in character the same or$an in kine! In all animals that are provided with this or$an, the ri$ht kidney is situated hi$her up than the other! It has also less fatty su"stance than the left+hand one and is less moist! And this phenomenon also is o"serva"le in all the other animals alike! Furthermore, passa$es or ducts lead into the kidneys "oth from the $reat vein and from the aorta, only not into the cavity! For, "y the way, there is a cavity in the middle of the kidney, "i$$er in some creatures and less in others "ut there is none in the case of the seal! This latter animal has kidneys resem"lin$ in shape the identical or$an in kine, "ut in its case the or$ans are more solid than in any other known creature! The ducts that lead into the kidneys lose themselves in the su"stance of the kidneys themselves and the proof that they e&tend no farther rests on the fact that they contain no "lood, nor is any clot found therein! The kidneys, however, have, as has "een said, a small cavity! From this

cavity in the kidney there lead two considera"le ducts or ureters into the "ladder and others sprin$ from the aorta, stron$ and continuous! And to the middle of each of the two kidneys is attached a hollow sinewy vein, stretchin$ ri$ht alon$ the spine throu$h the narrows "y and "y these veins are lost in either loin, and a$ain "ecome visi"le e&tendin$ to the flank! And these off+ "ranchin$s of the veins terminate in the "ladder! For the "ladder lies at the e&tremity, and is held in position "y the ducts stretchin$ from the kidneys, alon$ the stalk that e&tends to the urethra and pretty well all round it is fastened "y fine sinewy mem"ranes, that resem"le to some e&tent the thoracic diaphra$m! The "ladder in man is, proportionately to his si3e, tolera"ly lar$e! To the stalk of the "ladder the private part is attached, the e&ternal orifices coalescin$ "ut a little lower down, one of the openin$s communicates with the testicles and the other with the "ladder! The penis is $ristly and sinewy in its te&ture! )ith it are connected the testicles in male animals, and the properties of these or$ans we shall discuss in our $eneral account of the said or$an! All these or$ans are similar in the female for there is no difference in re$ard to the internal or$ans, e&cept in respect to the wom", and with reference to the appearance of this or$an I must refer the reader to dia$rams in my 'Anatomy%! The wom", however, is situated over the "owel, and the "ladder lies over the wom"! But we must treat "y and "y in our pa$es of the wom" of all female

animals viewed $enerally! For the wom"s of all female animals are not identical, neither do their local dispositions coincide! These are the or$ans, internal and e&ternal, of man, and such is their nature and such their local disposition! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book II 1 )ith re$ard to animals in $eneral, some parts or or$ans are common to all, as has "een said, and some are common only to particular $enera the parts, moreover, are identical with or different from one another on the lines already repeatedly laid down! For as a $eneral rule all animals that are $enerically distinct have the ma(ority of their parts or or$ans different in form or species and some of them they have only analo$ically similar and diverse in kind or $enus, while they have others that are alike in kind "ut specifically diverse and many parts or or$ans e&ist in some animals, "ut not in others! For instance, viviparous *uadrupeds have all a head and a neck, and all the parts or or$ans of the head, "ut they differ each from

other in the shapes of the parts! The lion has its neck composed of one sin$le "one instead of verte"rae "ut, when dissected, the animal is found in all internal characters to resem"le the do$! The *uadrupedal vivipara instead of arms have forele$s! This is true of all *uadrupeds, "ut such of them as have toes have, practically speakin$, or$ans analo$ous to hands at all events, they use these fore+lim"s for many purposes as hands! And they have the lim"s on the left+hand side less distinct from those on the ri$ht than man! The fore+lim"s then serve more or less the purpose of hands in *uadrupeds, with the e&ception of the elephant! This latter animal has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined, and its front le$s are much "i$$er than its hinder ones it is five+toed, and has short ankles to its hind feet! But it has a nose such in properties and such in si3e as to allow of its usin$ the same for a hand! For it eats and drinks "y liftin$ up its food with the aid of this or$an into its mouth, and with the same or$an it lifts up articles to the driver on its "ack with this or$an it can pluck up trees "y the roots, and when walkin$ throu$h water it spouts the water up "y means of it and this or$an is capa"le of "ein$ crooked or coiled at the tip, "ut not of fle&in$ like a (oint, for it is composed of $ristle! Of all animals man alone can learn to make e*ual use of "oth hands! All animals have a part analo$ous to the chest in man, "ut not similar to his for the chest in man is "road, "ut that of all other

animals is narrow! 0oreover, no other animal "ut man has "reasts in front the elephant, certainly, has two "reasts, not however in the chest, "ut near it! 0oreover, also, animals have the fle&ions of their fore and hind lim"s in directions opposite to one another, and in directions the reverse of those o"served in the arms and le$s of man with the e&ception of the elephant! In other words, with the viviparous *uadrupeds the front le$s "end forwards and the hind ones "ackwards, and the concavities of the two pairs of lim"s thus face one another! The elephant does not sleep standin$, as some were wont to assert, "ut it "ends its le$s and settles down only that in conse*uence of its wei$ht it cannot "end its le$ on "oth sides simultaneously, "ut falls into a recum"ent position on one side or the other, and in this position it $oes to sleep! And it "ends its hind le$s (ust as a man "ends his le$s! In the case of the ovipara, as the crocodile and the li3ard and the like, "oth pairs of le$s, fore and hind, "end forwards, with a sli$ht swerve on one side! The fle&ion is similar in the case of the multipeds only that the le$s in "etween the e&treme ends always move in a manner intermediate "etween that of those in front and those "ehind, and accordin$ly "end sideways rather than "ackwards or forwards! But man "ends his arms and his le$s towards the same point, and therefore in opposite ways: that is to say, he "ends his arms "ackwards, with (ust a sli$ht inclination

inwards, and his le$s frontwards! 5o animal "ends "oth its fore+ lim"s and hind+lim"s "ackwards "ut in the case of all animals the fle&ion of the shoulders is in the opposite direction to that of the el"ows or the (oints of the forele$s, and the fle&ure in the hips to that of the knees of the hind+le$s: so that since man differs from other animals in fle&ion, those animals that possess such parts as these move them contrariwise to man! Birds have the fle&ions of their lim"s like those of the *uadrupeds for, althou$h "ipeds, they "end their le$s "ackwards, and instead of arms or front le$s have win$s which "end frontwards! The seal is a kind of imperfect or crippled *uadruped for (ust "ehind the shoulder+"lade its front feet are placed, resem"lin$ hands, like the front paws of the "ear for they are furnished with five toes, and each of the toes has three fle&ions and a nail of inconsidera"le si3e! The hind feet are also furnished with five toes in their fle&ions and nails they resem"le the front feet, and in shape they resem"le a fish%s tail! The movements of animals, *uadruped and multiped, are crosswise, or in dia$onals, and their e*uili"rium in standin$ posture is maintained crosswise and it is always the lim" on the ri$ht+hand side that is the first to move! The lion, however, and the two species of camels, "oth the Bactrian and the Ara"ian, pro$ress "y an am"le and the action so called is when the animal never overpasses the ri$ht with the left, "ut always follows close upon it!

)hatever parts men have in front, these parts *uadrupeds have "elow, in or on the "elly and whatever parts men have "ehind, these parts *uadrupeds have a"ove on their "acks! 0ost *uadrupeds have a tail for even the seal has a tiny one resem"lin$ that of the sta$! Ee$ardin$ the tails of the pithecoids we must $ive their distinctive properties "y and "y animal All viviparous *uadrupeds are hair+coated, whereas man has only a few short hairs e&ceptin$ on the head, "ut, so far as the head is concerned, he is hairier than any other animal! Further, of hair+ coated animals, the "ack is hairier than the "elly, which latter is either comparatively void of hair or smooth and void of hair alto$ether! )ith man the reverse is the case! 0an also has upper and lower eyelashes, and hair under the armpits and on the pu"es! 5o other animal has hair in either of these localities, or has an under eyelash thou$h in the case of some animals a few stra$$lin$ hairs $row under the eyelid! Of hair+coated *uadrupeds some are hairy all over the "ody, as the pi$, the "ear, and the do$ others are especially hairy on the neck and all round a"out it, as is the case with animals that have a sha$$y mane, such as the lion others a$ain are especially hairy on the upper surface of the neck from the head as far as the withers, namely, such as have a crested mane, as in the case with the horse, the mule, and, amon$ the undomesticated horned animals, the "ison!

The so+called hippelaphus also has a mane on its withers, and the animal called pardion, in either case a thin mane e&tendin$ from the head to the withers the hippelaphus has, e&ceptionally, a "eard "y the laryn&! Both these animals have horns and are cloven+ footed the female, however, of the hippelaphus has no horns! This latter animal resem"les the sta$ in si3e it is found in the territory of the Arachotae, where the wild cattle also are found! )ild cattle differ from their domesticated con$eners (ust as the wild "oar differs from the domesticated one! That is to say they are "lack, stron$ lookin$, with a hook+nosed mu33le, and with horns lyin$ more over the "ack! The horns of the hippelaphus resem"le those of the $a3elle! The elephant, "y the way, is the least hairy of all *uadrupeds! )ith animals, as a $eneral rule, the tail corresponds with the "ody as re$ards thickness or thinness of hair+coatin$ that is, with animals that have lon$ tails, for some creatures have tails of alto$ether insi$nificant si3e! .amels have an e&ceptional or$an wherein they differ from all other animals, and that is the so+called 'hump% on their "ack! The Bactrian camel differs from the Ara"ian for the former has two humps and the latter only one, thou$h it has, "y the way, a kind of a hump "elow like the one a"ove, on which, when it kneels, the wei$ht of the whole "ody rests! The camel has four teats like the cow, a tail like that of an ass, and the privy parts of the male are directed "ackwards! It has one knee in each le$, and the fle&ures of

the lim" are not manifold, as some say, althou$h they appear to "e so from the constricted shape of the re$ion of the "elly! It has a huckle+"one like that of kine, "ut mea$re and small in proportion to its "ulk! It is cloven+footed, and has not $ot teeth in "oth (aws and it is cloven footed in the followin$ way: at the "ack there is a sli$ht cleft e&tendin$ as far up as the second (oint of the toes and in front there are small hooves on the tip of the first (oint of the toes and a sort of we" passes across the cleft, as in $eese! The foot is fleshy underneath, like that of the "ear so that, when the animal $oes to war, they protect its feet, when they $et sore, with sandals! The le$s of all *uadrupeds are "ony, sinewy, and fleshless and in point of fact such is the case with all animals that are furnished with feet, with the e&ception of man! They are also unfurnished with "uttocks and this last point is plain in an especial de$ree in "irds! It is the reverse with man for there is scarcely any part of the "ody in which man is so fleshy as in the "uttock, the thi$h, and the calf for the part of the le$ called $astroenemia or is fleshy! Of "looded and viviparous *uadrupeds some have the foot cloven into many parts, as is the case with the hands and feet of man ,for some animals, "y the way, are many+toed, as the lion, the do$, and the pard- others have feet cloven in twain, and instead of nails have hooves, as the sheep, the $oat, the deer, and the hippopotamus others are uncloven of foot, such for instance as the solid+hooved animals, the horse and the mule! #wine are either cloven+footed or uncloven+footed for there are in Illyria and in

Aaeonia and elsewhere solid+hooved swine! The cloven+footed animals have two clefts "ehind in the solid+hooved this part is continuous and undivided! Furthermore, of animals some are horned, and some are not so! The $reat ma(ority of the horned animals are cloven+footed, as the o&, the sta$, the $oat and a solid+hooved animal with a pair of horns has never yet "een met with! But a few animals are known to "e sin$led+horned and sin$le+hooved, as the Indian ass and one, to wit the ory&, is sin$le horned and cloven+hooved! Of all solid+hooved animals the Indian ass alone has an astra$alus or huckle+"one for the pi$, as was said a"ove, is either solid+ hooved or cloven+footed, and conse*uently has no well+formed huckle+"one! Of the cloven footed many are provided with a huckle+"one! Of the many+fin$ered or many+toed, no sin$le one has "een o"served to have a huckle+"one, none of the others any more than man! The lyn&, however, has somethin$ like a hemiastra$al, and the lion somethin$ resem"lin$ the sculptor%s 'la"yrinth%! All the animals that have a huckle+"one have it in the hinder le$s! They have also the "one placed strai$ht up in the (oint the upper part, outside the lower part, inside the sides called .oa turned towards one another, the sides called .hia outside, and the keraiae or 'horns% on the top! This, then, is the position of the huckle"one in the case of all animals provided with the part! #ome animals are, at one and the same time, furnished with a mane and furnished also with a pair of horns "ent in towards one

another, as is the "ison ,or aurochs-, which is found in Aaeonia and 0aedica! But all animals that are horned are *uadrupedal, e&cept in cases where a creature is said metaphorically, or "y a fi$ure of speech, to have horns (ust as the 8$yptians descri"e the serpents found in the nei$h"ourhood of The"es, while in point of fact the creatures have merely protu"erances on the head sufficiently lar$e to su$$est such an epithet! Of horned animals the deer alone has a horn, or antler, hard and solid throu$hout! The horns of other animals are hollow for a certain distance, and solid towards the e&tremity! The hollow part is derived from the skin, "ut the core round which this is wrapped+ the hard part+is derived from the "ones as is the case with the horns of o&en! The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns, and it does so annually, after reachin$ the a$e of two years, and a$ain renews them! All other animals retain their horns permanently, unless the horns "e dama$ed "y accident! A$ain, with re$ard to the "reasts and the $enerative or$ans, animals differ widely from one another and from man! For instance, the "reasts of some animals are situated in front, either in the chest or near to it, and there are in such cases two "reasts and two teats, as is the case with man and the elephant, as previously stated! For the elephant has two "reasts in the re$ion of the a&illae and the female elephant has two "reasts insi$nificant in si3e and in no way proportionate to the "ulk of the entire frame, in fact, so insi$nificant as to "e invisi"le in a sideways view the males also

have "reasts, like the females, e&ceedin$ly small! The she+"ear has four "reasts! #ome animals have two "reasts, "ut situated near the thi$hs, and teats, likewise two in num"er, as the sheep others have four teats, as the cow! #ome have "reasts neither in the chest nor at the thi$hs, "ut in the "elly, as the do$ and pi$ and they have a considera"le num"er of "reasts or du$s, "ut not all of e*ual si3e! Thus the shepard has four du$s in the "elly, the lioness two, and others more! The she+camel, also, has two du$s and four teats, like the cow! Of solid+hooved animals the males have no du$s, e&ceptin$ in the case of males that take after the mother, which phenomenon is o"serva"le in horses! Of male animals the $enitals of some are e&ternal, as is the case with man, the horse, and most other creatures some are internal, as with the dolphin! )ith those that have the or$an e&ternally placed, the or$an in some cases is situated in front, as in the cases already mentioned, and of these some have the or$an detached, "oth penis and testicles, as man others have penis and testicles closely attached to the "elly, some more closely, some less for this or$an is not detached in the wild "oar nor in the horse! The penis of the elephant resem"les that of the horse compared with the si3e of the animal it is disproportionately small the testicles are not visi"le, "ut are concealed inside in the vicinity of the kidneys and for this reason the male speedily $ives over in the act of intercourse! The $enitals of the female are situated where the udder is in sheep when she is in heat, she draws the or$an "ack

and e&poses it e&ternally, to facilitate the act of intercourse for the male and the or$an opens out to a considera"le e&tent! )ith most animals the $enitals have the position a"ove assi$ned "ut some animals dischar$e their urine "ackwards, as the lyn&, the lion, the camel, and the hare! 0ale animals differ from one another, as has "een said, in this particular, "ut all female animals are retromin$ent: even the female elephant like other animals, thou$h she has the privy part "elow the thi$hs! In the male or$an itself there is a $reat diversity! For in some cases the or$an is composed of flesh and $ristle, as in man in such cases, the fleshy part does not "ecome inflated, "ut the $ristly part is su"(ect to enlar$ement! In other cases, the or$an is composed of fi"rous tissue, as with the camel and the deer in other cases it is "ony, as with the fo&, the wolf, the marten, and the weasel for this or$an in the weasel has a "one! )hen man has arrived at maturity, his upper part is smaller than the lower one, "ut with all other "looded animals the reverse holds $ood! By the 'upper% part we mean all e&tendin$ from the head down to the parts used for e&cretion of residuum, and "y the 'lower% part else! )ith animals that have feet the hind le$s are to "e rated as the lower part in our comparison of ma$nitudes, and with animals devoid of feet, the tail, and the like! )hen animals arrive at maturity, their properties are as a"ove stated "ut they differ $reatly from one another in their $rowth towards maturity! For instance, man, when youn$, has his upper

part lar$er than the lower, "ut in course of $rowth he comes to reverse this condition and it is owin$ to this circumstance that+an e&ceptional instance, "y the way+he does not pro$ress in early life as he does at maturity, "ut in infancy creeps on all fours "ut some animals, in $rowth, retain the relative proportion of the parts, as the do$! #ome animals at first have the upper part smaller and the lower part lar$er, and in course of $rowth the upper part $ets to "e the lar$er, as is the case with the "ushy+tailed animals such as the horse for in their case there is never, su"se*uently to "irth, any increase in the part e&tendin$ from the hoof to the haunch! A$ain, in respect to the teeth, animals differ $reatly "oth from one another and from man! All animals that are *uadrupedal, "looded and viviparous, are furnished with teeth "ut, to "e$in with, some are dou"le+toothed ,or fully furnished with teeth in "oth (aws-, and some are not! For instance, horned *uadrupeds are not dou"le+ toothed for they have not $ot the front teeth in the upper (aw and some hornless animals, also, are not dou"le toothed, as the camel! #ome animals have tusks, like the "oar, and some have not! Further, some animals are saw+toothed, such as the lion, the pard, and the do$ and some have teeth that do not interlock "ut have flat opposin$ crowns, as the horse and the o& and "y 'saw+toothed% we mean such animals as interlock the sharp+pointed teeth in one (aw "etween the sharp+pointed ones in the other! 5o animal is there that possesses "oth tusks and horns, nor yet do either of these structures e&ist in any animal possessed of 'saw+teeth%! The front

teeth are usually sharp, and the "ack ones "lunt! The seal is saw+ toothed throu$hout, inasmuch as he is a sort of link with the class of fishes for fishes are almost all saw+toothed! 5o animal of these $enera is provided with dou"le rows of teeth! There is, however, an animal of the sort, if we are to "elieve .tesias! He assures us that the Indian wild "east called the 'martichoras% has a triple row of teeth in "oth upper and lower (aw that it is as "i$ as a lion and e*ually hairy, and that its feet resem"le those of the lion that it resem"les man in its face and ears that its eyes are "lue, and its colour vermilion that its tail is like that of the land+scorpion that it has a stin$ in the tail, and has the faculty of shootin$ off arrow+wise the spines that are attached to the tail that the sound of its voice is a somethin$ "etween the sound of a pan+pipe and that of a trumpet that it can run as swiftly as deer, and that it is sava$e and a man+eater! 0an sheds his teeth, and so do other animals, as the horse, the mule, and the ass! And man sheds his front teeth "ut there is no instance of an animal that sheds its molars! The pi$ sheds none of its teeth at all! 4 )ith re$ard to do$s some dou"ts are entertained, as some contend that they shed no teeth whatever, and others that they shed the canines, "ut those alone the fact "ein$, that they do shed their teeth like man, "ut that the circumstance escapes o"servation,

owin$ to the fact that they never shed them until e*uivalent teeth have $rown within the $ums to take the place of the shed ones! )e shall "e (ustified in supposin$ that the case is similar with wild "easts in $eneral for they are said to shed their canines only! /o$s can "e distin$uished from one another, the youn$ from the old, "y their teeth for the teeth in youn$ do$s are white and sharp+pointed in old do$s, "lack and "lunt! 6 In this particular, the horse differs entirely from animals in $eneral: for, $enerally speakin$, as animals $row older their teeth $et "lacker, "ut the horse%s teeth $row whiter with a$e! The so+called 'canines% come in "etween the sharp teeth and the "road or "lunt ones, partakin$ of the form of "oth kinds for they are "road at the "ase and sharp at the tip! 0ales have more teeth than females in the case of men, sheep, $oats, and swine in the case of other animals o"servations have not yet "een made: "ut the more teeth they have the more lon$+ lived are they, as a rule, while those are short+lived in proportion that have teeth fewer in num"er and thinly set! 7 The last teeth to come in man are molars called 'wisdom+teeth%, which come at the a$e of twenty years, in the case of "oth se&es! .ases have "een known in women upwards! of ei$hty years old

where at the very close of life the wisdom+teeth have come up, causin$ $reat pain in their comin$ and cases have "een known of the like phenomenon in men too! This happens, when it does happen, in the case of people where the wisdom+teeth have not come up in early years! 9 The elephant has four teeth on either side, "y which it munches its food, $rindin$ it like so much "arley+meal, and, *uite apart from these, it has its $reat teeth, or tusks, two in num"er! In the male these tusks are comparatively lar$e and curved upwards in the female, they are comparatively small and point in the opposite direction that is, they look downwards towards the $round! The elephant is furnished with teeth at "irth, "ut the tusks are not then visi"le! : The ton$ue of the elephant is e&ceedin$ly small, and situated far "ack in the mouth, so that it is difficult to $et a si$ht of it! < Furthermore, animals differ from one another in the relative si3e of their mouths! In some animals the mouth opens wide, as is the case with the do$, the lion, and with all the saw+toothed animals other animals have small mouths, as man and others have mouths of medium capacity, as the pi$ and his con$eners!

,The 8$yptian hippopotamus has a mane like a horse, is cloven+ footed like an o&, and is snu"+nosed! It has a huckle+"one like cloven+footed animals, and tusks (ust visi"le it has the tail of a pi$, the nei$h of a horse, and the dimensions of an ass! The hide is so thick that spears are made out of it! In its internal or$ans it resem"les the horse and the ass!= #ome animals share the properties of man and the *uadrupeds, as the ape, the monkey, and the "a"oon! The monkey is a tailed ape! The "a"oon resem"les the ape in form, only that it is "i$$er and stron$er, more like a do$ in face, and is more sava$e in its ha"its, and its teeth are more do$+like and more powerful! Apes are hairy on the "ack in keepin$ with their *uadrupedal nature, and hairy on the "elly in keepin$ with their human form+ for, as was said a"ove, this characteristic is reversed in man and the *uadruped+only that the hair is coarse, so that the ape is thickly coated "oth on the "elly and on the "ack! Its face resem"les that of man in many respects in other words, it has similar nostrils and ears, and teeth like those of man, "oth front teeth and molars! Further, whereas *uadrupeds in $eneral are not furnished with lashes on one of the two eyelids, this creature has them on "oth, only very thinly set, especially the under ones in fact they are very insi$nificant indeed! And we must "ear in mind that all other *uadrupeds have no under eyelash at all!

The ape has also in its chest two teats upon poorly developed "reasts! It has also arms like man, only covered with hair, and it "ends these le$s like man, with the conve&ities of "oth lim"s facin$ one another! In addition, it has hands and fin$ers and nails like man, only that all these parts are somewhat more "east+like in appearance! Its feet are e&ceptional in kind! That is, they are like lar$e hands, and the toes are like fin$ers, with the middle one the lon$est of all, and the under part of the foot is like a hand e&cept for its len$th, and stretches out towards the e&tremities like the palm of the hand and this palm at the after end is unusually hard, and in a clumsy o"scure kind of way resem"les a heel! The creature uses its feet either as hands or feet, and dou"les them up as one dou"les a fist! Its upper+arm and thi$h are short in proportion to the forearm and the shin! It has no pro(ectin$ navel, "ut only a hardness in the ordinary locality of the navel! Its upper part is much lar$er than its lower part, as is the case with *uadrupeds in fact, the proportion of the former to the latter is a"out as five to three! Owin$ to this circumstance and to the fact that its feet resem"le hands and are composed in a manner of hand and of foot: of foot in the heel e&tremity, of the hand in all else+for even the toes have what is called a 'palm%:+for these reasons the animal is oftener to "e found on all fours than upri$ht! It has neither hips, inasmuch as it is a *uadruped, nor yet a tail, inasmuch as it is a "iped, e&cept nor yet a tal "y the way that it has a tail as small as small can "e, (ust a sort of indication of a tail! The $enitals

of the female resem"le those of the female in the human species those of the male are more like those of a do$ than are those of a man! > The monkey, as has "een o"served, is furnished with a tail! In all such creatures the internal or$ans are found under dissection to correspond to those of man! #o much then for the properties of the or$ans of such animals as "rin$ forth their youn$ into the world alive! 1@ Oviparous and "looded *uadrupeds+and, "y the way, no terrestrial "looded animal is oviparous unless it is *uadrupedal or is devoid of feet alto$ether+are furnished with a head, a neck, a "ack, upper and under parts, the front le$s and hind le$s, and the part analo$ous to the chest, all as in the case of viviparous *uadrupeds, and with a tail, usually lar$e, in e&ceptional cases small! And all these creatures are many+toed, and the several toes are cloven apart! Furthermore, they all have the ordinary or$ans of sensation, includin$ a ton$ue, with the e&ception of the 8$yptian crocodile! This latter animal, "y the way, resem"les certain fishes! For, as a $eneral rule, fishes have a prickly ton$ue, not free in its movements thou$h there are some fishes that present a smooth

undifferentiated surface where the ton$ue should "e, until you open their mouths wide and make a close inspection! A$ain, oviparous "looded *uadrupeds are unprovided with ears, "ut possess only the passa$e for hearin$ neither have they "reasts, nor a copulatory or$an, nor e&ternal testicles, "ut internal ones only neither are they hair coated, "ut are in all cases covered with scaly plates! 0oreover, they are without e&ception saw+toothed! Eiver crocodiles have pi$s% eyes, lar$e teeth and tusks, and stron$ nails, and an impenetra"le skin composed of scaly plates! They see "ut poorly under water, "ut a"ove the surface of it with remarka"le acuteness! As a rule, they pass the day+time on land and the ni$httime in the water for the temperature of the water is at ni$ht+ time more $enial than that of the open air! 11 The chameleon resem"les the li3ard in the $eneral confi$uration of its "ody, "ut the ri"s stretch downwards and meet to$ether under the "elly as is the case with fishes, and the spine sticks up as with the fish! Its face resem"les that of the "a"oon! Its tail is e&ceedin$ly lon$, terminates in a sharp point, and is for the most part coiled up, like a strap of leather! It stands hi$her off the $round than the li3ard, "ut the fle&ure of the le$s is the same in "oth creatures! 8ach of its feet is divided into two parts, which "ear the same relation to one another that the thum" and the rest of the hand "ear to one another in man! 8ach of these parts is for a short

distance divided after a fashion into toes on the front feet the inside part is divided into three and the outside into two, on the hind feet the inside part into two and the outside into three it has claws also on these parts resem"lin$ those of "irds of prey! Its "ody is rou$h all over, like that of the crocodile! Its eyes are situated in a hollow recess, and are very lar$e and round, and are enveloped in a skin resem"lin$ that which covers the entire "ody and in the middle a sli$ht aperture is left for vision, throu$h which the animal sees, for it never covers up this aperture with the cutaneous envelope! It keeps twistin$ its eyes round and shiftin$ its line of vision in every direction, and thus contrives to $et a si$ht of any o"(ect that it wants to see! The chan$e in its colour takes place when it is inflated with air it is then "lack, not unlike the crocodile, or $reen like the li3ard "ut "lack+spotted like the pard! This chan$e of colour takes place over the whole "ody alike, for the eyes and the tail come alike under its influence! In its movements it is very slu$$ish, like the tortoise! It assumes a $reenish hue in dyin$, and retains this hue after death! It resem"les the li3ard in the position of the oesopha$us and the windpipe! It has no flesh anywhere e&cept a few scraps of flesh on the head and on the (aws and near to the root of the tail! It has "lood only round a"out the heart, the eyes, the re$ion a"ove the heart, and in all the veins e&tendin$ from these parts and in all these there is "ut little "lood after all! The "rain is situated a little a"ove the eyes, "ut connected with them! )hen the outer skin is drawn aside from off

the eye, a somethin$ is found surroundin$ the eye, that $leams throu$h like a thin rin$ of copper! 0em"ranes e&tend well ni$h over its entire frame, numerous and stron$, and surpassin$ in respect of num"er and relative stren$th those found in any other animal! After "ein$ cut open alon$ its entire len$th it continues to "reathe for a considera"le time a very sli$ht motion $oes on in the re$ion of the heart, and, while contraction is especially manifested in the nei$h"ourhood of the ri"s, a similar motion is more or less discerni"le over the whole "ody! It has no spleen visi"le! It hi"ernates, like the li3ard! 14 Birds also in some parts resem"le the a"ove mentioned animals that is to say, they have in all cases a head, a neck, a "ack, a "elly, and what is analo$ous to the chest! The "ird is remarka"le amon$ animals as havin$ two feet, like man only, "y the way, it "ends them "ackwards as *uadrupeds "end their hind le$s, as was noticed previously! It has neither hands nor front feet, "ut win$s+an e&ceptional structure as compared with other animals! Its haunch+ "one is lon$, like a thi$h, and is attached to the "ody as far as the middle of the "elly so like to a thi$h is it that when viewed separately it looks like a real one, while the real thi$h is a separate structure "etwi&t it and the shin! Of all "irds those that have crooked talons have the "i$$est thi$hs and the stron$est "reasts! All "irds are furnished with many claws, and all have the toes

separated more or less asunder that is to say, in the $reater part the toes are clearly distinct from one another, for even the swimmin$ "irds, althou$h they are we"+footed, have still their claws fully articulated and distinctly differentiated from one another! Birds that fly hi$h in air are in all cases four+toed: that is, the $reater part have three toes in front and one "ehind in place of a heel some few have two in front and two "ehind, as the wryneck! This latter "ird is somewhat "i$$er than the chaffinch, and is mottled in appearance! It is peculiar in the arran$ement of its toes, and resem"les the snake in the structure of its ton$ue for the creature can protrude its ton$ue to the e&tent of four fin$er+ "readths, and then draw it "ack a$ain! 0oreover, it can twist its head "ackwards while keepin$ all the rest of its "ody still, like the serpent! It has "i$ claws, somewhat resem"lin$ those of the woodpecker! Its note is a shrill chirp! Birds are furnished with a mouth, "ut with an e&ceptional one, for they have neither lips nor teeth, "ut a "eak! 5either have they ears nor a nose, "ut only passa$es for the sensations connected with these or$ans: that for the nostrils in the "eak, and that for hearin$ in the head! Bike all other animals they all have two eyes, and these are devoid of lashes! The heavy+"odied ,or $allinaceous"irds close the eye "y means of the lower lid, and all "irds "link "y means of a skin e&tendin$ over the eye from the inner corner the owl and its con$eners also close the eye "y means of the upper lid! The same phenomenon is o"serva"le in the animals that are

protected "y horny scutes, as in the li3ard and its con$eners for they all without e&ception close the eye with the lower lid, "ut they do not "link like "irds! Further, "irds have neither scutes nor hair, "ut feathers and the feathers are invaria"ly furnished with *uills! They have no tail, "ut a rump with tail+feathers, short in such as are lon$+le$$ed and we"+footed, lar$e in others! These latter kinds of "irds fly with their feet tucked up close to the "elly "ut the small rumped or short+tailed "irds fly with their le$s stretched out at full len$th! All are furnished with a ton$ue, "ut the or$an is varia"le, "ein$ lon$ in some "irds and "road in others! .ertain species of "irds a"ove all other animals, and ne&t after man, possess the faculty of utterin$ articulate sounds and this faculty is chiefly developed in "road+ton$ued "irds! 5o oviparous creature has an epi$lottis over the windpipe, "ut these animals so mana$e the openin$ and shuttin$ of the windpipe as not to allow any solid su"stance to $et down into the lun$! #ome species of "irds are furnished additionally with spurs, "ut no "ird with crooked talons is found so provided! The "irds with talons are amon$ those that fly well, "ut those that have spurs are amon$ the heavy+"odied! A$ain, some "irds have a crest! As a $eneral rule the crest sticks up, and is composed of feathers only "ut the crest of the "arn+door cock is e&ceptional in kind, for, whereas it is not (ust e&actly flesh, at the same time it is not easy to say what else it is!

16 Of water animals the $enus of fishes constitutes a sin$le $roup apart from the rest, and includin$ many diverse forms! In the first place, the fish has a head, a "ack, a "elly, in the nei$h"ourhood of which last are placed the stomach and viscera and "ehind it has a tail of continuous, undivided shape, "ut not, "y the way, in all cases alike! 5o fish has a neck, or any lim", or testicles at all, within or without, or "reasts! But, "y the way this a"sence of "reasts may predicated of all non+viviparous animals and in point of fact viviparous animals are not in all cases provided with the or$an, e&ceptin$ such as are directly viviparous without "ein$ first oviparous! Thus the dolphin is directly viviparous, and accordin$ly we find it furnished with two "reasts, not situated hi$h up, "ut in the nei$h"ourhood of the $enitals! And this creature is not provided, like *uadrupeds, with visi"le teats, "ut has two vents, one on each flank, from which the milk flows and its youn$ have to follow after it to $et suckled, and this phenomenon has "een actually witnessed! Fishes, then, as has "een o"served, have no "reasts and no passa$e for the $enitals visi"le e&ternally! But they have an e&ceptional or$an in the $ills, where"y, after takin$ the water in the mouth, they dischar$e it a$ain and in the fins, of which the $reater part have four, and the lanky ones two, as, for instance, the eel, and these two situated near to the $ills! In like manner the $rey mullet+ as, for instance, the mullet found in the lake at #iphae+have only

two fins and the same is the case with the fish called Ei""on+fish! #ome of the lanky fishes have no fins at all, such as the muraena, nor $ills articulated like those of other fish! And of those fish that are provided with $ills, some have coverin$s for this or$an, whereas all the selachians have the or$an unprotected "y a cover! And those fishes that have coverin$s or opercula for the $ills have in all cases their $ills placed sideways whereas, amon$ selachians, the "road ones have the $ills down "elow on the "elly, as the torpedo and the ray, while the lanky ones have the or$an placed sideways, as is the case in all the do$+fish! The fishin$+fro$ has $ills placed sideways, and covered not with a spiny operculum, as in all "ut the selachian fishes, "ut with one of skin! 0orever, with fishes furnished with $ills, the $ills in some cases are simple in others duplicate and the last $ill in the direction of the "ody is always simple! And, a$ain, some fishes have few $ills, and others have a $reat num"er "ut all alike have the same num"er on "oth sides! Those that have the least num"er have one $ill on either side, and this one duplicate, like the "oar+fish others have two on either side, one simple and the other duplicate, like the con$er and the scarus others have four on either side, simple, as the elops, the syna$ris, the muraena, and the eel others have four, all, with the e&ception of the hindmost one, in dou"le rows, as the wrasse, the perch, the sheat+fish, and the carp! The do$+fish have

all their $ills dou"le, five on a side and the sword+fish has ei$ht dou"le $ills! #o much for the num"er of $ills as found in fishes! A$ain, fishes differ from other animals in more ways than as re$ards the $ills! For they are not covered with hairs as are viviparous land animals, nor, as is the case with certain oviparous *uadrupeds, with tessellated scutes, nor, like "irds, with feathers "ut for the most part they are covered with scales! #ome few are rou$h+skinned, while the smooth+skinned are very few indeed! Of the #elachia some are rou$h+skinned and some smooth+skinned and amon$ the smooth+skinned fishes are included the con$er, the eel, and the tunny! All fishes are saw+toothed e&ceptin$ the scarus and the teeth in all cases are sharp and set in many rows, and in some cases are placed on the ton$ue! The ton$ue is hard and spiny, and so firmly attached that fishes in many instances seem to "e devoid of the or$an alto$ether! The mouth in some cases is wide+stretched, as it is with some viviparous *uadrupeds!!!! )ith re$ard to or$ans of sense, all save eyes, fishes possess none of them, neither the or$ans nor their passa$es, neither ears nor nostrils "ut all fishes are furnished with eyes, and the eyes devoid of lids, thou$h the eyes are not hard with re$ard to the or$ans connected with the other senses, hearin$ and smell, they are devoid alike of the or$ans themselves and of passa$es indicative of them! Fishes without e&ception are supplied with "lood! #ome of them are oviparous, and some viviparous scaly fish are invaria"ly

oviparous, "ut cartila$inous fishes are all viviparous, with the sin$le e&ception of the fishin$+fro$! 17 Of "looded animals there now remains the serpent $enus! This $enus is common to "oth elements, for, while most species comprehended therein are land animals, a small minority, to wit the a*uatic species, pass their lives in fresh water! There are also sea+serpents, in shape to a $reat e&tent resem"lin$ their con$eners of the land, with this e&ception that the head in their case is somewhat like the head of the con$er and there are several kinds of sea+serpent, and the different kinds differ in colour these animals are not found in very deep water! #erpents, like fish, are devoid of feet! There are also sea+scolopendras, resem"lin$ in shape their land con$eners, "ut somewhat less in re$ard to ma$nitude! These creatures are found in the nei$h"ourhood of rocks as compared with their land con$eners they are redder in colour, are furnished with feet in $reater num"ers and with le$s of more delicate structure! And the same remark applies to them as to the sea+ serpents, that they are not found in very deep water! Of fishes whose ha"itat is in the vicinity of rocks there is a tiny one, which some call the 8cheneis, or 'ship+holder%, and which is "y some people used as a charm to "rin$ luck in affairs of law and love! The creature is unfit for eatin$! #ome people assert that it has

feet, "ut this is not the case: it appears, however, to "e furnished with feet from the fact that its fins resem"le those or$ans! #o much, then, for the e&ternal parts of "looded animals, as re$ards their num"ers, their properties, and their relative diversities! 19 As for the properties of the internal or$ans, these we must first discuss in the case of the animals that are supplied with "lood! For the principal $enera differ from the rest of animals, in that the former are supplied with "lood and the latter are not and the former include man, viviparous and oviparous *uadrupeds, "irds, fishes, cetaceans, and all the others that come under no $eneral desi$nation "y reason of their not formin$ $enera, "ut $roups of which simply the specific name is predica"le, as when we say 'the serpent,% the 'crocodile%! All viviparous *uadrupeds, then, are furnished with an oesopha$us and a windpipe, situated as in man the same statement is applica"le to oviparous *uadrupeds and to "irds, only that the latter present diversities in the shapes of these or$ans! As a $eneral rule, all animals that take up air and "reathe it in and out are furnished with a lun$, a windpipe, and an oesopha$us, with the windpipe and oesopha$us not admittin$ of diversity in situation "ut admittin$ of diversity in properties, and with the lun$ admittin$ of diversity in "oth these respects! Further, all "looded animals have a heart and a

diaphra$m or midriff "ut in small animals the e&istence of the latter or$an is not so o"vious owin$ to its delicacy and minute si3e! In re$ard to the heart there is an e&ceptional phenomenon o"serva"le in o&en! In other words, there is one species of o& where, thou$h not in all cases, a "one is found inside the heart! And, "y the way, the horse%s heart also has a "one inside it! The $enera referred to a"ove are not in all cases furnished with a lun$: for instance, the fish is devoid of the or$an, as is also every animal furnished with $ills! All "looded animals are furnished with a liver! As a $eneral rule "looded animals are furnished with a spleen "ut with the $reat ma(ority of non+viviparous "ut oviparous animals the spleen is so small as all "ut to escape o"servation and this is the case with almost all "irds, as with the pi$eon, the kite, the falcon, the owl: in point of fact, the ae$ocephalus is devoid of the or$an alto$ether! )ith oviparous *uadrupeds the case is much the same as with the viviparous that is to say, they also have the spleen e&ceedin$ly minute, as the tortoise, the freshwater tortoise, the toad, the li3ard, the crocodile, and the fro$! #ome animals have a $all+"ladder close to the liver, and others have not! Of viviparous *uadrupeds the deer is without the or$an, as also the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal, and some kinds of pi$s! Of deer those that are called Achainae appear to have $all in their tail, "ut what is so called does resem"le $all in colour, thou$h it is not so completely fluid, and the or$an internally resem"les a spleen!

However, without any e&ception, sta$s are found to have ma$$ots livin$ inside the head, and the ha"itat of these creatures is in the hollow underneath the root of the ton$ue and in the nei$h"ourhood of the verte"ra to which the head is attached! These creatures are as lar$e as the lar$est $ru"s they $row all to$ether in a cluster, and they are usually a"out twenty in num"er! /eer then, as has "een o"served, are without a $all+"ladder their $ut, however, is so "itter that even hounds refuse to eat it unless the animal is e&ceptionally fat! )ith the elephant also the liver is unfurnished with a $all+"ladder, "ut when the animal is cut in the re$ion where the or$an is found in animals furnished with it, there oo3es out a fluid resem"lin$ $all, in $reater or less *uantities! Of animals that take in sea+water and are furnished with a lun$, the dolphin is unprovided with a $all+"ladder! Birds and fishes all have the or$an, as also oviparous *uadrupeds, all to a $reater or a lesser e&tent! But of fishes some have the or$an close to the liver, as the do$fishes, the sheat+fish, the rhine or an$el+fish, the smooth skate, the torpedo, and, of the lanky fishes, the eel, the pipe+fish, and the hammer+headed shark! The callionymus, also, has the $all+"ladder close to the liver, and in no other fish does the or$an attain so $reat a relative si3e! Other fishes have the or$an close to the $ut, attached to the liver "y certain e&tremely fine ducts! The "onito has the $all+"ladder stretched alon$side the $ut and e*uallin$ it in len$th, and often a dou"le fold of it! others have the or$an in the re$ion of the $ut in some cases far off, in others near as the

fishin$+fro$, the elops, the syna$ris, the muraena, and the sword+ fish! Often animals of the same species show this diversity of position as, for instance, some con$ers are found with the or$an attached close to the liver, and others with it detached from and "elow it! The case is much the same with "irds: that is, some have the $all+"ladder close to the stomach, and others close to the $ut, as the pi$eon, the raven, the *uail, the swallow, and the sparrow some have it near at once to the liver and to the stomach as the ae$ocephalus others have it near at once to the liver and the $ut, as the falcon and the kite! 1: A$ain, all viviparous *uadrupeds are furnished with kidneys and a "ladder! Of the ovipara that are not *uadrupedal there is no instance known of an animal, whether fish or "ird, provided with these or$ans! Of the ovipara that are *uadrupedal, the turtle alone is provided with these or$ans of a ma$nitude to correspond with the other or$ans of the animal! In the turtle the kidney resem"les the same or$an in the o& that is to say, it looks one sin$le or$an composed of a num"er of small ones! ,The "ison also resem"les the o& in all its internal parts-! 1< )ith all animals that are furnished with these parts, the parts are similarly situated, and with the e&ception of man, the heart is in the

middle in man, however, as has "een o"served, the heart is placed a little to the left+hand side! In all animals the pointed end of the heart turns frontwards only in fish it would at first si$ht seem otherwise, for the pointed end is turned not towards the "reast, "ut towards the head and the mouth! And ,in fish- the ape& is attached to a tu"e (ust where the ri$ht and left $ills meet to$ether! There are other ducts e&tendin$ from the heart to each of the $ills, $reater in the $reater fish, lesser in the lesser "ut in the lar$e fishes the duct at the pointed end of the heart is a tu"e, white+coloured and e&ceedin$ly thick! Fishes in some few cases have an oesopha$us, as the con$er and the eel and in these the or$an is small! In fishes that are furnished with an undivided liver, the or$an lies entirely on the ri$ht side where the liver is cloven from the root, the lar$er half of the or$an is on the ri$ht side: for in some fishes the two parts are detached from one another, without any coalescence at the root, as is the case with the do$fish! And there is also a species of hare in what is named the Fi$ district, near Bake Bol"e, and elsewhere, which animal mi$ht "e taken to have two livers owin$ to the len$th of the connectin$ ducts, similar to the structure in the lun$ of "irds! The spleen in all cases, when normally placed, is on the left+hand side, and the kidneys also lie in the same position in all creatures that possess them! There have "een known instances of *uadrupeds under dissection, where the spleen was on the ri$ht hand and the liver on the left "ut all such cases are re$arded as supernatural!

In all animals the wind+pipe e&tends to the lun$, and the manner how, we shall discuss hereafter and the oesopha$us, in all that have the or$an, e&tends throu$h the midriff into the stomach! For, "y the way, as has "een o"served, most fishes have no oesopha$us, "ut the stomach is united directly with the mouth, so that in some cases when "i$ fish are pursuin$ little ones, the stomach tum"les forward into the mouth! All the afore+mentioned animals have a stomach, and one similarly situated, that is to say, situated directly under the midriff and they have a $ut connected therewith and closin$ at the outlet of the residuum and at what is termed the 'rectum%! However, animals present diversities in the structure of their stomachs! In the first place, of the viviparous *uadrupeds, such of the horned animals as are not e*ually furnished with teeth in "oth (aws are furnished with four such cham"ers! These animals, "y the way, are those that are said to chew the cud! In these animals the oesopha$us e&tends from the mouth downwards alon$ the lun$, from the midriff to the "i$ stomach ,or paunch- and this stomach is rou$h inside and semi+partitioned! And connected with it near to the entry of the oesopha$us is what from its appearance is termed the 'reticulum% ,or honeycom" "a$- for outside it is like the stomach, "ut inside it resem"les a netted cap and the reticulum is a $reat deal smaller than the stomach! .onnected with this is the 'echinus% ,or many+ plies-, rou$h inside and laminated, and of a"out the same si3e as the reticulum! 5e&t after this comes what is called the 'enystrum%

,or a"omasum-, lar$er an lon$er than the echinus, furnished inside with numerous folds or rid$es, lar$e and smooth! After all this comes the $ut! #uch is the stomach of those *uadrupeds that are horned and have an unsymmetrical dentition and these animals differ one from another in the shape and si3e of the parts, and in the fact of the oesopha$us reachin$ the stomach centralwise in some cases and sideways in others! Animals that are furnished e*ually with teeth in "oth (aws have one stomach as man, the pi$, the do$, the "ear, the lion, the wolf! ,The Thos, "y the "y, has all its internal or$ans similar to the wolf%s!All these, then have a sin$le stomach, and after that the $ut "ut the stomach in some is comparatively lar$e, as in the pi$ and "ear, and the stomach of the pi$ has a few smooth folds or rid$es others have a much smaller stomach, not much "i$$er than the $ut, as the lion, the do$, and man! In the other animals the shape of the stomach varies in the direction of one or other of those already mentioned that is, the stomach in some animals resem"les that of the pi$ in others that of the do$, alike with the lar$er animals and the smaller ones! In all these animals diversities occur in re$ard to the si3e, the shape, the thickness or the thinness of the stomach, and also in re$ard to the place where the oesopha$us opens into it! There is also a difference in structure in the $ut of the two $roups of animals a"ove mentioned ,those with unsymmetrical and those with symmetrical dentition- in si3e, in thickness, and in foldin$s!

The intestines in those animals whose (aws are une*ually furnished with teeth are in all cases the lar$er, for the animals themselves are lar$er than those in the other cate$ory for very few of them are small, and no sin$le one of the horned animals is very small! And some possess appenda$es ,or caeca- to the $ut, "ut no animal that has not incisors in "oth (aws has a strai$ht $ut! The elephant has a $ut constricted into cham"ers, so constructed that the animal appears to have four stomachs in it the food is found, "ut there is no distinct and separate receptacle! Its viscera resem"le those of the pi$, only that the liver is four times the si3e of that of the o&, and the other viscera in like proportion, while the spleen is comparatively small! 0uch the same may "e predicated of the properties of the stomach and the $ut in oviparous *uadrupeds, as in the land tortoise, the turtle, the li3ard, "oth crocodiles, and, in fact, in all animals of the like kind that is to say, their stomach is one and simple, resem"lin$ in some cases that of the pi$, and in other cases that of the do$! The serpent $enus is similar and in almost all respects furnished similarly to the saurians amon$ land animals, if one could only ima$ine these saurians to "e increased in len$th and to "e devoid of le$s! That is to say, the serpent is coated with tessellated scutes, and resem"les the saurian in its "ack and "elly only, "y the way, it has no testicles, "ut, like fishes, has two ducts conver$in$ into one, and an ovary lon$ and "ifurcate! The rest of its internal or$ans are

identical with those of the saurians, e&cept that, owin$ to the narrowness and len$th of the animal, the viscera are correspondin$ly narrow and elon$ated, so that they are apt to escape reco$nition from the similarities in shape! Thus, the windpipe of the creature is e&ceptionally lon$, and the oesopha$us is lon$er still, and the windpipe commences so close to the mouth that the ton$ue appears to "e underneath it and the windpipe seems to pro(ect over the ton$ue, owin$ to the fact that the ton$ue draws "ack into a sheath and does not remain in its place as in other animals! The ton$ue, moreover, is thin and lon$ and "lack, and can "e protruded to a $reat distance! And "oth serpents and saurians have this alto$ether e&ceptional property in the ton$ue, that it is forked at the outer e&tremity, and this property is the more marked in the serpent, for the tips of his ton$ue are as thin as hairs! The seal, also, "y the way, has a split ton$ue! The stomach of the serpent is like a more spacious $ut, resem"lin$ the stomach of the do$ then comes the $ut, lon$, narrow, and sin$le to the end! The heart is situated close to the pharyn&, small and kidney+shaped and for this reason the or$an mi$ht in some cases appear not to have the pointed end turned towards the "reast! Then comes the lun$, sin$le, and articulated with a mem"ranous passa$e, very lon$, and *uite detached from the heart! The liver is lon$ and simple the spleen is short and round: as is the case in "oth respects with the saurians! Its $all resem"les that of the fish the water+snakes have it "eside the liver, and the other snakes have

it usually "eside the $ut! These creatures are all saw+toothed! Their ri"s are as numerous as the days of the month in other words, they are thirty in num"er! #ome affirm that the same phenomenon is o"serva"le with serpents as with swallow chicks in other words, they say that if you prick out a serpent%s eyes they will $row a$ain! And further, the tails of saurians and of serpents, if they "e cut off, will $row a$ain! )ith fishes the properties of the $ut and stomach are similar that is, they have a stomach sin$le and simple, "ut varia"le in shape accordin$ to species! For in some cases the stomach is $ut+shaped, as with the scarus, or parrot+fish which fish, "y the way, appears to "e the only fish that chews the cud! And the whole len$th of the $ut is simple, and if it have a reduplication or kink it loosens out a$ain into a simple form! An e&ceptional property in fishes and in "irds for the most part is the "ein$ furnished with $ut+appenda$es or caeca! Birds have them low down and few in num"er! Fishes have them hi$h up a"out the stomach, and sometimes numerous, as in the $o"y, the $aleos, the perch, the scorpaena, the citharus, the red mullet, and the sparus the cestreus or $rey mullet has several of them on one side of the "elly, and on the other side only one! #ome fish possess these appenda$es "ut only in small num"ers, as the hepatus and the $laucus and, "y the way, they are few also in the dorado! These fishes differ also from one another within the same species, for in

the dorado one individual has many and another few! #ome fishes are entirely without the part, as the ma(ority of the selachians! As for all the rest, some of them have a few and some a $reat many! And in all cases where the $ut+appenda$es are found in fish, they are found close up to the stomach! In re$ard to their internal parts "irds differ from other animals and from one another! #ome "irds, for instance, have a crop in front of the stomach, as the "arn+door cock, the cushat, the pi$eon, and the partrid$e and the crop consists of a lar$e hollow skin, into which the food first enters and where it lies in$ested! Fust where the crop leaves the oesopha$us it is somewhat narrow "y and "y it "roadens out, "ut where it communicates with the stomach it narrows down a$ain! The stomach ,or $i33ard- in most "irds is fleshy and hard, and inside is a stron$ skin which comes away from the fleshy part! Other "irds have no crop, "ut instead of it an oesopha$us wide and roomy, either all the way or in the part leadin$ to the stomach, as with the daw, the raven, and the carrion+ crow! The *uail also has the oesopha$us widened out at the lower e&tremity, and in the ae$ocephalus and the owl the or$an is sli$htly "roader at the "ottom than at the top! The duck, the $oose, the $ull, the catarrhactes, and the $reat "ustard have the oesopha$us wide and roomy from one end to the other, and the same applies to a $reat many other "irds! In some "irds there is a portion of the stomach that resem"les a crop, as in the kestrel! In the case of small "irds like the swallow and the sparrow neither the

oesopha$us nor the crop is wide, "ut the stomach is lon$! #ome few have neither a crop nor a dilated oesopha$us, "ut the latter is e&ceedin$ly lon$, as in lon$ necked "irds, such as the porphyrio, and, "y the way, in the case of all these "irds the e&crement is unusually moist! The *uail is e&ceptional in re$ard to these or$ans, as compared with other "irds in other words, it has a crop, and at the same time its oesopha$us is wide and spacious in front of the stomach, and the crop is at some distance, relatively to its si3e, from the oesopha$us at that part! Further, in most "irds, the $ut is thin, and simple when loosened out! The $ut+appenda$es or caeca in "irds, as has "een o"served, are few in num"er, and are not situated hi$h up, as in fishes, "ut low down towards the e&tremity of the $ut! Birds, then, have caeca+not all, "ut the $reater part of them, such as the "arn+door cock, the partrid$e, the duck, the ni$ht+raven, ,the localus,- the ascalaphus, the $oose, the swan, the $reat "ustard, and the owl! #ome of the little "irds also have these appenda$es "ut the caeca in their case are e&ceedin$ly minute, as in the sparrow! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book III

1 5ow that we have stated the ma$nitudes, the properties, and the relative differences of the other internal or$ans, it remains for us to treat of the or$ans that contri"ute to $eneration! These or$ans in the female are in all cases internal in the male they present numerous diversities! In the "looded animals some males are alto$ether devoid of testicles, and some have the or$an "ut situated internally and of those males that have the or$an internally situated, some have it close to the loin in the nei$h"ourhood of the kidney and others close to the "elly! Other males have the or$an situated e&ternally! In the case of these last, the penis is in some cases attached to the "elly, whilst in others it is loosely suspended, as is the case also with the testicles and, in the cases where the penis is attached to the "elly, the attachment varies accordin$ly as the animal is emprosthuretic or opisthuretic! 5o fish is furnished with testicles, nor any other creature that has $ills, nor any serpent whatever: nor, in short, any animal devoid of feet, save such only as are viviparous within themselves! Birds are furnished with testicles, "ut these are internally situated, close to the loin! The case is similar with oviparous *uadrupeds, such as the li3ard, the tortoise and the crocodile and amon$ the viviparous animals this peculiarity is found in the hed$eho$! Others amon$ those creatures that have the or$an internally situated have it close to the "elly, as is the case with the dolphin amon$st animals devoid

of feet, and with the elephant amon$ viviparous *uadrupeds! In other cases these or$ans are e&ternally conspicuous! )e have already alluded to the diversities o"served in the attachment of these or$ans to the "elly and the ad(acent re$ion in other words, we have stated that in some cases the testicles are ti$htly fastened "ack, as in the pi$ and its allies, and that in others they are freely suspended, as in man! Fishes, then, are devoid of testicles, as has "een stated, and serpents also! They are furnished, however, with two ducts connected with the midriff and runnin$ on to either side of the "ack"one, coalescin$ into a sin$le duct a"ove the outlet of the residuum, and "y 'a"ove% the outlet I mean the re$ion near to the spine! These ducts in the ruttin$ season $et filled with the $enital fluid, and, if the ducts "e s*uee3ed, the sperm oo3es out white in colour! As to the differences o"served in male fishes of diverse species, the reader should consult my treatise on Anatomy, and the su"(ect will "e hereafter more fully discussed when we descri"e the specific character in each case! The males of oviparous animals, whether "iped or *uadruped, are in all cases furnished with testicles close to the loin underneath the midriff! )ith some animals the or$an is whitish, in others somewhat of a sallow hue in all cases it is entirely enveloped with minute and delicate veins! From each of the two testicles e&tends a duct, and, as in the case of fishes, the two ducts coalesce into one a"ove the outlet of the residuum! This constitutes the penis, which

or$an in the case of small ovipara is inconspicuous "ut in the case of the lar$er ovipara, as in the $oose and the like, the or$an "ecomes *uite visi"le (ust after copulation! The ducts in the case of fishes and in "iped and *uadruped ovipara are attached to the loin under the stomach and the $ut, in "etwi&t them and the $reat vein, from which ducts or "lood+vessels e&tend, one to each of the two testicles! And (ust as with fishes the male sperm is found in the seminal ducts, and the ducts "ecome plainly visi"le at the ruttin$ season and in some instances "ecome invisi"le after the season is passed, so also is it with the testicles of "irds "efore the "reedin$ season the or$an is small in some "irds and *uite invisi"le in others, "ut durin$ the season the or$an in all cases is $reatly enlar$ed! This phenomenon is remarka"ly illustrated in the rin$+dove and the partrid$e, so much so that some people are actually of opinion that these "irds are devoid of the or$an in the winter+time! Of male animals that have their testicles placed frontwards, some have them inside, close to the "elly, as the dolphin some have them outside, e&posed to view, close to the lower e&tremity of the "elly! These animals resem"le one another thus far in respect to this or$an "ut they differ from one another in this fact, that some of them have their testicles situated separately "y themselves, while others, which have the or$an situated e&ternally, have them enveloped in what is termed the scrotum!

A$ain, in all viviparous animals furnished with feet the followin$ properties are o"served in the testicles themselves! From the aorta there e&tend vein+like ducts to the head of each of the testicles, and another two from the kidneys these two from the kidneys are supplied with "lood, while the two from the aorta are devoid of it! From the head of the testicle alon$side of the testicle itself is a duct, thicker and more sinewy than the other (ust alluded to+a duct that "ends "ack a$ain at the end of the testicle to its head and from the head of each of the two testicles the two ducts e&tend until they coalesce in front at the penis! The duct that "ends "ack a$ain and that which is in contact with the testicle are enveloped in one and the same mem"rane, so that, until you draw aside the mem"rane, they present all the appearance of "ein$ a sin$le undifferentiated duct! Further, the duct in contact with the testicle has its moist content *ualified "y "lood, "ut to a comparatively less e&tent than in the case of the ducts hi$her up which are connected with the aorta in the ducts that "end "ack towards the tu"e of the penis, the li*uid is white+coloured! There also runs a duct from the "ladder, openin$ into the upper part of the canal, around which lies, sheathwise, what is called the 'penis%! All these descriptive particulars may "e re$arded "y the li$ht of the accompanyin$ dia$ram wherein the letter A marks the startin$+ point of the ducts that e&tend from the aorta the letters GG mark the heads of the testicles and the ducts descendin$ thereunto the ducts e&tendin$ from these alon$ the testicles are marked 00 the

ducts turnin$ "ack, in which is the white fluid, are marked BB the penis / the "ladder 8 and the testicles HH! ,By the way, when the testicles are cut off or removed, the ducts draw upwards "y contraction! 0oreover, when male animals are youn$, their owner sometimes destroys the or$an in them "y attrition sometimes they castrate them at a later period! And I may here add, that a "ull has "een known to serve a cow immediately after castration, and actually to impre$nate her!#o much then for the properties of testicles in male animals! In female animals furnished with a wom", the wom" is not in all cases the same in form or endowed with the same properties, "ut "oth in the vivipara and the ovipara $reat diversities present themselves! In all creatures that have the wom" close to the $enitals, the wom" is two+horned, and one horn lies to the ri$ht+ hand side and the other to the left its commencement, however, is sin$le, and so is the orifice, resem"lin$ in the case of the most numerous and lar$est animals a tu"e composed of much flesh and $ristle! Of these parts one is termed the hystera or delphys, whence is derived the word adelphos, and the other part, the tu"e or orifice, is termed metra! In all "iped or *uadruped vivipara the wom" is in all cases "elow the midriff, as in man, the do$, the pi$, the horse, and the o& the same is the case also in all horned animals! At the e&tremity of the so+called ceratia, or horns, the wom"s of most animals have a twist or convolution!

In the case of those ovipara that lay e$$s e&ternally, the wom"s are not in all cases similarly situated! Thus the wom"s of "irds are close to the midriff, and the wom"s of fishes down "elow, (ust like the wom"s of "iped and *uadruped vivipara, only that, in the case of the fish, the wom"s are delicately formed, mem"ranous, and elon$ated so much so that in e&tremely small fish, each of the two "ifurcated parts looks like a sin$le e$$, and those fishes whose e$$ is descri"ed as crum"lin$ would appear to have inside them a pair of e$$s, whereas in reality each of the two sides consists not of one "ut of many e$$s, and this accounts for their "reakin$ up into so many particles! The wom" of "irds has the lower and tu"ular portion fleshy and firm, and the part close to the midriff mem"ranous and e&ceedin$ly thin and fine: so thin and fine that the e$$s mi$ht seem to "e outside the wom" alto$ether! In the lar$er "irds the mem"rane is more distinctly visi"le, and, if inflated throu$h the tu"e, lifts and swells out in the smaller "irds all these parts are more indistinct! The properties of the wom" are similar in oviparous *uadrupeds, as the tortoise, the li3ard, the fro$ and the like for the tu"e "elow is sin$le and fleshy, and the cleft portion with the e$$s is at the top close to the midriff! )ith animals devoid of feet that are internally oviparous and viviparous e&ternally, as is the case with the do$fish and the other so+called #elachians ,and "y this title we desi$nate such creatures destitute of feet and furnished with $ills as are

viviparous-, with these animals the wom" is "ifurcate, and "e$innin$ down "elow it e&tends as far as the midriff, as in the case of "irds! There is also a narrow part "etween the two horns runnin$ up as far as the midriff, and the e$$s are en$endered here and a"ove at the ori$in of the midriff afterwards they pass into the wider space and turn from e$$s into youn$ animals! However, the differences in respect to the wom"s of these fishes as compared with others of their own species or with fishes in $eneral, would "e more satisfactorily studied in their various forms in specimens under dissection! The mem"ers of the serpent $enus also present diver$encies either when compared with the a"ove+mentioned creatures or with one another! #erpents as a rule are oviparous, the viper "ein$ the only viviparous mem"er of the $enus! The viper is, previously to e&ternal parturition, oviparous internally and owin$ to this perculiarity the properties of the wom" in the viper are similar to those of the wom" in the selachians! The wom" of the serpent is lon$, in keepin$ with the "ody, and startin$ "elow from a sin$le duct e&tends continuously on "oth sides of the spine, so as to $ive the impression of thus "ein$ a separate duct on each side of the spine, until it reaches the midriff, where the e$$s are en$endered in a row and these e$$s are laid not one "y one, "ut all strun$ to$ether! ,And all animals that are viviparous "oth internally and e&ternally have the wom" situated a"ove the stomach, and all the ovipara underneath, near to the loin! Animals that are viviparous

e&ternally and internally oviparous present an intermediate arran$ement for the underneath portion of the wom", in which the e$$s are, is placed near to the loin, "ut the part a"out the orifice is a"ove the $ut!Further, there is the followin$ diversity o"serva"le in wom"s as compared with one another: namely that the females of horned nonam"idental animals are furnished with cotyledons in the wom" when they are pre$nant, and such is the case, amon$ am"identals, with the hare, the mouse, and the "at whereas all other animals that are am"idental, viviparous, and furnished with feet, have the wom" *uite smooth, and in their case the attachment of the em"ryo is to the wom" itself and not to any cotyledon inside it! The parts, then, in animals that are not homo$eneous with themselves and uniform in their te&ture, "oth parts e&ternal and parts internal, have the properties a"ove assi$ned to them! 4 In san$uineous animals the homo$eneous or uniform part most universally found is the "lood, and its ha"itat the vein ne&t in de$ree of universality, their analo$ues, lymph and fi"re, and, that which chiefly constitutes the frame of animals, flesh and whatsoever in the several parts is analo$ous to flesh then "one, and parts that are analo$ous to "one, as fish+"one and $ristle and then, a$ain, skin, mem"rane, sinew, hair, nails, and whatever corresponds to these and, furthermore, fat, suet, and the

e&cretions: and the e&cretions are dun$, phle$m, yellow "ile, and "lack "ile! 5ow, as the nature of "lood and the nature of the veins have all the appearance of "ein$ primitive, we must discuss their properties first of all, and all the more as some previous writers have treated them very unsatisfactorily! And the cause of the i$norance thus manifested is the e&treme difficulty e&perienced in the way of o"servation! For in the dead "odies of animals the nature of the chief veins is undiscovera"le, owin$ to the fact that they collapse at once when the "lood leaves them for the "lood pours out of them in a stream, like li*uid out of a vessel, since there is no "lood separately situated "y itself, e&cept a little in the heart, "ut it is all lod$ed in the veins! In livin$ animals it is impossi"le to inspect these parts, for of their very nature they are situated inside the "ody and out of si$ht! For this reason anatomists who have carried on their investi$ations on dead "odies in the dissectin$ room have failed to discover the chief roots of the veins, while those who have narrowly inspected "odies of livin$ men reduced to e&treme attenuation have arrived at conclusions re$ardin$ the ori$in of the veins from the manifestations visi"le e&ternally! Of these investi$ators, #yennesis, the physician of .yprus, writes as follows:I 'The "i$ veins run thus:+from the navel across the loins, alon$ the "ack, past the lun$, in under the "reasts one from ri$ht to left, and the other from left to ri$ht that from the left, throu$h the liver to

the kidney and the testicle, that from the ri$ht, to the spleen and kidney and testicle, and from thence to the penis!% /io$enes of Apollonia writes thus:I 'The veins in man are as follows:+There are two veins pre+eminent in ma$nitude! These e&tend throu$h the "elly alon$ the "ack"one, one to ri$ht, one to left either one to the le$ on its own side, and upwards to the head, past the collar "ones, throu$h the throat! From these, veins e&tend all over the "ody, from that on the ri$ht hand to the ri$ht side and from that on the left hand to the left side the most important ones, two in num"er, to the heart in the re$ion of the "ack"one other two a little hi$her up throu$h the chest in underneath the armpit, each to the hand on its side: of these two, one "ein$ termed the vein splenitis, and the other the vein hepatitis! 8ach of the pair splits at its e&tremity the one "ranches in the direction of the thum" and the other in the direction of the palm and from these run off a num"er of minute veins "ranchin$ off to the fin$ers and to all parts of the hand! Other veins, more minute, e&tend from the main veins from that on the ri$ht towards the liver, from that on the left towards the spleen and the kidneys! The veins that run to the le$s split at the (uncture of the le$s with the trunk and e&tend ri$ht down the thi$h! The lar$est of these $oes down the thi$h at the "ack of it, and can "e discerned and traced as a "i$ one the second one runs inside the thi$h, not *uite as "i$ as the one (ust mentioned! After this they pass on alon$ the knee to the shin and the foot ,as the upper veins were descri"ed as

passin$ towards the hands-, and arrive at the sole of the foot, and from thence continue to the toes! 0oreover, many delicate veins separate off from the $reat veins towards the stomach and towards the ri"s! 'The veins that run throu$h the throat to the head can "e discerned and traced in the neck as lar$e ones and from each one of the two, where it terminates, there "ranch off a num"er of veins to the head some from the ri$ht side towards the left, and some from the left side towards the ri$ht and the two veins terminate near to each of the two ears! There is another pair of veins in the neck runnin$ alon$ the "i$ vein on either side, sli$htly less in si3e than the pair (ust spoken of, and with these the $reater part of the veins in the head are connected! This other pair runs throu$h the throat inside and from either one of the two there e&tend veins in underneath the shoulder "lade and towards the hands and these appear alon$side the veins splenitis and hepatitis as another pair of veins smaller in si3e! )hen there is a pain near the surface of the "ody, the physician lances these two latter veins "ut when the pain is within and in the re$ion of the stomach he lances the veins splenitis and hepatitis! And from these, other veins depart to run "elow the "reasts! 'There is also another pair runnin$ on each side throu$h the spinal marrow to the testicles, thin and delicate! There is, further, a pair runnin$ a little underneath the cuticle throu$h the flesh to the kidneys, and these with men terminate at the testicle, and with

women at the wom"! These veins are termed the spermatic veins! The veins that leave the stomach are comparatively "road (ust as they leave "ut they "ecome $radually thinner, until they chan$e over from ri$ht to left and from left to ri$ht! 'Blood is thickest when it is im"i"ed "y the fleshy parts when it is transmitted to the or$ans a"ove+mentioned, it "ecomes thin, warm, and frothy!% 6 #uch are the accounts $iven "y #yennesis and /io$enes! Aoly"us writes to the followin$ effect:I 'There are four pairs of veins! The first e&tends from the "ack of the head, throu$h the neck on the outside, past the "ack"one on either side, until it reaches the loins and passes on to the le$s, after which it $oes on throu$h the shins to the outer side of the ankles and on to the feet! And it is on this account that sur$eons, for pains in the "ack and loin, "leed in the ham and in the outer side of the ankle! Another pair of veins runs from the head, past ears, throu$h the neck which veins are termed the (u$ular veins! This pair $oes on inside alon$ the "ack"one, past the muscles of the loins, on to the testicles, and onwards to the thi$hs, and throu$h the inside of the hams and throu$h the shins down to the inside of the ankles and to the feet and for this reason, sur$eons, for pains in the muscles of the loins and in the testicles, "leed on the hams and the inner side of the ankles! The third pair e&tends from the temples,

throu$h the neck, in underneath the shoulder+"lades, into the lun$ those from ri$ht to left $oin$ in underneath the "reast and on to the spleen and the kidney those from left to ri$ht runnin$ from the lun$ in underneath the "reast and into the liver and the kidney and "oth terminate in the fundament! The fourth pair e&tend from the front part of the head and the eyes in underneath the neck and the collar+"ones from thence they stretch on throu$h the upper part of the upper arms to the el"ows and then throu$h the fore+arms on to the wrists and the (ointin$s of the fin$ers, and also throu$h the lower part of the upper+arms to the armpits, and so on, keepin$ a"ove the ri"s, until one of the pair reaches the spleen and the other reaches the liver and after this they "oth pass over the stomach and terminate at the penis!% The a"ove *uotations sum up pretty well the statements of all previous writers! Furthermore, there are some writers on 5atural History who have not ventured to lay down the law in such precise terms as re$ards the veins, "ut who all alike a$ree in assi$nin$ the head and the "rain as the startin$+point of the veins! And in this opinion they are mistaken! The investi$ation of such a su"(ect, as has "een remarked, is one frau$ht with difficulties "ut, if any one "e keenly interested in the matter, his "est plan will "e to allow his animals to starve to emaciation, then to stran$le them on a sudden, and thereupon to prosecute his investi$ations!

)e now proceed to $ive particulars re$ardin$ the properties and functions of the veins! There are two "lood+vessels in the thora& "y the "ack"one, and lyin$ to its inner side and of these two the lar$er one is situated to the front, and the lesser one is to the rear of it and the lar$er is situated rather to the ri$ht hand side of the "ody, and the lesser one to the left and "y some this vein is termed the 'aorta%, from the fact that even in dead "odies part of it is o"served to "e full of air! These "lood+vessels have their ori$ins in the heart, for they traverse the other viscera, in whatever direction they happen to run, without in any way losin$ their distinctive characteristic as "lood+vessels, whereas the heart is as it were a part of them ,and that too more in respect to the frontward and lar$er one of the two-, owin$ to the fact that these two veins are a"ove and "elow, with the heart lyin$ midway! The heart in all animals has cavities inside it! In the case of the smaller animals even the lar$est of the cham"ers is scarcely discerni"le the second lar$er is scarcely discerni"le in animals of medium si3e "ut in the lar$est animals all three cham"ers are distinctly seen! In the heart then ,with its pointed end directed frontwards, as has "een o"served- the lar$est of the three cham"ers is on the ri$ht+hand side and hi$hest up the least one is on the left+ hand side and the medium+si3ed one lies in "etwi&t the other two and the lar$est one of the three cham"ers is a $reat deal lar$er than either of the two others! All three, however, are connected with passa$es leadin$ in the direction of the lun$, "ut all these

communications are indistinctly discerni"le "y reason of their minuteness, e&cept one! The $reat "lood+vessel, then, is attached to the "i$$est of the three cham"ers, the one that lies uppermost and on the ri$ht+hand side it then e&tends ri$ht throu$h the cham"er, comin$ out as "lood+ vessel a$ain (ust as thou$h the cavity of the heart were a part of the vessel, in which the "lood "roadens its channel as a river that widens out in a lake! The aorta is attached to the middle cham"er only, "y the way, it is connected with it "y much narrower pipe! The $reat "lood+vessel then passes throu$h the heart ,and runs from the heart into the aorta-! The $reat vessel looks as thou$h made of mem"rane or skin, while the aorta is narrower than it, and is very sinewy and as it stretches away to the head and to the lower parts it "ecomes e&ceedin$ly narrow and sinewy! First of all, then, upwards from the heart there stretches a part of the $reat "lood+vessel towards the lun$ and the attachment of the aorta, a part consistin$ of a lar$e undivided vessel! But there split off from it two parts one towards the lun$ and the other towards the "ack"one and the last verte"ra of the neck! The vessel, then, that e&tends to the lun$, as the lun$ itself is duplicate, divides at first into two and then e&tends alon$ "y every pipe and every perforation, $reater alon$ the $reater ones, lesser alon$ the less, so continuously that it is impossi"le to discern a sin$le part wherein there is not perforation and vein for the

e&tremities are indistin$uisha"le from their minuteness, and in point of fact the whole lun$ appears to "e filled with "lood! The "ranches of the "lood+vessels lie a"ove the tu"es that e&tend from the windpipe! And that vessel which e&tends to the verte"ra of the neck and the "ack"one, stretches "ack a$ain alon$ the "ack"one as Homer represents in the lines:I ,Antilochus, Transpierc%d The hollow as his vein Thoon "ack that with to turned a the him dishonest neck round-, wound e&tends,

Alon$ the chine, the ea$er (avelin rends! From this vessel there e&tend small "lood+vessels at each ri" and each verte"ra and at the verte"ra a"ove the kidneys the vessel "ifurcates! And in the a"ove way the parts "ranch off from the $reat "lood+vessel! But up a"ove all these, from that part which is connected with the heart, the entire vein "ranches off in two directions! For its "ranches e&tend to the sides and to the collar"ones, and then pass on, in men throu$h the armpits to the arms, in *uadrupeds to the forele$s, in "irds to the win$s, and in fishes to the upper or pectoral fins! ,#ee dia$ram!- The trunks of these veins, where they first "ranch off, are called the '(u$ular% veins and, where they "ranch off to the neck the $reat vein run alon$side the windpipe and, occasionally, if these veins are pressed e&ternally, men, thou$h not actually choked, "ecome insensi"le, shut their eyes, and fall flat on the $round! 8&tendin$ in the way descri"ed and keepin$

the windpipe in "etwi&t them, they pass on until they reach the ears at the (unction of the lower (aw with the skull! Hence a$ain they "ranch off into four veins, of which one "ends "ack and descends throu$h the neck and the shoulder, and meets the previous "ranchin$ off of the vein at the "end of the arm, while the rest of it terminates at the hand and fin$ers! ,#ee dia$ram!8ach vein of the other pair stretches from the re$ion of the ear to the "rain, and "ranches off in a num"er of fine and delicate veins into the so+called menin&, or mem"rane, which surrounds the "rain! The "rain itself in all animals is destitute of "lood, and no vein, $reat or small, holds its course therein! But of the remainin$ veins that "ranch off from the last mentioned vein some envelop the head, others close their courses in the or$ans of sense and at the roots of the teeth in veins e&ceedin$ly fine and minute! 7 And in like manner the parts of the lesser one of the two chief "lood+vessels, desi$nated the aorta, "ranch off, accompanyin$ the "ranches from the "i$ vein only that, in re$ard to the aorta, the passa$es are less in si3e, and the "ranches very considera"ly less than are those of the $reat vein! #o much for the veins as o"served in the re$ions a"ove the heart! The part of the $reat vein that lies underneath the heart e&tends, freely suspended, ri$ht throu$h the midriff, and is united "oth to the aorta and the "ack"one "y slack mem"ranous communications!

From it one vein, short and wide, e&tends throu$h the liver, and from it a num"er of minute veins "ranch off into the liver and disappear! From the vein that passes throu$h the liver two "ranches separate off, of which one terminates in the diaphra$m or so+called midriff, and the other runs up a$ain throu$h the armpit into the ri$ht arm and unites with the other veins at the inside of the "end of the arm and it is in conse*uence of this local conne&ion that, when the sur$eon opens this vein in the forearm, the patient is relieved of certain pains in the liver and from the left+hand side of it there e&tends a short "ut thick vein to the spleen and the little veins "ranchin$ off it disappear in that or$an! Another part "ranches off from the left+hand side of the $reat vein, and ascends, "y a course similar to the course recently descri"ed, into the left arm only that the ascendin$ vein in the one case is the vein that traverses the liver, while in this case it is distinct from the vein that runs into the spleen! A$ain, other veins "ranch off from the "i$ vein one to the omentum, and another to the pancreas, from which vein run a num"er of veins throu$h the mesentery! All these veins coalesce in a sin$le lar$e vein, alon$ the entire $ut and stomach to the oesopha$us a"out these parts there is a $reat ramification of "ranch veins! As far as the kidneys, each of the two remainin$ undivided, the aorta and the "i$ vein e&tend and here they $et more closely attached to the "ack"one, and "ranch off, each of the two, into a A shape, and the "i$ vein $ets to the rear of the aorta! But the chief

attachment of the aorta to the "ack"one takes place in the re$ion of the heart and the attachment is effected "y means of minute and sinewy vessels! The aorta, (ust as it draws off from the heart, is a tu"e of considera"le volume, "ut, as it advances in its course, it $ets narrower and more sinewy! And from the aorta there e&tend veins to the mesentery (ust like the veins that e&tend thither from the "i$ vein, only that the "ranches in the case of the aorta are considera"ly less in ma$nitude they are, indeed, narrow and fi"rillar, and they end in delicate hollow fi"re+like veinlets! There is no vessel that runs from the aorta into the liver or the spleen! From each of the two $reat "lood+vessels there e&tend "ranches to each of the two flanks, and "oth "ranches fasten on to the "one! ;essels also e&tend to the kidneys from the "i$ vein and the aorta only that they do not open into the cavity of the or$an, "ut their ramifications penetrate into its su"stance! From the aorta run two other ducts to the "ladder, firm and continuous and there are other ducts from the hollow of the kidneys, in no way communicatin$ with the "i$ vein! From the centre of each of the two kidneys sprin$s a hollow sinewy vein, runnin$ alon$ the "ack"one ri$ht throu$h the loins "y and "y each of the two veins first disappears in its own flank, and soon afterwards reappears stretchin$ in the direction of the flank! The e&tremities of these attach to the "ladder, and also in the male to the penis and in the female to the wom"! From the "i$ vein no vein e&tends to the wom", "ut the

or$an is connected with the aorta "y veins numerous and closely packed! Furthermore, from the aorta and the $reat vein at the points of divarication there "ranch off other veins! #ome of these run to the $roins+lar$e hollow veins+and then pass on down throu$h the le$s and terminate in the feet and toes! And, a$ain, another set run throu$h the $roins and the thi$hs cross+$arter fashion, from ri$ht to left and from left to ri$ht, and unite in the hams with the other veins! In the a"ove description we have thrown li$ht upon the course of the veins and their points of departure! In all san$uineous animals the case stands as here set forth in re$ard to the points of departure and the courses of the chief veins! But the description does not hold e*ually $ood for the entire vein+ system in all these animals! For, in point of fact, the or$ans are not identically situated in them all and, what is more, some animals are furnished with or$ans of which other animals are destitute! At the same time, while the description so far holds $ood, the proof of its accuracy is not e*ually easy in all cases, "ut is easiest in the case of animals of considera"le ma$nitude and supplied a"undantly with "lood! For in little animals and those scantily supplied with "lood, either from natural and inherent causes or from a prevalence of fat in the "ody, thorou$h accuracy in investi$ation is not e*ually attaina"le for in the latter of these creatures the passa$es $et clo$$ed, like water+channels choked

with slush and the others have a few minute fi"res to serve instead of veins! But in all cases the "i$ vein is plainly discerni"le, even in creatures of insi$nificant si3e! 9 The sinews of animals have the followin$ properties! For these also the point of ori$in is the heart for the heart has sinews within itself in the lar$est of its three cham"ers, and the aorta is a sinew+ like vein in fact, at its e&tremity it is actually a sinew, for it is there no lon$er hollow, and is stretched like the sinews where they terminate at the (ointin$s of the "ones! Be it remem"ered, however, that the sinews do not proceed in un"roken se*uence from one point of ori$in, as do the "lood+vessels! For the veins have the shape of the entire "ody, like a sketch of a mannikin in such a way that the whole frame seems to "e filled up with little veins in attenuated su"(ects+for the space occupied "y flesh in fat individuals is filled with little veins in thin ones+ whereas the sinews are distri"uted a"out the (oints and the fle&ures of the "ones! 5ow, if the sinews were derived in un"roken se*uence from a common point of departure, this continuity would "e discerni"le in attenuated specimens! In the ham, or the part of the frame "rou$ht into full play in the effort of leapin$, is an important system of sinews and another sinew, a dou"le one, is that called 'the tendon%, and others are those "rou$ht into play when a $reat effort of physical stren$th is

re*uired that is to say, the epitonos or "ack+stay and the shoulder+ sinews! Other sinews, devoid of specific desi$nation, are situated in the re$ion of the fle&ures of the "ones for all the "ones that are attached to one another are "ound to$ether "y sinews, and a $reat *uantity of sinews are placed in the nei$h"ourhood of all the "ones! Only, "y the way, in the head there is no sinew "ut the head is held to$ether "y the sutures of the "ones! #inew is fissile len$thwise, "ut crosswise it is not easily "roken, "ut admits of a considera"le amount of hard tension! In conne&ion with sinews a li*uid mucus is developed, white and $lutinous, and the or$an, in fact, is sustained "y it and appears to "e su"stantially composed of it! 5ow, vein may "e su"mitted to the actual cautery, "ut sinew, when su"mitted to such action, shrivels up alto$ether and, if sinews "e cut asunder, the severed parts will not a$ain cohere! A feelin$ of num"ness is incidental only to parts of the frame where sinew is situated! There is a very e&tensive system of sinews connected severally with the feet, the hands, the ri"s, the shoulder+"lades, the neck, and the arms! All animals supplied with "lood are furnished with sinews "ut in the case of animals that have no fle&ures to their lim"s, "ut are, in fact, destitute of either feet or hands, the sinews are fine and inconspicuous and so, as mi$ht have "een anticipated, the sinews in the fish are chiefly discerni"le in conne&ion with the fin!

: The ines ,or fi"rous connective tissue- are a somethin$ intermediate "etween sinew and vein! #ome of them are supplied with fluid, the lymph and they pass from sinew to vein and from vein to sinew! There is another kind of ines or fi"re that is found in "lood, "ut not in the "lood of all animals alike! If this fi"re "e left in the "lood, the "lood will coa$ulate if it "e removed or e&tracted, the "lood is found to "e incapa"le of coa$ulation! )hile, however, this fi"rous matter is found in the "lood of the $reat ma(ority of animals, it is not found in all! For instance, we fail to find it in the "lood of the deer, the roe, the antelope, and some other animals and, owin$ to this deficiency of the fi"rous tissue, the "lood of these animals does not coa$ulate to the e&tent o"served in the "lood of other animals! The "lood of the deer coa$ulates to a"out the same e&tent as that of the hare: that is to the "lood in either case coa$ulates, "ut not into a stiff or (elly+like su"stance, like the "lood of ordinary animals, "ut only into a flaccid consistency like that of milk which is not su"(ected to the action of rennet! The "lood of the antelope admits of a firmer consistency in coa$ulation for in this respect it resem"les, or only comes a little short of, the "lood of sheep! #uch are the properties of vein, sinew, and fi"rous tissue! <

The "ones in animals are all connected with one sin$le "one, and are interconnected, like the veins, in one un"roken se*uence and there is no instance of a "one standin$ apart "y itself! In all animals furnished with "ones, the spine or "ack"one is the point of ori$in for the entire osseous system! The spine is composed of verte"rae, and it e&tends from the head down to the loins! The verte"rae are all perforated, and, a"ove, the "ony portion of the head is connected with the topmost verte"rae, and is desi$nated the 'skull%! And the serrated lines on the skull are termed 'sutures%! The skull is not formed alike in all animals! In some animals the skull consists of one sin$le undivided "one, as in the case of the do$ in others it is composite in structure, as in man and in the human species the suture is circular in the female, while in the male it is made up of three separate sutures, unitin$ a"ove in three+ corner fashion and instances have "een known of a man%s skull "ein$ devoid of suture alto$ether! The skull is composed not of four "ones, "ut of si& two of these are in the re$ion of the ears, small in comparison with the other four! From the skull e&tend the (aws, constituted of "one! ,Animals in $eneral move the lower (aw the river crocodile is the only animal that moves the upper one!- In the (aws is the tooth+system and the teeth are constituted of "one, and are half+way perforated and the "one in *uestion is the only kind of "one which it is found impossi"le to $rave with a $ravin$ tool!

On the upper part of the course of the "ack"one are the collar+ "ones and the ri"s! The chest rests on ri"s and these ri"s meet to$ether, whereas the others do not for no animal has "one in the re$ion of the stomach! Then come the shoulder+"ones, or "lade+ "ones, and the arm+"ones connected with these, and the "ones in the hands connected with the "ones of the arms! )ith animals that have forele$s, the osseous system of the forele$ resem"les that of the arm in man! Below the level of the "ack"one, after the haunch+"one, comes the hip+socket then the le$+"ones, those in the thi$hs and those in the shins, which are termed colenes or lim"+"ones, a part of which is the ankle, while a part of the same is the so+called 'plectrum% in those creatures that have an ankle and connected with these "ones are the "ones in the feet! 5ow, with all animals that are supplied with "lood and furnished with feet, and are at the same time viviparous, the "ones do not differ $reatly one from another, "ut only in the way of relative hardness, softness, or ma$nitude! A further difference, "y the way, is that in one and the same animal certain "ones are supplied with marrow, while others are destitute of it! #ome animals mi$ht on casual o"servation appear to have no marrow whatsoever in their "ones: as is the case with the lion, owin$ to his havin$ marrow only in small amount, poor and thin, and in very few "ones for marrow is found in his thi$h and arm"ones! The "ones of the lion are e&ceptionally hard so hard, in fact, that if they are ru""ed hard

a$ainst one another they emit sparks like flint+stones! The dolphin has "ones, and not fish+spine! Of the other animals supplied with "lood, some differ "ut little, as is the case with "irds others have systems analo$ous, as fishes for viviparous fishes, such as the cartila$inous species, are $ristle+ spined, while the ovipara have a spine which corresponds to the "ack"one in *uadrupeds! This e&ceptional property has "een o"served in fishes, that in some of them there are found delicate spines scattered here and there throu$hout the fleshy parts! The serpent is similarly constructed to the fish in other words, his "ack"one is spinous! )ith oviparous *uadrupeds, the skeleton of the lar$er ones is more or less osseous of the smaller ones, more or less spinous! But all san$uineous animals have a "ack"one of either one kind or other: that is, composed either of "one or of spine! The other portions of the skeleton are found in some animals and not found in others, "ut the presence or the a"sence of this and that part carries with it, as a matter of course, the presence or the a"sence of the "ones or the spines correspondin$ to this or that part! For animals that are destitute of arms and le$s cannot "e furnished with lim"+"ones: and in like manner with animals that have the same parts, "ut yet have them unlike in form for in these animals the correspondin$ "ones differ from one another in the way of relative e&cess or relative defect, or in the way of analo$y

takin$ the place of identity! #o much for the osseous or spinous systems in animals! = 2ristle is of the same nature as "one, "ut differs from it in the way of relative e&cess or relative defect! And (ust like "one, cartila$e also, if cut, does not $row a$ain! In terrestrial viviparous san$uinea the $ristle formations are unperforated, and there is no marrow in them as there is in "ones in the selachia, howeverIfor, "e it o"served, they are $ristle+spinedIthere is found in the case of the flat space in the re$ion of the "ack"one, a $ristle+like su"stance analo$ous to "one, and in this $ristle+like su"stance there is a li*uid resem"lin$ marrow! In viviparous animals furnished with feet, $ristle formations are found in the re$ion of the ears, in the nostrils, and around certain e&tremities of the "ones! > Furthermore, there are parts of other kinds, neither identical with, nor alto$ether diverse from, the parts a"ove enumerated: such as nails, hooves, claws, and horns and also, "y the way, "eaks, such as "irds are furnished with+all in the several animals that are furnished therewithal! All these parts are fle&i"le and fissile "ut "one is neither fle&i"le nor fissile, "ut fran$i"le! And the colours of horns and nails and claw and hoof follow the colour of the skin and the hair! For accordin$ as the skin of an

animal is "lack, or white, or of medium hue, so are the horns, the claws, or the hooves, as the case may "e, of hue to match! And it is the same with nails! The teeth, however, follow after the "ones! Thus in "lack men, such as the Aethiopians and the like, the teeth and "ones are white, "ut the nails are "lack, like the whole of the skin! Horns in $eneral are hollow at their point of attachment to the "one which (uts out from the head inside the horn, "ut they have a solid portion at the tip, and they are simple and undivided in structure! In the case of the sta$ alone of all animals the horns are solid throu$hout, and ramify into "ranches ,or antlers-! And, whereas no other animal is known to shed its horns, the deer sheds its horns annually, unless it has "een castrated and with re$ard to the effects of castration in animals we shall have much to say hereafter! Horns attach rather to the skin than to the "one which will account for the fact that there are found in Ahry$ia and elsewhere cattle that can move their horns as freely as their ears! Of animals furnished with nails+and, "y the way, all animals have nails that have toes, and toes that have feet, e&cept the elephant and the elephant has toes undivided and sli$htly articulated, "ut has no nails whatsoeverIof animals furnished with nails, some are strai$ht+nailed, like man others are crooked nailed, as the lion amon$ animals that walk, and the ea$le amon$ animals that fly! 1@

The followin$ are the properties of hair and of parts analo$ous to hair, and of skin or hide! All viviparous animals furnished with feet have hair all oviparous animals furnished with feet have horn+like tessellates fishes, and fishes only, have scales+that is, such oviparous fishes as have the crum"lin$ e$$ or roe! For of the lanky fishes, the con$er has no such e$$, nor the muraena, and the eel has no e$$ at all! The hair differs in the way of thickness and fineness, and of len$th, accordin$ to the locality of the part in which it is found, and accordin$ to the *uality of skin or hide on which it $rows! For, as a $eneral rule, the thicker the hide, the harder and the thicker is the hair and the hair is inclined to $row in a"undance and to a $reat len$th in localities of the "odies hollow and moist, if the localities "e fitted for the $rowth of hair at all! The facts are similar in the case of animals whether coated with scales or with tessellates! )ith soft+haired animals the hair $ets harder with $ood feedin$, and with hard+haired or "ristly animals it $ets softer and scantier from the same cause! Hair differs in *uality also accordin$ to the relative heat or warmth of the locality: (ust as the hair in man is hard in warm places and soft in cold ones! A$ain, strai$ht hair is inclined to "e soft, and curly hair to "e "ristly! 11 Hair is naturally fissile, and in this respect it differs in de$ree in diverse animals! In some animals the hair $oes on $radually

hardenin$ into "ristle until it no lon$er resem"les hair "ut spine, as in the case of the hed$eho$! And in like manner with the nails for in some animals the nail differs as re$ards solidity in no way from "one! Of all animals man has the most delicate skin: that is, if we take into consideration his relative si3e! In the skin or hide of all animals there is a mucous li*uid, scanty in some animals and plentiful in others, as, for instance, in the hide of the o& for men manufacture $lue out of it! ,And, "y the way, in some cases $lue is manufactured from fishes also!- The skin, when cut, is in itself devoid of sensation and this is especially the case with the skin on the head, owin$ to there "ein$ no flesh "etween it and the skull! And wherever the skin is *uite "y itself, if it "e cut asunder, it does not $row to$ether a$ain, as is seen in the thin part of the (aw, in the prepuce, and the eyelid! In all animals the skin is one of the parts that e&tends continuous and un"roken, and it comes to a stop only where the natural ducts pour out their contents, and at the mouth and nails! All san$uineous animals, then, have skin "ut not all such animals have hair, save only under the circumstances descri"ed a"ove! The hair chan$es its colour as animals $row old, and in man it turns white or $rey! )ith animals, in $eneral, the chan$e takes place, "ut not very o"viously, or not so o"viously as in the case of the horse! Hair turns $rey from the point "ackwards to the roots! But, in the ma(ority of cases, $rey hairs are white from the "e$innin$ and this

is a proof that $reyness of hair does not, as some "elieve to "e the case, imply witherin$ or decrepitude, for no part is "rou$ht into e&istence in a withered or decrepit condition! In the eruptive malady called the white+sickness all the hairs $et $rey and instances have "een known where the hair "ecame $rey while the patients were ill of the malady, whereas the $rey hairs shed off and "lack ones replaced them on their recovery! ,Hair is more apt to turn $rey when it is kept covered than when e&posed to the action of the outer air!- In men, the hair over the temples is the first to turn $rey, and the hair in the front $rows $rey sooner than the hair at the "ack and the hair on the pu"es is the last to chan$e colour! #ome hairs are con$enital, others $row after the maturity of the animal "ut this occurs in man only! The con$enital hairs are on the head, the eyelids, and the eye"rows of the later $rowths the hairs on the pu"es are the first to come, then those under the armpits, and, thirdly, those on the chin for, sin$ularly enou$h, the re$ions where con$enital $rowths and the su"se*uent $rowths are found are e*ual in num"er! The hair on the head $rows scanty and sheds out to a $reater e&tent and sooner than all the rest! But this remark applies only to hair in front for no man ever $ets "ald at the "ack of his head! #moothness on the top of the head is termed '"aldness%, "ut smoothness on the eye"rows is denoted "y a special term which means 'forehead+"aldness% and neither of these conditions of "aldness supervenes in a man until he shall have

come under the influence of se&ual passion! For no "oy ever $ets "ald, no woman, and no castrated man! In fact, if a man "e castrated "efore reachin$ pu"erty, the later $rowths of hair never come at all and, if the operation take place su"se*uently, the after$rowths, and these only, shed off or, rather, two of the $rowths shed off, "ut not that on the pu"es! )omen do not $row hairs on the chin e&cept that a scanty "eard $rows on some women after the monthly courses have stopped and similar phenomenon is o"served at times in priestesses in .aria, "ut these cases are looked upon as portentous with re$ard to comin$ events! The other after+$rowths are found in women, "ut more scanty and sparse! 0en and women are at times "orn constitutionally and con$enitally incapa"le of the after+$rowths and individuals that are destitute even of the $rowth upon the pu"es are constitutionally impotent! Hair as a rule $rows more or less in len$th as the wearer $rows in a$e chiefly the hair on the head, then that in the "eard, and fine hair $rows lon$est of all! )ith some people as they $row old the eye"rows $row thicker, to such an e&tent that they have to "e cut off and this $rowth is owin$ to the fact that the eye"rows are situated at a con(uncture of "ones, and these "ones, as a$e comes on, draw apart and e&ude a $radual increase of moisture or rheum! The eyelashes do not $row in si3e, "ut they shed when the wearer comes first under the influence of se&ual feelin$s, and shed all the

*uicker as this influence is the more powerful and these are the last hairs to $row $rey! Hairs if plucked out "efore maturity $row a$ain "ut they do not $row a$ain if plucked out afterwards! 8very hair is supplied with a mucous moisture at its root, and immediately after "ein$ plucked out it can lift li$ht articles if it touch them with this mucus! Animals that admit of diversity of colour in the hair admit of a similar diversity to start with in the skin and in the cuticle of the ton$ue! In some cases amon$ men the upper lip and the chin is thickly covered with hair, and in other cases these parts are smooth and the cheeks are hairy and, "y the way, smooth+chinned men are less inclined than "earded men to "aldness! The hair is inclined to $row in certain diseases, especially in consumption, and in old a$e, and after death and under these circumstances the hair hardens concomitantly with its $rowth, and the same duplicate phenomenon is o"serva"le in respect of the nails! In the case of men of stron$ se&ual passions the con$enital hairs shed the sooner, while the hairs of the after+$rowths are the *uicker to come! )hen men are afflicted with varicose veins they are less inclined to take on "aldness and if they "e "ald when they "ecome thus afflicted, they have a tendency to $et their hair a$ain! If a hair "e cut, it does not $row at the point of section "ut it $ets lon$er "y $rowin$ upward from "elow! In fishes the scales $row

harder and thicker with a$e, and when the amimal $ets emaciated or is $rowin$ old the scales $row harder! In *uadrupeds as they $row old the hair in some and the wool in others $ets deeper "ut scantier in amount: and the hooves or claws $et lar$er in si3e and the same is the case with the "eaks of "irds! The claws also increase in si3e, as do also the nails! 14 )ith re$ard to win$ed animals, such as "irds, no creature is lia"le to chan$e of colour "y reason of a$e, e&ceptin$ the crane! The win$s of this "ird are ash+coloured at first, "ut as it $rows old the win$s $et "lack! A$ain, owin$ to special climatic influences, as when unusual frost prevails, a chan$e is sometimes o"served to take place in "irds whose pluma$e is of one uniform colour thus, "irds that have dusky or downri$ht "lack pluma$e turn white or $rey, as the raven, the sparrow, and the swallow "ut no case has ever yet "een known of a chan$e of colour from white to "lack! ,Further, most "irds chan$e the colour of their pluma$e at different seasons of the year, so much so that a man i$norant of their ha"its mi$ht "e mistaken as to their identity!- #ome animals chan$e the colour of their hair with a chan$e in their drinkin$+water, for in some countries the same species of animal is found white in one district and "lack in another! And in re$ard to the commerce of the se&es, water in many places is of such peculiar *uality that rams, if they have intercourse with the female after drinkin$ it, "e$et "lack

lam"s, as is the case with the water of the Asychrus ,so+called from its coldness-, a river in the district of Assyritis in the .halcidic Aeninsula, on the coast of Thrace and in Antandria there are two rivers of which one makes the lam"s white and the other "lack! The river #camander also has the reputation of makin$ lam"s yellow, and that is the reason, they say, why Homer desi$nates it the 'Jellow Eiver!% Animals as a $eneral rule have no hair on their internal surfaces, and, in re$ard to their e&tremities, they have hair on the upper, "ut not on the lower side! The hare, or dasypod, is the only animal known to have hair inside its mouth and underneath its feet! Further, the so+called mousewhale instead of teeth has hairs in its mouth resem"lin$ pi$s% "ristles! Hairs after "ein$ cut $row at the "ottom "ut not at the top if feathers "e cut off, they $row neither at top nor "ottom, "ut shed and fall out! Further, the "ee%s win$ will not $row a$ain after "ein$ plucked off, nor will the win$ of any creature that has undivided win$s! 5either will the stin$ $row a$ain if the "ee lose it, "ut the creature will die of the loss! 16 In all san$uineous animals mem"ranes are found! And mem"rane resem"les a thin close+te&tured skin, "ut its *ualities are different, as it admits neither of cleava$e nor of e&tension! 0em"rane envelops each one of the "ones and each one of the viscera, "oth in

the lar$er and the smaller animals thou$h in the smaller animals the mem"ranes are indiscerni"le from their e&treme tenuity and minuteness! The lar$est of all the mem"ranes are the two that surround the "rain, and of these two the one that lines the "ony skull is stron$er and thicker than the one that envelops the "rain ne&t in order of ma$nitude comes the mem"rane that encloses the heart! If mem"rane "e "ared and cut asunder it will not $row to$ether a$ain, and the "one thus stripped of its mem"rane mortifies! 17 The omentum or caul, "y the way, is mem"rane! All san$uineous animals are furnished with this or$an "ut in some animals the or$an is supplied with fat, and in others it is devoid of it! The omentum has "oth its startin$+point and its attachment, with am"idental vivipara, in the centre of the stomach, where the stomach has a kind of suture in non+am"idental vivipara it has its startin$+point and attachment in the chief of the ruminatin$ stomachs! 19 The "ladder also is of the nature of mem"rane, "ut of mem"rane peculiar in kind, for it is e&tensile! The or$an is not common to all animals, "ut, while it is found in all the vivipara, the tortoise is the only oviparous animal that is furnished therewithal! The "ladder,

like ordinary mem"rane, if cut asunder will not $row to$ether a$ain, unless the section "e (ust at the commencement of the urethra: e&cept indeed in very rare cases, for instances of healin$ have "een known to occur! After death, the or$an passes no li*uid e&cretion "ut in life, in addition to the normal li*uid e&cretion, it passes at times dry e&cretion also, which turns into stones in the case of sufferers from that malady! Indeed, instances have "een known of concretions in the "ladder so shaped as closely to resem"le cockleshells! #uch are the properties, then, of vein, sinew and skin, of fi"re and mem"rane, of hair, nail, claw and hoof, of horns, of teeth, of "eak, of $ristle, of "ones, and of parts that are analo$ous to any of the parts here enumerated! 1: Flesh, and that which is "y nature akin to it in san$uineous animals, is in all cases situated in "etween the skin and the "one, or the su"stance analo$ous to "one for (ust as spine is a counterpart of "one, so is the flesh+like su"stance of animals that are constructed a spinous system the counterpart of the flesh of animals constructed on an osseous one! Flesh can "e divided asunder in any direction, not len$thwise only as is the case with sinew and vein! )hen animals are su"(ected to emaciation the flesh disappears, and the creatures "ecome a mass of veins and fi"res when they are over fed, fat takes the place of

flesh! )here the flesh is a"undant in an animal, its veins are somewhat small and the "lood a"normally red the viscera also and the stomach are diminutive whereas with animals whose veins are lar$e the "lood is somewhat "lack, the viscera and the stomach are lar$e, and the flesh is somewhat scanty! And animals with small stomachs are disposed to take on flesh! 1< A$ain, fat and suet differ from one another! #uet is fran$i"le in all directions and con$eals if su"(ected to e&treme cold, whereas fat can melt "ut cannot free3e or con$eal and soups made of the flesh of animals supplied with fat do not con$eal or coa$ulate, as is found with horse+flesh and pork "ut soups made from the flesh of animals supplied with suet do coa$ulate, as is seen with mutton and $oat%s flesh! Further, fat and suet differ as to their localities: for fat is found "etween the skin and flesh, "ut suet is found only at the limit of the fleshy parts! Also, in animals supplied with fat the omentum or caul is supplied with fat, and it is supplied with suet in animals supplied with suet! 0oreover, am"idental animals are supplied with fat, and non+am"identals with suet! Of the viscera the liver in some animals "ecomes fatty, as, amon$ fishes, is the case with the selachia, "y the meltin$ of whose livers an oil is manufactured! These cartila$inous fish themselves have no free fat at all in conne&ion with the flesh or with the stomach! The suet in fish is fatty, and does not solidify or con$eal! All

animals are furnished with fat, either intermin$led with their flesh, or apart! #uch as have no free or separate fat are less fat than others in stomach and omentum, as the eel for it has only a scanty supply of suet a"out the omentum! 0ost animals take on fat in the "elly, especially such animals as are little in motion! The "rains of animals supplied with fat are oily, as in the pi$ of animals supplied with suet, parched and dry! But it is a"out the kidneys more than any other viscera that animals are inclined to take on fat and the ri$ht kidney is always less supplied with fat than the left kidney, and, "e the two kidneys ever so fat, there is always a space devoid of fat in "etween the two! Animals supplied with suet are specially apt to have it a"out the kidneys, and especially the sheep for this animal is apt to die from its kidneys "ein$ entirely enveloped! Fat or suet a"out the kidney is superinduced "y overfeedin$, as is found at Beontini in #icily and conse*uently in this district they defer drivin$ out sheep to pasture until the day is well on, with the view of limitin$ their food "y curtailment of the hours of pasture! 1= The part around the pupil of the eye is fatty in all animals, and this part resem"les suet in all animals that possess such a part and that are not furnished with hard eyes! Fat animals, whether male or female, are more or less unfitted for "reedin$ purposes! Animals are disposed to take on fat more when

old than when youn$, and especially when they have attained their full "readth and their full len$th and are "e$innin$ to $row depthways! 1> And now to proceed to the consideration of the "lood! In san$uineous animals "lood is the most universal and the most indispensa"le part and it is not an ac*uired or adventitious part, "ut it is a consu"stantial part of all animals that are not corrupt or mori"und! All "lood is contained in a vascular system, to wit, the veins, and is found nowhere else, e&ceptin$ in the heart! Blood is not sensitive to touch in any animal, any more than the e&cretions of the stomach and the case is similar with the "rain and the marrow! )hen flesh is lacerated, "lood e&udes, if the animal "e alive and unless the flesh "e $an$rened! Blood in a healthy condition is naturally sweet to the taste, and red in colour, "lood that deteriorates from natural decay or from disease more or less "lack! Blood at its "est, "efore it under$oes deterioration from either natural decay or from disease, is neither very thick nor very thin! In the livin$ animal it is always li*uid and warm, "ut, on issuin$ from the "ody, it coa$ulates in all cases e&cept in the case of the deer, the roe, and the like animals for, as a $eneral rule, "lood coa$ulates unless the fi"res "e e&tracted! Bull%s "lood is the *uickest to coa$ulate!

Animals that are internally and e&ternally viviparous are more a"undantly supplied with "lood than the san$uineous ovipara! Animals that are in $ood condition, either from natural causes or from their health havin$ "een attended to, have the "lood neither too a"undant+as creatures (ust after drinkin$ have the li*uid inside them in a"undance+nor a$ain very scanty, as is the case with animals when e&ceedin$ly fat! For animals in this condition have pure "lood, "ut very little of it, and the fatter an animal $ets the less "ecomes its supply of "lood for whatsoever is fat is destitute of "lood! A fat su"stance is incorrupti"le, "ut "lood and all thin$s containin$ it corrupt rapidly, and this property characteri3es especially all parts connected with the "ones! Blood is finest and purest in man and thickest and "lackest in the "ull and the ass, of all vivipara! In the lower and the hi$her parts of the "ody "lood is thicker and "lacker than in the central parts! Blood "eats or palpitates in the veins of all animals alike all over their "odies, and "lood is the only li*uid that permeates the entire frames of livin$ animals, without e&ception and at all times, as lon$ as life lasts! Blood is developed first of all in the heart of animals "efore the "ody is differentiated as a whole! If "lood "e removed or if it escape in any considera"le *uantity, animals fall into a faint or swoon if it "e removed or if it escape in an e&ceedin$ly lar$e *uantity they die! If the "lood $et e&ceedin$ly li*uid, animals fall sick for the "lood then turns into somethin$

like ichor, or a li*uid so thin that it at times has "een known to e&ude throu$h the pores like sweat! In some cases "lood, when issuin$ from the veins, does not coa$ulate at all, or only here and there! )hilst animals are sleepin$ the "lood is less a"undantly supplied near the e&terior surfaces, so that, if the sleepin$ creature "e pricked with a pin, the "lood does not issue as copiously as it would if the creature were awake! Blood is developed out of ichor "y coction, and fat in like manner out of "lood! If the "lood $et diseased, haemorrhoids may ensue in the nostril or at the anus, or the veins may "ecome varicose! Blood, if it corrupt in the "ody, has a tendency to turn into pus, and pus may turn into a solid concretion! Blood in the female differs from that in the male, for, supposin$ the male and female to "e on a par as re$ards a$e and $eneral health, the "lood in the female is thicker and "lacker than in the male and with the female there is a comparative supera"undance of it in the interior! Of all female animals the female in man is the most richly supplied with "lood, and of all female animals the menstruous dischar$es are the most copious in woman! The "lood of these dischar$es under disease turns into flu&! Apart from the menstrual dischar$es, the female in the human species is less su"(ect to diseases of the "lood than the male! )omen are seldom afflicted with varicose veins, with haemorrhoids, or with "leedin$ at the nose, and, if any of these maladies supervene, the menses are imperfectly dischar$ed!

Blood differs in *uantity and appearance accordin$ to a$e in very youn$ animals it resem"les ichor and is a"undant, in the old it is thick and "lack and scarce, and in middle+a$ed animals its *ualities are intermediate! In old animals the "lood coa$ulates rapidly, even "lood at the surface of the "ody "ut this is not the case with youn$ animals! Ichor is, in fact, nothin$ else "ut unconcocted "lood: either "lood that has not yet "een concocted, or that has "ecome fluid a$ain! 4@ )e now proceed to discuss the properties of marrow for this is one of the li*uids found in certain san$uineous animals! All the natural li*uids of the "ody are contained in vessels: as "lood in veins, marrow in "ones other moistures in mem"ranous structures of the skin In youn$ animals the marrow is e&ceedin$ly san$uineous, "ut, as animals $row old, it "ecomes fatty in animals supplied with fat, and suet+like in animals with suet! All "ones, however, are not supplied with marrow, "ut only the hollow ones, and not all of these! For of the "ones in the lion some contain no marrow at all, and some are only scantily supplied therewith and that accounts, as was previously o"served, for the statement made "y certain writers that the lion is marrowless! In the "ones of pi$s it is found in small *uantities and in the "ones of certain animals of this species it is not found at all!

These li*uids, then, are nearly always con$enital in animals, "ut milk and sperm come at a later time! Of these latter, that which, whensoever it is present, is secreted in all cases ready+made, is the milk sperm, on the other hand, is not secreted out in all cases, "ut in some only, as in the case of what are desi$nated thori in fishes! )hatever animals have milk, have it in their "reasts! All animals have "reasts that are internally and e&ternally viviparous, as for instance all animals that have hair, as man and the horse and the cetaceans, as the dolphin, the porpoise, and the whale+for these animals have "reasts and are supplied with milk! Animals that are oviparous or only e&ternally viviparous have neither "reasts nor milk, as the fish and the "ird! All milk is composed of a watery serum called 'whey%, and a consistent su"stance called curd ,or cheese- and the thicker the milk, the more a"undant the curd! The milk, then, of non+ am"identals coa$ulates, and that is why cheese is made of the milk of such animals under domestication "ut the milk of am"identals does not coa$ulate, nor their fat either, and the milk is thin and sweet! 5ow the camel%s milk is the thinnest, and that of the human species ne&t after it, and that of the ass ne&t a$ain, "ut cow%s milk is the thickest! 0ilk does not coa$ulate under the influence of cold, "ut rather runs to whey "ut under the influence of heat it coa$ulates and thickens! As a $eneral rule milk only comes to animals in pre$nancy! )hen the animal is pre$nant milk is found, "ut for a while it is unfit for use, and then after an interval of

usefulness it "ecomes unfit for use a$ain! In the case of female animals not pre$nant a small *uantity of milk has "een procured "y the employment of special food, and cases have "een actually known where women advanced in years on "ein$ su"mitted to the process of milkin$ have produced milk, and in some cases have produced it in sufficient *uantities to ena"le them to suckle an infant! The people that live on and a"out 0ount Oeta take such she+$oats as decline the male and ru" their udders hard with nettles to cause an irritation amountin$ to pain hereupon they milk the animals, procurin$ at first a li*uid resem"lin$ "lood, then a li*uid mi&ed with purulent matter, and eventually milk, as freely as from females su"mittin$ to the male! As a $eneral rule, milk is not found in the male of man or of any other animal, thou$h from time to time it has "een found in a male for instance, once in Bemnos a he+$oat was milked "y its du$s ,for it has, "y the way, two du$s close to the penis-, and was milked to such effect that cheese was made of the produce, and the same phenomenon was repeated in a male of its own "e$ettin$! #uch occurrences, however, are re$arded as supernatural and frau$ht with omen as to futurity, and in point of fact when the Bemnian owner of the animal in*uired of the oracle, the $od informed him that the portent foreshadowed the ac*uisition of a fortune! )ith some men, after pu"erty, milk can "e produced "y s*uee3in$ the "reasts cases have "een known where on their "ein$ su"(ected to a

prolon$ed milkin$ process a considera"le *uantity of milk has "een educed! In milk there is a fatty element, which in clotted milk $ets to resem"le oil! 2oat%s milk is mi&ed with sheep%s milk in #icily, and wherever sheep%s milk is a"undant! The "est milk for clottin$ is not only that where the cheese is most a"undant, "ut that also where the cheese is driest! 5ow some animals produce not only enou$h milk to rear their youn$, "ut a superfluous amount for $eneral use, for cheese+ makin$ and for stora$e! This is especially the case with the sheep and the $oat, and ne&t in de$ree with the cow! 0are%s milk, "y the way, and milk of the she+ass are mi&ed in with Ahry$ian cheese! And there is more cheese in cow%s milk than in $oat%s milk for $ra3iers tell us that from nine $allons of $oat%s milk they can $et nineteen cheeses at an o"ol apiece, and from the same amount of cow%s milk, thirty! Other animals $ive only enou$h of milk to rear their youn$ withal, and no superfluous amount and none fitted for cheese+makin$, as is the case with all animals that have more than two "reasts or du$s for with none of such animals is milk produced in supera"undance or used for the manufacture of cheese! The (uice of the fi$ and rennet are employed to curdle milk! The fi$+(uice is first s*uee3ed out into wool the wool is then washed and rinsed, and the rinsin$ put into a little milk, and if this "e mi&ed with other milk it curdles Eennet is a kind of milk, for it is found in the stomach of the animal while it is yet sucklin$!

41 Eennet then consists of milk with an admi&ture of fire, which comes from the natural heat of the animal, as the milk is concocted! All ruminatin$ animals produce rennet, and, of am"identals, the hare! Eennet improves in *uality the lon$er it is kept and cow%s rennet, after "ein$ kept a $ood while, and also hare%s rennet, is $ood for diarrhoea, and the "est of all rennet is that of the youn$ deer! In milk+producin$ animals the comparative amount of the yield varies with the si3e of the animal and the diversities of pastura$e! For instance, there are in Ahasis small cattle that in all cases $ive a copious supply of milk, and the lar$e cows in 8pirus yield each one daily some nine $allons of milk, and half of this from each pair of teats, and the milker has to stand erect, stoopin$ forward a little, as otherwise, if he were seated, he would "e una"le to reach up to the teats! But, with the e&ception of the ass, all the *uadrupeds in 8pirus are of lar$e si3e, and relatively, the cattle and the do$s are the lar$est! 5ow lar$e animals re*uire a"undant pasture, and this country supplies (ust such pastura$e, and also supplies diverse pasture $rounds to suit the diverse seasons of the year! The cattle are particularly lar$e, and likewise the sheep of the so+called Ayrrhic "reed, the name "ein$ $iven in honour of Gin$ Ayrrhus! #ome pasture *uenches milk, as 0edian $rass or lucerne, and that especially in ruminants other feedin$ renders it copious, as cytisus and vetch only, "y the way, cytisus in flower is not recommended,

as it has "urnin$ properties, and vetch is not $ood for pre$nant kine, as it causes increased difficulty in parturition! However, "easts that have access to $ood feedin$, as they are "enefited there"y in re$ard to pre$nancy, so also "ein$ well nourished produce milk in plenty! #ome of the le$uminous plants "rin$ milk in a"undance, as for instance, a lar$e feed of "eans with the ewe, the common she+$oat, the cow, and the small she+$oat for this feedin$ makes them drop their udders! And, "y the way, the pointin$ of the udder to the $round "efore parturition is a si$n of there "ein$ plenty of milk comin$! 0ilk remains for a lon$ time in the female, if she "e kept from the male and "e properly fed, and, of *uadrupeds, this is especially true of the ewe for the ewe can "e milked for ei$ht months! As a $eneral rule, ruminatin$ animals $ive milk in a"undance, and milk fitted for cheese manufacture! In the nei$h"ourhood of Torone cows run dry for a few days "efore calvin$, and have milk all the rest of the time! In women, milk of a livid colour is "etter than white for nursin$ purposes and swarthy women $ive healthier milk than fair ones! 0ilk that is richest in cheese is the most nutritious, "ut milk with a scanty supply of cheese is the more wholesome for children! 44 All san$uineous animals e(ect sperm! As to what, and how, it contri"utes to $eneration, these *uestions will "e discussed in

another treatise! Takin$ the si3e of his "ody into account, man emits more sperm than any other animal! In hairy+coated animals the sperm is sticky, "ut in other animals it is not so! It is white in all cases, and Herodotus is under a misapprehension when he states that the Aethiopians e(ect "lack sperm! #perm issues from the "ody white and consistent, if it "e healthy, and after *uittin$ the "ody "ecomes thin and "lack! In frosty weather it does not coa$ulate, "ut $ets e&ceedin$ly thin and watery "oth in colour and consistency "ut it coa$ulates and thickens under the influence of heat! If it "e lon$ in the wom" "efore issuin$ out, it comes more than usually thick and sometimes it comes out dry and compact! #perm capa"le of impre$natin$ or of fructification sinks in water sperm incapa"le Of producin$ that result dissolves away! But there is no truth in what .tesias has written a"out the sperm of the elephant! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book I; 1

)e have now treated, in re$ard to "looded animals of the parts they have in common and of the parts peculiar to this $enus or that, and of the parts "oth composite and simple, whether without or within! )e now proceed to treat of animals devoid of "lood! These animals are divided into several $enera! One $enus consists of so+called 'molluscs% and "y the term 'mollusc% we mean an animal that, "ein$ devoid of "lood, has its flesh+like su"stance outside, and any hard structure it may happen to have, inside+in this respect resem"lin$ the red+"looded animals, such as the $enus of the cuttle+fish! Another $enus is that of the malacostraca! These are animals that have their hard structure outside, and their soft or fleshlike su"stance inside, and the hard su"stance "elon$in$ to them has to "e crushed rather than shattered and to this $enus "elon$s the crawfish and the cra"! A third $enus is that of the ostracoderms or 'testaceans%! These are animals that have their hard su"stance outside and their flesh+like su"stance within, and their hard su"stance can "e shattered "ut not crushed and to this $enus "elon$ the snail and the oyster! The fourth $enus is that of insects and this $enus comprehends numerous and dissimilar species! Insects are creatures that, as the name implies, have nicks either on the "elly or on the "ack, or on "oth "elly and "ack, and have no one part distinctly osseous and no one part distinctly fleshy, "ut are throu$hout a somethin$ intermediate "etween "one and flesh that is to say, their "ody is

hard all throu$h, inside and outside! #ome insects are win$less, such as the iulus and the centipede some are win$ed, as the "ee, the cockchafer, and the wasp and the same kind is in some cases "oth win$ed and win$less, as the ant and the $low+worm! In molluscs the e&ternal parts are as follows: in the first place, the so+called feet secondly, and attached to these, the head thirdly, the mantle+sac, containin$ the internal parts, and incorrectly desi$nated "y some writers the head and, fourthly, fins round a"out the sac! ,#ee dia$ram!- In all molluscs the head is found to "e "etween the feet and the "elly! All molluscs are furnished with ei$ht feet, and in all cases these feet are severally furnished with a dou"le row of suckers, with the e&ception of one sin$le species of poulpe or octopus! The sepia, the small calamary and the lar$e calamary have an e&ceptional or$an in a pair of lon$ arms or tentacles, havin$ at their e&tremities a portion rendered rou$h "y the presence of two rows of suckers and with these arms or tentacles they apprehend their food and draw it into their mouths, and in stormy weather they clin$ "y them to a rock and sway a"out in the rou$h water like ships lyin$ at anchor! They swim "y the aid of the fins that they have a"out the sac! In all cases their feet are furnished with suckers! The octopus, "y the way, uses his feelers either as feet or hands with the two which stand over his mouth he draws in food, and the last of his feelers he employs in the act of copulation and this last one, "y the way, is e&tremely sharp, is e&ceptional as "ein$ of a

whitish colour, and at its e&tremity is "ifurcate that is to say, it has an additional somethin$ on the rachis, and "y rachis is meant the smooth surface or ed$e of the arm on the far side from the suckers! ,#ee dia$ram!In front of the sac and over the feelers they have a hollow tu"e, "y means of which they dischar$e any sea+water that they may have taken into the sac of the "ody in the act of receivin$ food "y the mouth! They can shift the tu"e from side to side, and "y means of it they dischar$e the "lack li*uid peculiar to the animal! #tretchin$ out its feet, it swims o"li*uely in the direction of the so+ called head, and "y this mode of swimmin$ it can see in front, for its eyes are at the top, and in this attitude it has its mouth at the rear! The 'head%, while the creature is alive, is hard, and looks as thou$h it were inflated! It apprehends and retains o"(ects "y means of the under+surface of its arms, and the mem"rane in "etween its feet is kept at full tension if the animal $et on to the sand it can no lon$er retain its hold! There is a difference "etween the octopus and the other molluscs a"ove mentioned: the "ody of the octopus is small, and his feet are lon$, whereas in the others the "ody is lar$e and the feet short so short, in fact, that they cannot walk on them! .ompared with one another, the teuthis, or calamary, is lon$+shaped, and the sepia flat+ shaped and of the calamaries the so+called teuthus is much "i$$er than the teuthis for teuthi have "een found as much as five ells lon$! #ome sepiae attain a len$th of two ells, and the feelers of the

octopus are sometimes as lon$, or even lon$er! The species teuthus is not a numerous one the teuthus differs from the teuthis in shape that is, the sharp e&tremity of the teuthus is "roader than that of the other, and, further, the encirclin$ fin $oes all round the trunk, whereas it is in part lackin$ in the teuthis "oth animals are pela$ic! In all cases the head comes after the feet, in the middle of the feet that are called arms or feelers! There is here situated a mouth, and two teeth in the mouth and a"ove these two lar$e eyes, and "etwi&t the eyes a small cartila$e enclosin$ a small "rain and within the mouth it has a minute or$an of a fleshy nature, and this it uses as a ton$ue, for no other ton$ue does it possess! 5e&t after this, on the outside, is what looks like a sac the flesh of which it is made is divisi"le, not in lon$ strai$ht strips, "ut in annular flakes and all molluscs have a cuticle around this flesh! 5e&t after or at the "ack of the mouth comes a lon$ and narrow oesopha$us, and close after that a crop or craw, lar$e and spherical, like that of a "ird then comes the stomach, like the fourth stomach in ruminants and the shape of it resem"les the spiral convolution in the trumpet+shell from the stomach there $oes "ack a$ain, in the direction of the mouth, thin $ut, and the $ut is thicker than the oesopha$us! ,#ee dia$ram!0olluscs have no viscera, "ut they have what is called a mytis, and on it a vessel containin$ a thick "lack (uice in the sepia or cuttle+ fish this vessel is the lar$est, and this (uice is most a"undant! All molluscs, when fri$htened, dischar$e such a (uice, "ut the

dischar$e is most copious in the cuttle+fish! The mytis, then, is situated under the mouth, and the oesopha$us runs throu$h it and down "elow at the point to which the $ut e&tends is the vesicle of the "lack (uice, and the animal has the vesicle and the $ut enveloped in one and the same mem"rane, and "y the same mem"rane, same orifice dischar$es "oth the "lack (uice and the residuum! The animals have also certain hair+like or furry $rowths in their "odies! In the sepia, the teuthis, and the teuthus the hard parts are within, towards the "ack of the "ody those parts are called in one the sepium, and in the other the 'sword%! They differ from one another, for the sepium in the cuttle+fish and teuthus is hard and flat, "ein$ a su"stance intermediate "etween "one and fish"one, with ,in parta crum"lin$, spon$y te&ture, "ut in the teuthis the part is thin and somewhat $ristly! These parts differ from one another in shape, as do also the "odies of the animals! The octopus has nothin$ hard of this kind in its interior, "ut it has a $ristly su"stance round the head, which, if the animal $rows old, "ecomes hard! The females differ from the males! The males have a duct in under the oesopha$us, e&tendin$ from the mantle+cavity to the lower portion of the sac, and there is an or$an to which it attaches, resem"lin$ a "reast ,see dia$ram- in the female there are two of these or$ans, situated hi$her up ,see dia$ram- with "oth se&es there are underneath these or$ans certain red formations! The e$$ of the octopus is sin$le, uneven on its surface, and of lar$e si3e

the fluid su"stance within is all uniform in colour, smooth, and in colour white the si3e of the e$$ is so $reat as to fill a vessel lar$er than the creature%s head! The sepia has two sacs, and inside them a num"er of e$$s, like in appearance to white hailstones! For the disposition of these parts I must refer to my anatomical dia$rams! The males of all these animals differ from the females, and the difference "etween the se&es is most marked in the sepia for the "ack of the trunk, which is "lacker than the "elly, is rou$her in the male than in the female, and in the male the "ack is striped, and the rump is more sharply pointed! There are several species of the octopus! One keeps close to the surface, and is the lar$est of them all, and near the shore the si3e is lar$er than in deep water and there are others, small, varie$ated in colour, which are not articles of food! There are two others, one called the heledone, which differs from its con$eners in the len$th of its le$s and in havin$ one row of suckers+all the rest of the molluscs havin$ two,+the other nicknamed variously the "olitaina or the 'onion,% and the o3olis or the 'stinkard%! There are two others found in shells resem"lin$ those of the testaceans! One of them is nicknamed "y some persons the nautilus or the pontilus, or "y others the 'polypus% e$$% and the shell of this creature is somethin$ like a separate valve of a deep scallop+shell! This polypus lives very often near to the shore, and is apt to "e thrown up hi$h and dry on the "each under these circumstances it is found with its shell detached, and dies "y and "y on dry land!

These polypods are small, and are shaped, as re$ards the form of their "odies, like the "ol"idia! There is another polypus that is placed within a shell like a snail it never comes out of the shell, "ut lives inside the shell like the snail, and from time to time protrudes its feelers! #o much for molluscs! 4 )ith re$ard to the 0alacostraca or crustaceans, one species is that of the crawfish, and a second, resem"lin$ the first, is that of the lo"ster the lo"ster differin$ from the crawfish in havin$ claws, and in a few other respects as well! Another species is that of the carid, and another is that of the cra", and there are many kinds "oth of carid and of cra"! Of carids there are the so+called cyphae, or 'hunch+"acks%, the cran$ons, or s*uillae, and the little kind, or shrimps, and the little kind do not develop into a lar$er kind! Of the cra", the varieties are indefinite and incalcula"le! The lar$est of all cra"s is one nicknamed 0aia, a second variety is the pa$arus and the cra" of Heracleotis, and a third variety is the fresh+ water cra" the other varieties are smaller in si3e and destitute of special desi$nations! In the nei$h"ourhood of Ahoenice there are found on the "each certain cra"s that are nicknamed the 'horsemen%, from their runnin$ with such speed that it is difficult to overtake them these cra"s, when opened, are usually found

empty, and this emptiness may "e put down to insufficiency of nutriment! ,There is another variety, small like the cra", "ut resem"lin$ in shape the lo"ster!- All these animals, as has "een stated, have their hard and shelly part outside, where the skin is in other animals, and the fleshy part inside and the "elly is more or less provided with lamellae, or little flaps, and the female here deposits her spawn! The crawfishes have five feet on either side, includin$ the claws at the end and in like manner the cra"s have ten feet in all, includin$ the claws! Of the carids, the hunch+"acked, or prawns, have five feet on either side, which are sharp+pointed+those towards the head and five others on either side in the re$ion of the "elly, with their e&tremities flat they are devoid of flaps on the under side such as the crawfish has, "ut on the "ack they resem"le the crawfish! ,#ee dia$ram!-It is very different with the cran$on, or s*uilla it has four front le$s on either side, then three thin ones close "ehind on either side, and the rest of the "ody is for the most part devoid of feet! ,#ee dia$ram!- Of all these animals the feet "end out o"li*uely, as is the case with insects and the claws, where claws are found, turn inwards! The crawfish has a tail, and five fins on it and the round+"acked carid has a tail and four fins the s*uilla also has fins at the tail on either side! In the case of "oth the hump+"acked carid and the s*uilla the middle art of the tail is spinous: only that in the s*uilla the part is flattened and in the carid it is sharp+pointed! Of all animals of this $enus the cra" is the only

one devoid of a rump and, while the "ody of the carid and the crawfish is elon$ated, that of the cra" is rotund! In the crawfish the male differs from the female: in the female the first foot is "ifurcate, in the male it is undivided the "elly+fins in the female are lar$e and overlappin$ on the neck, while in the male they are smaller and do not overlap and, further, on the last feet of the male there are spur+like pro(ections, lar$e and sharp, which pro(ections in the female are small and smooth! Both male and female have two antennae in front of the eyes, lar$e and rou$h, and other antennae underneath, small and smooth! The eyes of all these creatures are hard and "eady, and can move either to the inner or to the outer side! The eyes of most cra"s have a similar facility of movement, or rather, in the cra" this facility is developed in a hi$her de$ree! ,#ee dia$ram!The lo"ster is all over $rey+coloured, with a mottlin$ of "lack! Its under or hinder feet, up to the "i$ feet or claws, are ei$ht in num"er then come the "i$ feet, far lar$er and flatter at the tips than the same or$ans in the crawfish and these "i$ feet or claws are e&ceptional in their structure, for the ri$ht claw has the e&treme flat surface lon$ and thin, while the left claw has the correspondin$ surface thick and round! 8ach of the two claws, divided at the end like a pair of (aws, has "oth "elow and a"ove a set of teeth: only that in the ri$ht claw they are all small and saw+shaped, while in the left claw those at the ape& are saw+shaped and those within are molar+shaped, these latter "ein$, in the under part of the cleft claw,

four teeth close to$ether, and in the upper part three teeth, not close to$ether! Both ri$ht and left claws have the upper part mo"ile, and "rin$ it to "ear a$ainst the lower one, and "oth are curved like "andy+le$s, "ein$ there"y adapted for apprehension and constriction! A"ove the two lar$e claws come two others, covered with hair, a little underneath the mouth and underneath these the $ill+like formations in the re$ion of the mouth, hairy and numerous! These or$ans the animal keeps in perpetual motion and the two hairy feet it "ends and draws in towards its mouth! The feet near the mouth are furnished also with delicate out$rowin$ appenda$es! Bike the crawfish, the lo"ster has two teeth, or mandi"les, and a"ove these teeth are its antennae, lon$, "ut shorter and finer "y far than those of the crawfish, and then four other antennae similar in shape, "ut shorter and finer than the others! Over these antennae come the eyes, small and short, not lar$e like the eyes of the crawfish! Over the eyes is a peaky rou$h pro(ection like a forehead, lar$er than the same part in the crawfish in fact, the frontal part is more pointed and the thora& is much "roader in the lo"ster than in the crawfish, and the "ody in $eneral is smoother and more full of flesh! Of the ei$ht feet, four are "ifurcate at the e&tremities, and four are undivided! The re$ion of the so+called neck is outwardly divided into five divisions, and si&thly comes the flattened portion at the end, and this portion has five flaps, or tail+fins and the inner or under parts, into which the female drops her spawn, are four in num"er and hairy, and on each

of the aforesaid parts is a spine turned outwards, short and strai$ht! The "ody in $eneral and the re$ion of the thora& in particular are smooth, not rou$h as in the crawfish "ut on the lar$e claws the outer portion has lar$er spines! There is no apparent difference "etween the male and female, for they "oth have one claw, whichever it may "e, lar$er than the other, and neither male nor female is ever found with "oth claws of the same si3e! All crustaceans take in water close "y the mouth! The cra" dischar$es it, closin$ up, as it does so, a small portion of the same, and the crawfish dischar$es it "y way of the $ills and, "y the way, the $ill+shaped or$ans in the crawfish are very numerous! The followin$ properties are common to all crustaceans: they have in all cases two teeth, or mandi"les ,for the front teeth in the crawfish are two in num"er-, and in all cases there is in the mouth a small fleshy structure servin$ for a ton$ue and the stomach is close to the mouth, only that the crawfish has a little oesopha$us in front of the stomach, and there is a strai$ht $ut attached to it! This $ut, in the crawfish and its con$eners, and in the carids, e&tends in a strai$ht line to the tail, and terminates where the animal dischar$es the residuum, and where the female deposits her spawn in the cra" it terminates where the flap is situated, and in the centre of the flap! ,And "y the way, in all these animals the spawn is deposited outside!- Further, the female has the place for the spawn runnin$ alon$ the $ut! And, a$ain, all these animals have, more or less, an or$an termed the 'mytis%, or 'poppy(uice%!

)e must now proceed to review their several differentiae! The crawfish then, as has "een said, has two teeth, lar$e and hollow, in which is contained a (uice resem"lin$ the mytis, and in "etween the teeth is a fleshy su"stance, shaped like a ton$ue! After the mouth comes a short oesopha$us, and then a mem"ranous stomach attached to the oesopha$us, and at the orifice Of the stomach are three teeth, two facin$ one another and a third standin$ "y itself underneath! .omin$ off at a "end from the stomach is a $ut, simple and of e*ual thickness throu$hout the entire len$th of the "ody until it reaches the anal vent! These are all common properties of the crawfish, the carid, and the cra" for the cra", "e it remem"ered, has two teeth! A$ain, the crawfish has a duct attached all the way from the chest to the anal vent and this duct is connected with the ovary in the female, and with the seminal ducts in the male! This passa$e is attached to the concave surface of the flesh in such a way that the flesh is in "etwi&t the duct and the $ut for the $ut is related to the conve&ity and this duct to the concavity, pretty much as is o"served in *uadrupeds! And the duct is identical in "oth the se&es that is to say, the duct in "oth is thin and white, and char$ed with a sallow+coloured moisture, and is attached to the chest! ,The followin$ are the properties of the e$$ and of the convolutes in the carid!The male, "y the way, differs from the female in re$ard to its flesh, in havin$ in conne&ion with the chest two separate and distinct

white su"stances, resem"lin$ in colour and conformation the tentacles of the cuttle+fish, and they are convoluted like the 'poppy% or *uasi+liver of the trumpet+shell! These or$ans have their startin$+point in 'cotyledons% or papillae, which are situated under the hindmost feet and herea"outs the flesh is red and "lood+ coloured, "ut is slippery to the touch and in so far unlike flesh! Off from the convolute or$an at the chest "ranches off another coil a"out as thick as ordinary twine and underneath there are two $ranular seminal "odies in (u&ta+position with the $ut! These are the or$ans of the male! The female has red+coloured e$$s, which are ad(acent to the stomach and to each side of the $ut all alon$ to the fleshy parts, "ein$ enveloped in a thin mem"rane! #uch are the parts, internal and e&ternal, of the carid! 6 The inner or$ans of san$uineous animals happen to have specific desi$nations for these animals have in all cases the inner viscera, "ut this is not the case with the "loodless animals, "ut what they have in common with red+"looded animals is the stomach, the oesopha$us, and the $ut! )ith re$ard to the cra", it has already "een stated that it has claws and feet, and their position has "een set forth furthermore, for the most part they have the ri$ht claw "i$$er and stron$er than the left! It has also "een stated% that in $eneral the eyes of the cra" look sideways! Further, the trunk of the cra"%s "ody is sin$le and

undivided, includin$ its head and any other part it may possess! #ome cra"s have eyes placed sideways on the upper part, immediately under the "ack, and standin$ a lon$ way apart, and some have their eyes in the centre and close to$ether, like the cra"s of Heracleotis and the so+called '$rannies%! The mouth lies underneath the eyes, and inside it there are two teeth, as is the case with the crawfish, only that in the cra" the teeth are not rounded "ut lon$ and over the teeth are two lids, and in "etwi&t them are structures such as the crawfish has "esides its teeth! The cra" takes in water near "y the mouth, usin$ the lids as a check to the inflow, and dischar$es the water "y two passa$es a"ove the mouth, closin$ "y means of the lids the way "y which it entered and the two passa$e+ways are underneath the eyes! )hen it has taken in water it closes its mouth "y means of "oth lids, and e(ects the water in the way a"ove descri"ed! 5e&t after the teeth comes the oesopha$us, very short, so short in fact that the stomach seems to come strai$htway after the mouth! 5e&t after the oesopha$us comes the stomach, two+horned, to the centre of which is attached a simple and delicate $ut and the $ut terminates outwards, at the operculum, as has "een previously stated! ,The cra" has the parts in "etween the lids in the nei$h"ourhood of the teeth similar to the same parts in the crawfish!- Inside the trunk is a sallow (uice and some few little "odies, lon$ and white, and others spotted red! The male differs from the female in si3e and "readth, and in respect of the ventral flap for this is lar$er in the female than in the male,

and stands out further from the trunk, and is more hairy ,as is the case also with the female in the crawfish-! #o much, then, for the or$ans of the malacostraca or crustacea! 7 )ith the ostracoderma, or testaceans, such as the land+snails and the sea+snails, and all the 'oysters% so+called, and also with the sea+ urchin $enus, the fleshy part, in such as have flesh, is similarly situated to the fleshy part in the crustaceans in other words, it is inside the animal, and the shell is outside, and there is no hard su"stance in the interior! As compared with one another the testaceans present many diversities "oth in re$ard to their shells and to the flesh within! #ome of them have no flesh at all, as the sea+urchin others have flesh, "ut it is inside and wholly hidden, e&cept the head, as in the land+snails, and the so+called cocalia, and, amon$ pela$ic animals, in the purple mure&, the cery& or trumpet+shell, the sea+snail, and the spiral+shaped testaceans in $eneral! Of the rest, some are "ivalved and some univalved and "y '"ivalves% I mean such as are enclosed within two shells, and "y 'univalved% such as are enclosed within a sin$le shell, and in these last the fleshy part is e&posed, as in the case of the limpet! Of the "ivalves, some can open out, like the scallop and the mussel for all such shells are $rown to$ether on one side and are separate on the other, so as to open and shut! Other "ivalves are closed on "oth sides alike, like the solen or ra3or+fish! #ome testaceans there are,

that are entirely enveloped in shell and e&pose no portion of their flesh outside, as the tethya or ascidians! A$ain, in re$ard to the shells themselves, the testaceans present differences when compared with one another! #ome are smooth+ shelled, like the solen, the mussel, and some clams, vi3! those that are nicknamed 'milkshells%, while others are rou$h+shelled, such as the pool+oyster or edi"le oyster, the pinna, and certain species of cockles, and the trumpet shells and of these some are ri""ed, such as the scallop and a certain kind of clam or cockle, and some are devoid of ri"s, as the pinna and another species of clam! Testaceans also differ from one another in re$ard to the thickness or thinness of their shell, "oth as re$ards the shell in its entirety and as re$ards specific parts of the shell, for instance, the lips for some have thin+lipped shells, like the mussel, and others have thick+lipped shells, like the oyster! A property common to the a"ove mentioned, and, in fact, to all testaceans, is the smoothness of their shells inside! #ome also are capa"le of motion, like the scallop, and indeed some aver that scallops can actually fly, owin$ to the circumstance that they often (ump ri$ht out of the apparatus "y means of which they are cau$ht others are incapa"le of motion and are attached fast to some e&ternal o"(ect, as is the case with the pinna! All the spiral+shaped testaceans can move and creep, and even the limpet rela&es its hold to $o in *uest of food! In the case of the univalves and the "ivalves, the fleshy su"stance adheres to the shell so tenaciously that it can only "e removed "y an effort in

the case of the strom"oids, it is more loosely attached! And a peculiarity of all the strom"oids is the spiral twist of the shell in the part farthest away from the head they are also furnished from "irth with an operculum! And, further, all strom"oid testaceans have their shells on the ri$ht hand side, and move not in the direction of the spire, "ut the opposite way! #uch are the diversities o"served in the e&ternal parts of these animals! The internal structure is almost the same in all these creatures, and in the strom"oids especially for it is in si3e that these latter differ from one another, and in accidents of the nature of e&cess or defect! And there is not much difference "etween most of the univalves and "ivalves "ut, while those that open and shut differ from one another "ut sli$htly, they differ considera"ly from such as are incapa"le of motion! And this will "e illustrated more satisfactorily hereafter! The spiral+shaped testaceans are all similarly constructed, "ut differ from one another, as has "een said, in the way of e&cess or defect ,for the lar$er species have lar$er and more conspicuous or$ans, and the smaller have smaller and less conspicuous-, and, furthermore, in relative hardness or softness, and in other such accidents or properties! All the strom"oids, for instance, have the flesh that e&trudes from the mouth of the shell, hard and stiff some more, and some less! From the middle of this protrudes the head and two horns, and these horns are lar$e in the lar$e species, "ut e&ceedin$ly minute in the smaller ones! The head protrudes from

them all in the same way and, if the animal "e alarmed, the head draws in a$ain! #ome of these creatures have a mouth and teeth, as the snail teeth sharp, and small, and delicate! They have also a pro"oscis (ust like that of the fly and the pro"oscis is ton$ue+ shaped! The cery& and the purple mure& have this or$an firm and solid and (ust as the myops, or horse+fly, and the oestrus, or $adfly, can pierce the skin of a *uadruped, so is that pro"oscis proportionately stron$er in these testaceans for they "ore ri$ht throu$h the shells of other shell+fish on which they prey! The stomach follows close upon the mouth, and, "y the way, this or$an in the snail resem"les a "ird%s crop! ?nderneath come two white firm formations, mastoid or papillary in form and similar formations are found in the cuttle+fish also, only that they are of a firmer consistency in the cuttle+fish! After the stomach comes an oesopha$us, simple and lon$, e&tendin$ to the poppy or *uasi+ liver, which is in the innermost recess of the shell! All these statements may "e verified in the case of the purple mure& and the cery& "y o"servation within the whorl of the shell! )hat comes ne&t to the oesopha$us is the $ut in fact, the $ut is continuous with the oesopha$us, and runs its whole len$th uncomplicated to the outlet of the residuum! The $ut has its point of ori$in in the re$ion of the coil of the mecon, or so+called 'poppy%, and is wider herea"outs ,for remem"er, the mecon is for the most part a sort of e&cretion in all testaceans- it then takes a "end and runs up a$ain towards the fleshy part, and terminates "y the side of the head,

where the animal dischar$es its residuum and this holds $ood in the case of all strom"oid testaceans, whether terrestrial or marine! From the stomach there is drawn in a parallel direction with the oesopha$us, in the lar$er snails, a lon$ white duct enveloped in a mem"rane, resem"lin$ in colour the mastoid formations hi$her up and in it are nicks or interruptions, as in the e$$+mass of the crawfish, only, "y the way, the duct of which we are treatin$ is white and the e$$+mass of the crawfish is red! This formation has no outlet nor duct, "ut is enveloped in a thin mem"rane with a narrow cavity in its interior! And from the $ut downward e&tend "lack and rou$h formations, in close conne&ion, somethin$ like the formations in the tortoise, only not so "lack! 0arine snails, also, have these formations, and the white ones, only that the formations are smaller in the smaller species! The non+spiral univalves and "ivalves are in some respect similar in construction, and in some respects dissimilar, to the spiral testaceans! They all have a head and horns, and a mouth, and the or$an resem"lin$ a ton$ue "ut these or$ans, in the smaller species, are indiscerni"le owin$ to the minuteness of these animals, and some are indiscerni"le even in the lar$er species when dead, or when at rest and motionless! They all have the mecon, or poppy, "ut not all in the same place, nor of e*ual si3e, nor similarly open to o"servation thus, the limpets have this or$an deep down in the "ottom of the shell, and the "ivalves at the hin$e connectin$ the two valves! They also have in all cases the hairy $rowths or "eards,

in a circular form, as in the scallops! And, with re$ard to the so+ called 'e$$%, in those that have it, when they have it, it is situated in one of the semi+circles of the periphery, as is the case with the white formation in the snail for this white formation in the snail corresponds to the so+called e$$ of which we are speakin$! But all these or$ans, as has "een stated, are distinctly tracea"le in the lar$er species, while in the small ones they are in some cases almost, and in others alto$ether, indiscerni"le! Hence they are most plainly visi"le in the lar$e scallops and these are the "ivalves that have one valve flat+shaped, like the lid of a pot! The outlet of the e&cretion is in all these animals ,save for the e&ception to "e afterwards related- on one side for there is a passa$e where"y the e&cretion passes out! ,And, remem"er, the mecon or poppy, as has "een stated, is an e&cretion in all these animals+an e&cretion enveloped in a mem"rane!- The so+called e$$ has no outlet in any of these creatures, "ut is merely an e&crescence in the fleshy mass and it is not situated in the same re$ion with the $ut, "ut the 'e$$% is situated on the ri$ht+hand side and the $ut on the left! #uch are the relations of the anal vent in most of these animals "ut in the case of the wild limpet ,called "y some the 'sea+ear%-, the residuum issues "eneath the shell, for the shell is perforated to $ive an outlet! In this particular limpet the stomach is seen comin$ after the mouth, and the e$$+shaped formations are discerni"le! But for the relative positions of these parts you are referred to my Treatise on Anatomy!

The so+called carcinium or hermit cra" is in a way intermediate "etween the crustaceans and the testaceans! In its nature it resem"les the crawfish kind, and it is "orn simple of itself, "ut "y its ha"it of introducin$ itself into a shell and livin$ there it resem"les the testaceans, and so appears to partake of the characters of "oth kinds! In shape, to $ive a simple illustration, it resem"les a spider, only that the part "elow the head and thora& is lar$er in this creature than in the spider! It has two thin red horns, and underneath these horns two lon$ eyes, not retreatin$ inwards, nor turnin$ sideways like the eyes of the cra", "ut protrudin$ strai$ht out and underneath these eyes the mouth, and round a"out the mouth several hair+like $rowths, and ne&t after these two "ifurcate le$s or claws, where"y it draws in o"(ects towards itself, and two other le$s on either side, and a third small one! All "elow the thora& is soft, and when opened in dissection is found to "e sallow+coloured within! From the mouth there runs a sin$le passa$e ri$ht on to the stomach, "ut the passa$e for the e&cretions is not discerni"le! The le$s and the thora& are hard, "ut not so hard as the le$s and the thora& of the cra"! It does not adhere to its shell like the purple mure& and the cery&, "ut can easily slip out of it! It is lon$er when found in the shell of the strom"oids than when found in the shell of the neritae! And, "y the way, the animal found in the shell of the neritae is a separate species, like to the other in most respects "ut of its "ifurcate feet or claws, the ri$ht+hand one is small and the left+

hand one is lar$e, and it pro$resses chiefly "y the aid of this latter and lar$er one! ,In the shells of these animals, and in certain others, there is found a parasite whose mode of attachment is similar! The particular one which we have (ust descri"ed is named the cyllarus!The nerites has a smooth lar$e round shell, and resem"les the cery& in shape, only the poppy+(uice is, in its case, not "lack "ut red! It clin$s with $reat force near the middle! In calm weather, then, they $o free afield, "ut when the wind "lows the carcinia take shelter a$ainst the rocks: the neritae themselves clin$ fast like limpets and the same is the case with the haemorrhoid or aporrhaid and all others of the like kind! And, "y the way, they clin$ to the rock, when they turn "ack their operculum, for this operculum seems like a lid in fact this structure represents the one part, in the strom"oids, of that which in the "ivalves is a duplicate shell! The interior of the animal is fleshy, and the mouth is inside! And it is the same with the haemorrhoid, the purple mure&, and all suchlike animals! #uch of the little cra"s as have the left foot or claw the "i$$er of the two are found in the neritae, "ut not in the strom"oids! are some snail+shells which have inside them creatures resem"lin$ those little crayfish that are also found in fresh water! These creatures, however, differ in havin$ the part inside the shells But as to the characters, you are referred to my Treatise on Anatomy!

9 The urchins are devoid of flesh, and this is a character peculiar to them and while they are in all cases empty and devoid of any flesh within, they are in all cases furnished with the "lack formations! There are several species of the urchin, and one of these is that which is made use of for food this is the kind in which are found the so+called e$$s, lar$e and edi"le, in the lar$er and smaller specimens alike for even when as yet very small they are provided with them! There are two other species, the spatan$us, and the so+ called "ryssus, these animals are pela$ic and scarce! Further, there are the echinometrae, or 'mother+urchins%, the lar$est in si3e of all the species! In addition to these there is another species, small in si3e, "ut furnished with lar$e hard spines it lives in the sea at a depth of several fathoms and is used "y some people as a specific for cases of stran$ury! In the nei$h"ourhood of Torone there are sea+urchins of a white colour, shells, spines, e$$s and all, and that are lon$er than the ordinary sea+urchin! The spine in this species is not lar$e nor stron$, "ut rather limp and the "lack formations in conne&ion with the mouth are more than usually numerous, and communicate with the e&ternal duct, "ut not with one another in point of fact, the animal is in a manner divided up "y them! The edi"le urchin moves with $reatest freedom and most often and this is indicated "y the fact that these urchins have always somethin$ or other on their spines!

All urchins are supplied with e$$s, "ut in some of the species the e$$s are e&ceedin$ly small and unfit for food! #in$ularly enou$h, the urchin has what we may call its head and mouth down "elow, and a place for the issue of the residuum up a"ove ,and this same property is common to all strom"oids and to limpets-! For the food on which the creature lives lies down "elow conse*uently the mouth has a position well adapted for $ettin$ at the food, and the e&cretion is a"ove, near to the "ack of the shell! The urchin has, also, five hollow teeth inside, and in the middle of these teeth a fleshy su"stance servin$ the office of a ton$ue! 5e&t to this comes the oesopha$us, and then the stomach, divided into five parts, and filled with e&cretion, all the five parts unitin$ at the anal vent, where the shell is perforated for an outlet! ?nderneath the stomach, in another mem"rane, are the so+called e$$s, identical in num"er in all cases, and that num"er is always an odd num"er, to wit five! ?p a"ove, the "lack formations are attached to the startin$+point of the teeth, and they are "itter to the taste, and unfit for food! A similar or at least an analo$ous formation is found in many animals as, for instance, in the tortoise, the toad, the fro$, the strom"oids, and, $enerally, in the molluscs "ut the formation varies here and there in colour, and in all cases is alto$ether uneata"le, or more or less unpalata"le! In reality the mouth+apparatus of the urchin is continuous from one end to the other, "ut to outward appearance it is not so, "ut looks like a horn lantern with the panes of horn left

out! The urchin uses its spines as feet for it rests its wei$ht on these, and then movin$ shifts from place to place! : The so+called tethyum or ascidian has of all these animals the most remarka"le characteristics! It is the only mollusc that has its entire "ody concealed within its shell, and the shell is a su"stance intermediate "etween hide and shell, so that it cuts like a piece of hard leather! It is attached to rocks "y its shell, and is provided with two passa$es placed at a distance from one another, very minute and hard to see, where"y it admits and dischar$es the sea+ water for it has no visi"le e&cretion ,whereas of shell fish in $eneral some resem"le the urchin in this matter of e&cretion, and others are provided with the so+called mecon, or poppy+(uice-! If the animal "e opened, it is found to have, in the first place, a tendinous mem"rane runnin$ round inside the shell+like su"stance, and within this mem"rane is the flesh+like su"stance of the ascidian, not resem"lin$ that in other molluscs "ut this flesh, to which I now allude, is the same in all ascidia! And this su"stance is attached in two places to the mem"rane and the skin, o"li*uely and at the point of attachment the space is narrowed from side to side, where the fleshy su"stance stretches towards the passa$es that lead outwards throu$h the shell and here it dischar$es and admits food and li*uid matter, (ust as it would if one of the passa$es were a mouth and the other an anal vent and one of the passa$es is

somewhat wider than the other Inside it has a pair of cavities, one on either side, a small partition separatin$ them and one of these two cavities contains the li*uid! The creature has no other or$an whether motor or sensory, nor, as was said in the case of the others, is it furnished with any or$an connected with e&cretion, as other shell+fish are! The colour of the ascidian is in some cases sallow, and in other cases red! There is, furthermore, the $enus of the sea+nettles, peculiar in its way! The sea+nettle, or sea+anemone, clin$s to rocks like certain of the testaceans, "ut at times rela&es its hold! It has no shell, "ut its entire "ody is fleshy! It is sensitive to touch, and, if you put your hand to it, it will sei3e and clin$ to it, as the cuttlefish would do with its feelers, and in such a way as to make the flesh of your hand swell up! Its mouth is in the centre of its "ody, and it lives adherin$ to the rock as an oyster to its shell! If any little fish come up a$ainst it it it clin$s to it in fact, (ust as I descri"ed it a"ove as doin$ to your hand, so it does to anythin$ edi"le that comes in its way and it feeds upon sea+urchins and scallops! Another species of the sea+nettle roams freely a"road! The sea+nettle appears to "e devoid alto$ether of e&cretion, and in this respect it resem"les a plant! Of sea+nettles there are two species, the lesser and more edi"le, and the lar$e hard ones, such as are found in the nei$h"ourhood of .halcis! In winter time their flesh is firm, and accordin$ly they are sou$ht after as articles of food, "ut in summer weather they are

worthless, for they "ecome thin and watery, and if you catch at them they "reak at once into "its, and cannot "e taken off the rocks entire and "ein$ oppressed "y the heat they tend to slip "ack into the crevices of the rocks! #o much for the e&ternal and the internal or$ans of molluscs, crustaceans, and testaceans! < )e now proceed to treat of insects in like manner! This $enus comprises many species, and, thou$h several kinds are clearly related to one another, these are not classified under one common desi$nation, as in the case of the "ee, the drone, the wasp, and all such insects, and a$ain as in the case of those that have their win$s in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer, the cara"us or sta$+"eetle, the cantharis or "lister+"eetle, and the like! Insects have three parts common to them all the head, the trunk containin$ the stomach, and a third part in "etwi&t these two, correspondin$ to what in other creatures em"races chest and "ack! In the ma(ority of insects this intermediate part is sin$le "ut in the lon$ and multipedal insects it has practically the same num"er of se$ments as of nicks! All insects when cut in two continue to live, e&ceptin$ such as are naturally cold "y nature, or such as from their minute si3e chill rapidly thou$h, "y the way, wasps notwithstandin$ their small si3e continue livin$ after severance! In con(unction with the middle

portion either the head or the stomach can live, "ut the head cannot live "y itself! Insects that are lon$ in shape and many+footed can live for a lon$ while after "ein$ cut in twain, and the severed portions can move in either direction, "ackwards or forwards thus, the hinder portion, if cut off, can crawl either in the direction of the section or in the direction of the tail, as is o"served in the scolopendra! All insects have eyes, "ut no other or$an of sense discerni"le, e&cept that some insects have a kind of a ton$ue correspondin$ to a similar or$an common to all testaceans and "y this or$an such insects taste and im"i"e their food! In some insects this or$an is soft in other insects it is firm as it is, "y the way, in the purple+ fish, amon$ testaceans! In the horsefly and the $adfly this or$an is hard, and indeed it is hard in most insects! In point of fact, such insects as have no stin$ in the rear use this or$an as a weapon, ,and, "y the way, such insects as are provided with this or$an are unprovided with teeth, with the e&ception of a few insects- the fly "y a touch can draw "lood with this or$an, and the $nat can prick or stin$ with it! .ertain insects are furnished with prickers or stin$s! #ome insects have the stin$ inside, as the "ee and the wasp, others outside, as the scorpion and, "y the way, this is the only insect furnished with a lon$ tail! And, further, the scorpion is furnished with claws, as is also the creature resem"lin$ a scorpion found within the pa$es of "ooks!

In addition to their other or$ans, flyin$ insects are furnished with win$s! #ome insects are dipterous or dou"le+win$ed, as the fly others are tetrapterous or furnished with four win$s, as the "ee and, "y the way, no insect with only two win$s has a stin$ in the rear! A$ain, some win$ed insects have a sheath or shard for their win$s, as the cockchafer whereas in others the win$s are unsheathed, as in the "ee! But in the case of all alike, fli$ht is in no way modified "y tail+steera$e, and the win$ is devoid of *uill+ structure or division of any kind! A$ain, some insects have antennae in front of their eyes, as the "utterfly and the horned "eetle! #uch of them as have the power of (umpin$ have the hinder le$s the lon$er and these lon$ hind+le$s where"y they (ump "end "ackwards like the hind+le$s of *uadrupeds! All insects have the "elly different from the "ack as, in fact, is the case with all animals! The flesh of an insect%s "ody is neither shell+like nor is it like the internal su"stance of shell+ covered animals, nor is it like flesh in the ordinary sense of the term "ut it is a somethin$ intermediate in *uality! )herefore they have nor spine, nor "one, nor sepia+"one, nor envelopin$ shell "ut their "ody "y its hardness is its own protection and re*uires no e&traneous support! However, insects have a skin "ut the skin is e&ceedin$ly thin! These and such+like are the e&ternal or$ans of insects! Internally, ne&t after the mouth, comes a $ut, in the ma(ority of cases strai$ht and simple down to the outlet of the residuum: "ut in

a few cases the $ut is coiled! 5o insect is provided with any viscera, or is supplied with fat and these statements apply to all animals devoid of "lood! #ome have a stomach also, and attached to this the rest of the $ut, either simple or convoluted as in the case of the acris or $rasshopper! The tetti& or cicada, alone of such creatures ,and, in fact, alone of all creatures-, is unprovided with a mouth, "ut it is provided with the ton$ue+like formation found in insects furnished with frontward stin$s and this formation in the cicada is lon$, continuous, and devoid of any split and "y the aid of this the creature feeds on dew, and on dew only, and in its stomach no e&cretion is ever found! Of the cicada there are several kinds, and they differ from one another in relative ma$nitude, and in this respect that the achetes or chirper is provided with a cleft or aperture under the hypo3oma and has in it a mem"rane *uite discerni"le, whilst the mem"rane is indiscerni"le in the tetti$onia! Furthermore, there are some stran$e creatures to "e found in the sea, which from their rarity we are una"le to classify! 8&perienced fishermen affirm, some that they have at times seen in the sea animals like sticks, "lack, rounded, and of the same thickness throu$hout others that they have seen creatures resem"lin$ shields, red in colour, and furnished with fins packed close to$ether and others that they have seen creatures resem"lin$ the male or$an in shape and si3e, with a pair of fins in the place of the

testicles, and they aver that on one occasion a creature of this description was "rou$ht up on the end of a ni$htline! #o much then for the parts, e&ternal and internal, e&ceptional and common, of all animals! = )e now proceed to treat of the senses for there are diversities in animals with re$ard to the senses, seein$ that some animals have the use of all the senses, and others the use of a limited num"er of them! The total num"er of the senses ,for we have no e&perience of any special sense not here included-, is five: si$ht, hearin$, smell, taste, and touch! 0an, then, and all vivipara that have feet, and, further, all red+ "looded ovipara, appear to have the use of all the five senses, e&cept where some isolated species has "een su"(ected to mutilation, as in the case of the mole! For this animal is deprived of si$ht it has no eyes visi"le, "ut if the skin+a thick one, "y the way+"e stripped off the head, a"out the place in the e&terior where eyes usually are, the eyes are found inside in a stunted condition, furnished with all the parts found in ordinary eyes that is to say, we find there the "lack rim, and the fatty part surroundin$ it "ut all these parts are smaller than the same parts in ordinary visi"le eyes! There is no e&ternal si$n of the e&istence of these or$ans in the mole, owin$ to the thickness of the skin drawn over them, so that it would seem that the natural course of development were

con$enitally arrested ,for e&tendin$ from the "rain at its (unction with the marrow are two stron$ sinewy ducts runnin$ past the sockets of the eyes, and terminatin$ at the upper eye+teeth-! All the other animals of the kinds a"ove mentioned have a perception of colour and of sound, and the senses of smell and taste the fifth sense, that, namely, of touch, is common to all animals whatsoever! In some animals the or$ans of sense are plainly discerni"le and this is especially the case with the eyes! For animals have a special locality for the eyes, and also a special locality for hearin$: that is to say, some animals have ears, while others have the passa$e for sound discerni"le! It is the same with the sense of smell that is to say, some animals have nostrils, and others have only the passa$es for smell, such as "irds! It is the same also with the or$an of taste, the ton$ue! Of a*uatic red+"looded animals, fishes possess the or$an of taste, namely the ton$ue, "ut it is in an imperfect and amorphous form, in other words it is osseous and undetached! In some fish the palate is fleshy, as in the fresh+water carp, so that "y an inattentive o"server it mi$ht "e mistaken for a ton$ue! There is no dou"t "ut that fishes have the sense of taste, for a $reat num"er of them deli$ht in special flavours and fishes freely take the hook if it "e "aited with a piece of flesh from a tunny or from any fat fish, o"viously en(oyin$ the taste and the eatin$ of food of this kind! Fishes have no visi"le or$ans for hearin$ or for smell for what mi$ht appear to indicate an or$an for smell in the re$ion

of the nostril has no communication with the "rain! These indications, in fact, in some cases lead nowhere, like "lind alleys, and in other cases lead only to the $ills "ut for all this fishes undou"tedly hear and smell! For they are o"served to run away from any loud noise, such as would "e made "y the rowin$ of a $alley, so as to "ecome easy of capture in their holes for, "y the way, thou$h a sound "e very sli$ht in the open air, it has a loud and alarmin$ resonance to creatures that hear under water! And this is shown in the capture of the dolphin for when the hunters have enclosed a shoal of these fishes with a rin$ of their canoes, they set up from inside the canoes a loud splashin$ in the water, and "y so doin$ induce the creatures to run in a shoal hi$h and dry up on the "each, and so capture them while stupefied with the noise! And yet, for all this, the dolphin has no or$an of hearin$ discerni"le! Furthermore, when en$a$ed in their craft, fishermen are particularly careful to make no noise with oar or net and after they have spied a shoal, they let down their nets at a spot so far off that they count upon no noise "ein$ likely to reach the shoal, occasioned either "y oar or "y the sur$in$ of their "oats throu$h the water and the crews are strictly en(oined to preserve silence until the shoal has "een surrounded! And, at times, when they want the fish to crowd to$ether, they adopt the strata$em of the dolphin+ hunter in other words they clatter stones to$ether, that the fish may, in their fri$ht, $ather close into one spot, and so they envelop them within their nets! ,Before surroundin$ them, then, they

preserve silence, as was said "ut, after hemmin$ the shoal in, they call on every man to shout out aloud and make any kind of noise for on hearin$ the noise and hu""u" the fish are sure to tum"le into the nets from sheer fri$ht!- Further, when fishermen see a shoal of fish feedin$ at a distance, disportin$ themselves in calm "ri$ht weather on the surface of the water, if they are an&ious to descry the si3e of the fish and to learn what kind of a fish it is, they may succeed in comin$ upon the shoal whilst yet "askin$ at the surface if they sail up without the sli$htest noise, "ut if any man make a noise previously, the shoal will "e seen to scurry away in alarm! A$ain, there is a small river+fish called the cottus or "ullhead this creature "urrows under a rock, and fishers catch it "y clatterin$ stones a$ainst the rock, and the fish, "ewildered at the noise, darts out of its hidin$+place! From these facts it is *uite o"vious that fishes can hear and indeed some people, from livin$ near the sea and fre*uently witnessin$ such phenomena, affirm that of all livin$ creatures the fish is the *uickest of hearin$! And, "y the way, of all fishes the *uickest of hearin$ are the cestreus or mullet, the chremps, the la"ra& or "asse, the salpe or saupe, the chromis or sciaena, and such like! Other fishes are less *uick of hearin$, and, as mi$ht "e e&pected, are more apt to "e found livin$ at the "ottom of the sea! The case is similar in re$ard to the sense of smell! Thus, as a rule, fishes will not touch a "ait that is not fresh, neither are they all cau$ht "y one and the same "ait, "ut they are severally cau$ht "y

"aits suited to their several likin$s, and these "aits they distin$uish "y their sense of smell and, "y the way, some fishes are attracted "y malodorous "aits, as the saupe, for instance, is attracted "y e&crement! A$ain, a num"er of fishes live in caves and accordin$ly fishermen, when they want to entice them out, smear the mouth of a cave with stron$+smellin$ pickles, and the fish are #oon attracted to the smell! And the eel is cau$ht in a similar way for the fisherman lays down an earthen pot that has held pickles, after insertin$ a 'weel% in the neck thereof! As a $eneral rule, fishes are especially attracted "y savoury smells! For this reason, fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the cuttle+fish and use it as "ait on account of its smell, for fish are peculiarly attracted "y it they also "ake the octopus and "ait their fish+"askets or weels with it, entirely, as they say, on account of its smell! Furthermore, $re$arious fishes, if fish washin$s or "il$e+water "e thrown over"oard, are o"served to scud off to a distance, from apparent dislike of the smell! And it is asserted that they can at once detect "y smell the presence of their own "lood and this faculty is manifested "y their hurryin$ off to a $reat distance whenever fish+ "lood is spilt in the sea! And, as a $eneral rule, if you "ait your weel with a stinkin$ "ait, the fish refuse to enter the weel or even to draw near "ut if you "ait the weel with a fresh and savoury "ait, they come at once from lon$ distances and swim into it! And all this is particularly manifest in the dolphin for, as was stated, it has no visi"le or$an of hearin$, and yet it is captured when stupefied

with noise and so, while it has no visi"le or$an for smell, it has the sense of smell remarka"ly keen! It is manifest, then, that the animals a"ove mentioned are in possession of all the five senses! All other animals may, with very few e&ceptions, "e comprehended within four $enera: to wit, molluscs, crustaceans, testaceans, and insects! Of these four $enera, the mollusc, the crustacean, and the insect have all the senses: at all events, they have si$ht, smell, and taste! As for insects, "oth win$ed and win$less, they can detect the presence of scented o"(ects afar off, as for instance "ees and snipes detect the presence of honey at a distance and do so reco$ni3in$ it "y smell! 0any insects are killed "y the smell of "rimstone ants, if the apertures to their dwellin$s "e smeared with powdered ori$anum and "rimstone, *uit their nests and most insects may "e "anished with "urnt hart%s horn, or "etter still "y the "urnin$ of the $um styra&! The cuttle+fish, the octopus, and the crawfish may "e cau$ht "y "ait! The octopus, in fact, clin$s so ti$htly to the rocks that it cannot "e pulled off, "ut remains attached even when the knife is employed to sever it and yet, if you apply flea"ane to the creature, it drops off at the very smell of it! The facts are similar in re$ard to taste! For the food that insects $o in *uest of is of diverse kinds, and they do not all deli$ht in the same flavours: for instance, the "ee never settles on a withered or wilted flower, "ut on fresh and sweet ones and the conops or $nat settles only on acrid su"stances and not on sweet! The sense of touch, "y the way, as has "een remarked, is common

to all animals! Testaceans have the senses of smell and taste! )ith re$ard to their possession of the sense of smell, that is proved "y the use of "aits, e!$! in the case of the purple+fish for this creature is enticed "y "aits of rancid meat, which it perceives and is attracted to from a $reat distance! The proof that it possesses a sense of taste han$s "y the proof of its sense of smell for whenever an animal is attracted to a thin$ "y perceivin$ its smell, it is sure to like the taste of it! Further, all animals furnished with a mouth derive pleasure or pain from the touch of sapid (uices! )ith re$ard to si$ht and hearin$, we cannot make statements with thorou$h confidence or on irrefuta"le evidence! However, the solen or ra3or+fish, if you make a noise, appears to "urrow in the sand, and to hide himself deeper when he hears the approach of the iron rod ,for the animal, "e it o"served, (uts a little out of its hole, while the $reater part of the "ody remains within-,+and scallops, if you present your fin$er near their open valves, close them ti$ht a$ain as thou$h they could see what you were doin$! Furthermore, when fishermen are layin$ "ait for neritae, they always $et to leeward of them, and never speak a word while so en$a$ed, under the firm impression that the animal can smell and hear and they assure us that, if any one speaks aloud, the creature makes efforts to escape! )ith re$ard to testaceans, of the walkin$ or creepin$ species the urchin appears to have the least developed sense of smell and, of the stationary species, the ascidian and the "arnacle!

#o much for the or$ans of sense in the $eneral run of animals! )e now proceed to treat of voice! > ;oice and sound are different from one another and lan$ua$e differs from voice and sound! The fact is that no animal can $ive utterance to voice e&cept "y the action of the pharyn&, and conse*uently such animals as are devoid of lun$ have no voice and lan$ua$e is the articulation of vocal sounds "y the instrumentality of the ton$ue! Thus, the voice and laryn& can emit vocal or vowel sounds non+vocal or consonantal sounds are made "y the ton$ue and the lips and out of these vocal and non+vocal sounds lan$ua$e is composed! .onse*uently, animals that have no ton$ue at all or that have a ton$ue not freely detached, have neither voice nor lan$ua$e althou$h, "y the way, they may "e ena"led to make noises or sounds "y other or$ans than the ton$ue! Insects, for instance, have no voice and no lan$ua$e, "ut they can emit sound "y internal air or wind, thou$h not "y the emission of air or wind for no insects are capa"le of respiration! But some of them make a hummin$ noise, like the "ee and the other win$ed insects and others are said to sin$, as the cicada! And all these latter insects make their special noises "y means of the mem"rane that is underneath the 'hypo3oma%+those insects, that is to say, whose "ody is thus divided as for instance, one species of cicada, which makes the sound "y means of the friction of the air! Flies

and "ees, and the like, produce their special noise "y openin$ and shuttin$ their win$s in the act of flyin$ for the noise made is "y the friction of air "etween the win$s when in motion! The noise made "y $rasshoppers is produced "y ru""in$ or rever"eratin$ with their lon$ hind+le$s! 5o mollusc or crustacean can produce any natural voice or sound! Fishes can produce no voice, for they have no lun$s, nor windpipe and pharyn& "ut they emit certain inarticulate sounds and s*ueaks, which is what is called their 'voice%, as the lyra or $urnard, and the sciaena ,for these fishes make a $runtin$ kind of noise- and the caprus or "oar+fish in the river Achelous, and the chalcis and the cuckoo+fish for the chalcis makes a sort pipin$ sound, and the cuckoo+fish makes a sound $reatly like the cry of the cuckoo, and is nicknamed from the circumstance! The apparent voice in all these fishes is a sound caused in some cases "y a ru""in$ motion of their $ills, which "y the way are prickly, or in other cases "y internal parts a"out their "ellies for they all have air or wind inside them, "y ru""in$ and movin$ which they produce the sounds! #ome cartila$inous fish seem to s*ueak! But in these cases the term 'voice% is inappropriate the more correct e&pression would "e 'sound%! For the scallop, when it $oes alon$ supportin$ itself on the water, which is technically called 'flyin$%, makes a whi33in$ sound and so does the sea+swallow or flyin$+fish: for this fish flies in the air, clean out of the water, "ein$ furnished with fins "road and lon$! Fust then as in the fli$ht

of "irds the sound made "y their win$s is o"viously not voice, so is it in the case of all these other creatures! The dolphin, when taken out of the water, $ives a s*ueak and moans in the air, "ut these noises do not resem"le those a"ove mentioned! For this creature has a voice ,and can therefore utter vocal or vowel sounds-, for it is furnished with a lun$ and a windpipe "ut its ton$ue is not loose, nor has it lips, so as to $ive utterance to an articulate sound ,or a sound of vowel and consonant in com"ination!Of animals which are furnished with ton$ue and lun$, the oviparous *uadrupeds produce a voice, "ut a fee"le one in some cases, a shrill pipin$ sound, like the serpent in others, a thin faint cry in others, a low hiss, like the tortoise! The formation of the ton$ue in the fro$ is e&ceptional! The front part of the ton$ue, which in other animals is detached, is ti$htly fi&ed in the fro$ as it is in all fishes "ut the part towards the pharyn& is freely detached, and may, so to speak, "e spat outwards, and it is with this that it makes its peculiar croak! The croakin$ that $oes on in the marsh is the call of the males to the females at ruttin$ time and, "y the way, all animals have a special cry for the like end at the like season, as is o"served in the case of $oats, swine, and sheep! ,The "ull+fro$ makes its croakin$ noise "y puttin$ its under (aw on a level with the surface of the water and e&tendin$ its upper (aw to its utmost capacity! The tension is so $reat that the upper (aw "ecomes transparent, and the animal%s eyes shine throu$h the (aw like

lamps for, "y the way, the commerce of the se&es takes place usually in the ni$ht time!- Birds can utter vocal sounds and such of them can articulate "est as have the ton$ue moderately flat, and also such as have thin delicate ton$ues! In some cases, the male and the female utter the same note in other cases, different notes! The smaller "irds are more vocal and $iven to chirpin$ than the lar$er ones "ut in the pairin$ season every species of "ird "ecomes particularly vocal! #ome of them call when fi$htin$, as the *uail, others cry or crow when challen$in$ to com"at, as the partrid$e, or when victorious, as the "arn+door cock! In some cases cock+"irds and hens sin$ alike, as is o"served in the ni$htin$ale, only that the hen stops sin$in$ when "roodin$ or rearin$ her youn$ in other "irds, the cocks sin$ more than the hens in fact, with "arn+door fowls and *uails, the cock sin$s and the hen does not! ;iviparous *uadrupeds utter vocal sounds of different kinds, "ut they have no power of converse! In fact, this power, or lan$ua$e, is peculiar to man! For while the capa"ility of talkin$ implies the capa"ility of utterin$ vocal sounds, the converse does not hold $ood! 0en that are "orn deaf are in all cases also dum" that is, they can make vocal sounds, "ut they cannot speak! .hildren, (ust as they have no control over other parts, so have no control, at first, over the ton$ue "ut it is so far imperfect, and only frees and detaches itself "y de$rees, so that in the interval children for the most part lisp and stutter!

;ocal sounds and modes of lan$ua$e differ accordin$ to locality! ;ocal sounds are characteri3ed chiefly "y their pitch, whether hi$h or low, and the kinds of sound capa"le of "ein$ produced are identical within the limits of one and the same species "ut articulate sound, that one mi$ht reasona"ly desi$nate 'lan$ua$e%, differs "oth in various animals, and also in the same species accordin$ to diversity of locality as for instance, some partrid$es cackle, and some make a shrill twitterin$ noise! Of little "irds, some sin$ a different note from the parent "irds, if they have "een removed from the nest and have heard other "irds sin$in$ and a mother+ni$htin$ale has "een o"served to $ive lessons in sin$in$ to a youn$ "ird, from which spectacle we mi$ht o"viously infer that the son$ of the "ird was not e*ually con$enital with mere voice, "ut was somethin$ capa"le of modification and of improvement! 0en have the same voice or vocal sounds, "ut they differ from one another in speech or lan$ua$e! The elephant makes a vocal sound of a windlike sort "y the mouth alone, unaided "y the trunk, (ust like the sound of a man pantin$ or si$hin$ "ut, if it employ the trunk as well, the sound produced is like that of a hoarse trumpet! 1@ )ith re$ard to the sleepin$ and wakin$ of animals, all creatures that are red+"looded and provided with le$s $ive sensi"le proof that they $o to sleep and that they waken up from sleep for, as a

matter of fact, all animals that are furnished with eyelids shut them up when they $o to sleep! Furthermore, it would appear that not only do men dream, "ut horses also, and do$s, and o&en aye, and sheep, and $oats, and all viviparous *uadrupeds and do$s show their dreamin$ "y "arkin$ in their sleep! )ith re$ard to oviparous animals we cannot "e sure that they dream, "ut most undou"tedly they sleep! And the same may "e said of water animals, such as fishes, molluscs, crustaceans, to wit crawfish and the like! These animals sleep without dou"t, althou$h their sleep is of very short duration! The proof of their sleepin$ cannot "e $ot from the condition of their eyes+for none of these creatures are furnished with eyelids+"ut can "e o"tained only from their motionless repose! Apart from the irritation caused "y lice and what are nicknamed fleas, fish are met with in a state so motionless that one mi$ht easily catch them "y hand and, as a matter of fact, these little creatures, if the fish remain lon$ in one position, will attack them in myriads and devour them! For these parasites are found in the depths of the sea, and are so numerous that they devour any "ait made of fish%s flesh if it "e left lon$ on the $round at the "ottom and fishermen often draw up a cluster of them, all clin$in$ on to the "ait! But it is from the followin$ facts that we may more reasona"ly infer that fishes sleep! ;ery often it is possi"le to take a fish off its $uard so far as to catch hold of it or to $ive it a "low unawares and all the while that you are preparin$ to catch or strike it, the fish is

*uite still "ut for a sli$ht motion of the tail! And it is *uite o"vious that the animal is sleepin$, from its movements if any distur"ance "e made durin$ its repose for it moves (ust as you would e&pect in a creature suddenly awakened! Further, owin$ to their "ein$ asleep, fish may "e captured "y torchli$ht! The watchmen in the tunny+fishery often take advanta$e of the fish "ein$ asleep to envelop them in a circle of nets and it is *uite o"vious that they were thus sleepin$ "y their lyin$ still and allowin$ the $listenin$ under+parts of their "odies to "ecome visi"le, while the capture is takin$ Alace! They sleep in the ni$ht+time more than durin$ the day and so soundly at ni$ht that you may cast the net without makin$ them stir! Fish, as a $eneral rule, sleep close to the $round, or to the sand or to a stone at the "ottom, or after concealin$ themselves under a rock or the $round! Flat fish $o to sleep in the sand and they can "e distin$uished "y the outlines of their shapes in the sand, and are cau$ht in this position "y "ein$ speared with pron$ed instruments! The "asse, the chrysophrys or $ilt+head, the mullet, and fish of the like sort are often cau$ht in the daytime "y the pron$ owin$ to their havin$ "een surprised when sleepin$ for it is scarcely pro"a"le that fish could "e pron$ed while awake! .artila$inous fish sleep at times so soundly that they may "e cau$ht "y hand! The dolphin and the whale, and all such as are furnished with a "low+hole, sleep with the "low+hole over the surface of the water, and "reathe throu$h the "low+hole while they

keep up a *uiet flappin$ of their fins indeed, some mariners assure us that they have actually heard the dolphin snorin$! 0olluscs sleep like fishes, and crustaceans also! It is plain also that insects sleep for there can "e no mistakin$ their condition of motionless repose! In the "ee the fact of its "ein$ asleep is very o"vious for at ni$ht+time "ees are at rest and cease to hum! But the fact that insects sleep may "e very well seen in the case of common every+day creatures for not only do they rest at ni$ht+ time from dimness of vision ,and, "y the way, all hard+eyed creatures see "ut indistinctly-, "ut even if a li$hted candle "e presented they continue sleepin$ *uite as soundly! Of all animals man is most $iven to dreamin$! .hildren and infants do not dream, "ut in most cases dreamin$ comes on at the a$e of four or five years! Instances have "een known of full+$rown men and women that have never dreamed at all in e&ceptional cases of this kind, it has "een o"served that when a dream occurs in advanced life it pro$nosticates either actual dissolution or a $eneral "reak+up of the system! #o much then for sensation and for the phenomena of sleepin$ and of awakenin$! 11 )ith re$ard to se&, some animals are divided into male and female, "ut others are not so divided "ut can only "e said in a comparative way to "rin$ forth youn$ and to "e pre$nant! In

animals that live confined to one spot there is no duality of se& nor is there such, in fact, in any testaceans! In molluscs and in crustaceans we find male and female: and, indeed, in all animals furnished with feet, "iped or *uadruped in short, in all such as "y copulation en$ender either live youn$ or e$$ or $ru"! In the several $enera, with however certain e&ceptions, there either a"solutely is or a"solutely is not a duality of se&! Thus, in *uadrupeds the duality is universal, while the a"sence of such duality is universal in testaceans, and of these creatures, as with plants, some individuals are fruitful and some are not their lyin$ still But amon$ insects and fishes, some cases are found wholly devoid of this duality of se&! For instance, the eel is neither male nor female, and can en$ender nothin$! In fact, those who assert that eels are at times found with hair+like or worm+like pro$eny attached, make only random assertions from not havin$ carefully noticed the locality of such attachments! For no eel nor animal of this kind is ever viviparous unless previously oviparous and no eel was ever yet seen with an e$$! And animals that are viviparous have their youn$ in the wom" and closely attached, and not in the "elly for, if the em"ryo were kept in the "elly, it would "e su"(ected to the process of di$estion like ordinary food! )hen people rest duality of se& in the eel on the assertion that the head of the male is "i$$er and lon$er, and the head of the female smaller and more snu""ed, they are takin$ diversity of species for diversity of se&!

There are certain fish that are nicknamed the epitra$iae, or capon+ fish, and, "y the way, fish of this description are found in fresh water, as the carp and the "ala$rus! This sort of fish never has either roe or milt "ut they are hard and fat all over, and are furnished with a small $ut and these fish are re$arded as of super+ e&cellent *uality! A$ain, (ust as in testaceans and in plants there is what "ears and en$enders, "ut not what impre$nates, so is it, amon$ fishes, with the psetta, the erythrinus, and the channe for these fish are in all cases found furnished with e$$s! As a $eneral rule, in red+"looded animals furnished with feet and not oviparous, the male is lar$er and lon$er+lived than the female ,e&cept with the mule, where the female is lon$er+lived and "i$$er than the male- whereas in oviparous and vermiparous creatures, as in fishes and in insects, the female is lar$er than the male as, for instance, with the serpent, the phalan$ium or venom+spider, the $ecko, and the fro$! The same difference in si3e of the se&es is found in fishes, as, for instance, in the smaller cartila$inous fishes, in the $reater part of the $re$arious species, and in all that live in and a"out rocks! The fact that the female is lon$er+lived than the male is inferred from the fact that female fishes are cau$ht older than males! Furthermore, in all animals the upper and front parts are "etter, stron$er, and more thorou$hly e*uipped in the male than in the female, whereas in the female those parts are the "etter that may "e termed hinder+parts or underparts! And this statement is

applica"le to man and to all vivipara that have feet! A$ain, the female is less muscular and less compactly (ointed, and more thin and delicate in the hair+that is, where hair is found and, where there is no hair, less stron$ly furnished in some analo$ous su"stance! And the female is more flaccid in te&ture of flesh, and more knock+kneed, and the shin+"ones are thinner and the feet are more arched and hollow in such animals as are furnished with feet! And with re$ard to voice, the female in all animals that are vocal has a thinner and sharper voice than the male e&cept, "y the way, with kine, for the lowin$ and "ellowin$ of the cow has a deeper note than that of the "ull! )ith re$ard to or$ans of defence and offence, such as teeth, tusks, horns, spurs, and the like, these in some species the male possesses and the female does not as, for instance, the hind has no horns, and where the cock+"ird has a spur the hen is entirely destitute of the or$an and in like manner the sow is devoid of tusks! In other species such or$ans are found in "oth se&es, "ut are more perfectly developed in the male as, for instance, the horn of the "ull is more powerful than the horn of the cow! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book ; 1 As to the parts internal and e&ternal that all animals are furnished withal, and further as to the senses, to voice, and sleep, and the duality se&, all these topics have now "een touched upon! It now remains for us to discuss, duly and in order, their several modes of propa$ation! These modes are many and diverse, and in some respects are like, and in other respects are unlike to one another! As we carried on our previous discussion $enus "y $enus, so we must attempt to follow the same divisions in our present ar$ument only that whereas in the former case we started with a consideration of the parts of man, in the present case it "ehoves us to treat of man last of all "ecause he involves most discussion! )e shall commence, then, with testaceans, and then proceed to crustaceans, and then to the other $enera in due order and these other $enera are, severally, molluscs, and insects, then fishes viviparous and fishes oviparous, and ne&t "irds and afterwards we shall treat of animals provided with feet, "oth such as are oviparous and such as are viviparous, and we may o"serve that some *uadrupeds are viviparous, "ut that the only viviparous "iped is man! 5ow there is one property that animals are found to have in common with plants! For some plants are $enerated from the seed of plants, whilst other plants are self+$enerated throu$h the

formation of some elemental principle similar to a seed and of these latter plants some derive their nutriment from the $round, whilst others $row inside other plants, as is mentioned, "y the way, in my treatise on Botany! #o with animals, some sprin$ from parent animals accordin$ to their kind, whilst others $row spontaneously and not from kindred stock and of these instances of spontaneous $eneration some come from putrefyin$ earth or ve$eta"le matter, as is the case with a num"er of insects, while others are spontaneously $enerated in the inside of animals out of the secretions of their several or$ans! In animals where $eneration $oes "y heredity, wherever there is duality of se& $eneration is due to copulation! In the $roup of fishes, however, there are some that are neither male nor female, and these, while they are identical $enerically with other fish, differ from them specifically "ut there are others that stand alto$ether isolated and apart "y themselves! Other fishes there are that are always female and never male, and from them are conceived what correspond to the wind+e$$s in "irds! #uch e$$s, "y the way, in "irds are all unfruitful "ut it is their nature to "e independently capa"le of $eneration up to the e$$+sta$e, unless indeed there "e some other mode than the one familiar to us of intercourse with the male "ut concernin$ these topics we shall treat more precisely later on! In the case of certain fishes, however, after they have spontaneously $enerated e$$s, these e$$s develop into livin$ animals only that in certain of these cases development

is spontaneous, and in others is not independent of the male and the method of proceedin$ in re$ard to these matters will set forth "y and "y, for the method is somewhat like to the method followed in the case of "irds! But whensoever creatures are spontaneously $enerated, either in other animals, in the soil, or on plants, or in the parts of these, and when such are $enerated male and female, then from the copulation of such spontaneously $enerated males and females there is $enerated a somethin$+a somethin$ never identical in shape with the parents, "ut a somethin$ imperfect! For instance, the issue of copulation in lice is nits in flies, $ru"s in fleas, $ru"s e$$+like in shape and from these issues the parent+species is never reproduced, nor is any animal produced at all, "ut the like nondescripts only! First, then, we must proceed to treat of 'coverin$% in re$ard to such animals as cover and are covered and then after this to treat in due order of other matters, "oth the e&ceptional and those of $eneral occurrence! 4 Those animals, then, cover and are covered in which there is a duality of se&, and the modes of coverin$ in such animals are not in all cases similar nor analo$ous! For the red+"looded animals that are viviparous and furnished with feet have in all cases or$ans adapted for procreation, "ut the se&es do not in all cases come to$ether in like manner! Thus, opisthuretic animals copulate with a

rearward presentment, as is the case with the lion, the hare, and the lyn& thou$h, "y the way, in the case of the hare, the female is often o"served to cover the male! The case is similar in most other such animals that is to say, the ma(ority of *uadrupeds copulate as "est they can, the male mountin$ the female and this is the only method of copulatin$ adopted "y "irds, thou$h there are certain diversities of method o"served even in "irds! For in some cases the female s*uats on the $round and the male mounts on top of her, as is the case with the cock and hen "ustard, and the "arn+door cock and hen in other cases, the male mounts without the female s*uattin$, as with the male and female crane for, with these "irds, the male mounts on to the "ack of the female and covers her, and like the cock+sparrow consumes "ut very little time in the operation! Of *uadrupeds, "ears perform the operation lyin$ prone on one another, in the same way as other *uadrupeds do while standin$ up that is to say, with the "elly of the male pressed to the "ack of the female! Hed$eho$s copulate erect, "elly to "elly! )ith re$ard to lar$e+si3ed vivipara, the hind only very rarely sustains the mountin$ of the sta$ to the full conclusion of the operation, and the same is the case with the cow as re$ards the "ull, owin$ to the ri$idity of the penis of the "ull! In point of fact, the females of these animals elicit the sperm of the male in the act of withdrawin$ from underneath him and, "y the way, this phenomenon has "een o"served in the case of the sta$ and hind,

domesticated, of course! .overin$ with the wolf is the same as with the do$! .ats do not copulate with a rearward presentment on the part of the female, "ut the male stands erect and the female puts herself underneath him and, "y the way, the female cat is peculiarly lecherous, and wheedles the male on to se&ual commerce, and caterwauls durin$ the operation! .amels copulate with the female in a sittin$ posture, and the male straddles over and covers her, not with the hinder presentment on the female%s part "ut like the other *uadrupeds mentioned a"ove, and they pass the whole day lon$ in the operation when thus en$a$ed they retire to lonely spots, and none "ut their keeper dare approach them! And, "e it o"served, the penis of the camel is so sinewy that "ow+ strin$s are manufactured out of it! 8lephants, also, copulate in lonely places, and especially "y river+sides in their usual haunts the female s*uats down, and straddles with her le$s, and the male mounts and covers her! The seal covers like all opisthuretic animals, and in this species the copulation e&tends over a len$thened time, as is the case with the do$ and "itch and the penis in the male seal is e&ceptionally lar$e! 6 Oviparous *uadrupeds cover one another in the same way! That is to say, in some cases the male mounts the female precisely as in the viviparous animals, as is o"served in "oth the land and the sea tortoise!!!!And these creatures have an or$an in which the ducts

conver$e, and with which they perform the act of copulation, as is also o"served in the toad, the fro$, and all other animals of the same $roup! 7 Bon$ animals devoid of feet, like serpents and muraenae, intertwine in coition, "elly to "elly! And, in fact, serpents coil round one another so ti$htly as to present the appearance of a sin$le serpent with a pair of heads! The same mode is followed "y the saurians that is to say, they coil round one another in the act of coition! 9 All fishes, with the e&ception of the flat selachians, lie down side "y side, and copulate "elly to "elly! Fishes, however, that are flat and furnished with tails+as the ray, the try$on, and the like+ copulate not only in this way, "ut also, where the tail from its thinness is no impediment, "y mountin$ of the male upon the female, "elly to "ack! But the rhina or an$el+fish, and other like fishes where the tail is lar$e, copulate only "y ru""in$ a$ainst one another sideways, "elly to "elly! #ome men assure us that they have seen some of the selachia copulatin$ hindways, do$ and "itch! In the cartila$inous species the female is lar$er than the male and the same is the case with other fishes for the most part! And amon$ cartila$inous fishes are included, "esides those already

named, the "os, the lamia, the aetos, the narce or torpedo, the fishin$+fro$, and all the $aleodes or sharks and do$fish! .artila$inous fishes, then, of all kinds, have in many instances "een o"served copulatin$ in the way a"ove mentioned for, "y the way, in viviparous animals the process of copulation is of lon$er duration than in the ovipara! It is the same with the dolphin and with all cetaceans that is to say, they come side "y side, male and female, and copulate, and the act e&tends over a time which is neither short nor very lon$! A$ain, in cartila$inous fishes the male, in some species, differs from the female in the fact that he is furnished with two appenda$es han$in$ down from a"out the e&it of the residuum, and that the female is not so furnished and this distinction "etween the se&es is o"served in all the species of the sharks and do$+fish! 5ow neither fishes nor any animals devoid of feet are furnished with testicles, "ut male serpents and male fishes have a pair of ducts which fill with milt or sperm at the ruttin$ season, and dischar$e, in all cases, a milk+like (uice! These ducts unite, as in "irds for "irds, "y the way, have their testicles in their interior, and so have all ovipara that are furnished with feet! And this union of the ducts is so far continued and of such e&tension as to enter the receptive or$an in the female! In viviparous animals furnished with feet there is outwardly one and the same duct for the sperm and the li*uid residuum "ut there are separate ducts internally, as has "een o"served in the

differentiation of the or$ans! And with such animals as are not viviparous the same passa$e serves for the dischar$e also of the solid residuum althou$h, internally, there are two passa$es, separate "ut near to one another! And these remarks apply to "oth male and female for these animals are unprovided with a "ladder e&cept in the case of the tortoise and the she+tortoise, thou$h furnished with a "ladder, has only one passa$e and tortoises, "y the way, "elon$ to the ovipara! In the case of oviparous fishes the process of coition is less open to o"servation! In point of fact, some are led "y the want of actual o"servation to surmise that the female "ecomes impre$nated "y swallowin$ the seminal fluid of the male! And there can "e no dou"t that this proceedin$ on the part of the female is often witnessed for at the ruttin$ season the females follow the males and perform this operation, and strike the males with their mouths under the "elly, and the males are there"y induced to part with the sperm sooner and more plentifully! And, further, at the spawnin$ season the males $o in pursuit of the females, and, as the female spawns, the males swallow the e$$s and the species is continued in e&istence "y the spawn that survives this process! On the coast of Ahoenicia they take advanta$e of these instinctive propensities of the two se&es to catch "oth one and the other: that is to say, "y usin$ the male of the $rey mullet as a decoy they collect and net the female, and "y usin$ the female, the male!

The repeated o"servation of this phenomenon has led to the notion that the process was e*uivalent to coition, "ut the fact is that a similar phenomenon is o"serva"le in *uadrupeds! For at the ruttin$ seasons "oth the males and the females take to runnin$ at their $enitals, and the two se&es take to smellin$ each other at those parts! ,)ith partrid$es, "y the way, if the female $ets to leeward of the male, she "ecomes there"y impre$nated! And often when they happen to "e in heat she is affected in this wise "y the voice of the male, or "y his "reathin$ down on her as he flies overhead and, "y the way, "oth the male and the female partrid$e keep the mouth wide open and protrude the ton$ue in the process of coition!The actual process of copulation on the part of oviparous fishes is seldom accurately o"served, owin$ to the fact that they very soon fall aside and slip asunder! But, for all that, the process has "een o"served to take place in the manner a"ove descri"ed! : 0olluscs, such as the octopus, the sepia, and the calamary, have se&ual intercourse all in the same way that is to say, they unite at the mouth, "y an interlacin$ of their tentacles! )hen, then, the octopus rests its so+called head a$ainst the $round and spreads a"road its tentacles, the other se& fits into the outspreadin$ of these tentacles, and the two se&es then "rin$ their suckers into mutual conne&ion!

#ome assert that the male has a kind of penis in one of his tentacles, the one in which are the lar$est suckers and they further assert that the or$an is tendinous in character, $rowin$ attached ri$ht up to the middle of the tentacle, and that the latter ena"les it to enter the nostril or funnel of the female! 5ow cuttle+fish and calamaries swim a"out closely intertwined, with mouths and tentacles facin$ one another and fittin$ closely to$ether, and swim thus in opposite directions and they fit their so+called nostrils into one another, and the one se& swims "ackwards and the other frontwards durin$ the operation! And the female lays its spawn "y the so+called '"low+hole% and, "y the way, some declare that it is at this or$an that the coition really takes place! < .rustaceans copulate, as the crawfish, the lo"ster, the carid and the like, (ust like the opisthuretic *uadrupeds, when the one animal turns up its tail and the other puts his tail on the other%s tail! .opulation takes place in the early sprin$, near to the shore and, in fact, the process has often "een o"served in the case of all these animals! #ometimes it takes place a"out the time when the fi$s "e$in to ripen! Bo"sters and carids copulate in like manner! .ra"s copulate at the front parts of one another, "elly to "elly, throwin$ their overlappin$ opercula to meet one another: first the smaller cra" mounts the lar$er at the rear after he has mounted,

the lar$er one turns on one side! 5ow, the female differs in no respect from the male e&cept in the circumstance that its operculum is lar$er, more elevated, and more hairy, and into this operculum it spawns its e$$s and in the same nei$h"ourhood is the outlet of the residuum! In the copulative process of these animals there is no protrusion of a mem"er from one animal into the other! = Insects copulate at the hinder end, and the smaller individuals mount the lar$er and the smaller individual is I I is the male! The female pushes from underneath her se&ual or$an into the "ody of the male a"ove, this "ein$ the reverse of the operation o"served in other creatures and this or$an in the case of some insects appears to "e disproportionately lar$e when compared to the si3e of the "ody, and that too in very minute creatures in some insects the disproportion is not so strikin$! This phenomenon may "e witnessed if any one will pull asunder flies that are copulatin$ and, "y the way, these creatures are, under the circumstances, averse to separation for the intercourse of the se&es in their case is of lon$ duration, as may "e o"served with common everyday insects, such as the fly and the cantharis! They all copulate in the manner a"ove descri"ed, the fly, the cantharis, the sphondyle, ,the phalan$ium spider- any others of the kind that copulate at all! The phalan$ia+that is to say, such of the species as spin we"s+perform the operation in the followin$ way: the female takes hold of the

suspended we" at the middle and $ives a pull, and the male $ives a counter pull this operation they repeat until they are drawn in to$ether and interlaced at the hinder ends for, "y the way, this mode of copulation suits them in conse*uence of the rotundity of their stomachs! #o much for the modes of se&ual intercourse in all animals "ut, with re$ard to the same phenomenon, there are definite laws followed as re$ards the season of the year and the a$e of the animal! Animals in $eneral seem naturally disposed to this intercourse at a"out the same period of the year, and that is when winter is chan$in$ into summer! And this is the season of sprin$, in which almost all thin$s that fly or walk or swim take to pairin$! #ome animals pair and "reed in autumn also and in winter, as is the case with certain a*uatic animals and certain "irds! 0an pairs and "reeds at all seasons, as is the case also with domesticated animals, owin$ to the shelter and $ood feedin$ they en(oy: that is to say, with those whose period of $estation is also comparatively "rief, as the sow and the "itch, and with those "irds that "reed fre*uently! 0any animals time the season of intercourse with a view to the ri$ht nurture su"se*uently of their youn$! In the human species, the male is more under se&ual e&citement in winter, and the female in summer!

)ith "irds the far $reater part, as has "een said, pair and "reed durin$ the sprin$ and early summer, with the e&ception of the halcyon! The halcyon "reeds at the season of the winter solstice! Accordin$ly, when this season is marked with calm weather, the name of 'halcyon days% is $iven to the seven days precedin$, and to as many followin$, the solstice as #imonides the poet says: 2od In 0en lulls winter call the for fourteen and Holy days this #eason, the winds when to the sleep deep temperate interlude

.radles the mother Halcyon and her "rood! And these days are calm, when southerly winds prevail at the solstice, northerly ones havin$ "een the accompaniment of the Aleiads! The halcyon is said to take seven days for "uildin$ her nest, and the other seven for layin$ and hatchin$ her e$$s! In our country there are not always halcyon days a"out the time of the winter solstice, "ut in the #icilian seas this season of calm is almost periodical! The "ird lays a"out five e$$s! > ,The aithyia, or diver, and the larus, or $ull, lay their e$$s on rocks "orderin$ on the sea, two or three at a time "ut the $ull lays in the summer, and the diver at the "e$innin$ of sprin$, (ust after the winter solstice, and it "roods over its e$$s as "irds do in $eneral! And neither of these "irds resorts to a hidin$+place!-

The halcyon is the most rarely seen of all "irds! It is seen only a"out the time of the settin$ of the Aleiads and the winter solstice! )hen ships are lyin$ at anchor in the roads, it will hover a"out a vessel and then disappear in a moment, and #tesichorus in one of his poems alludes to this peculiarity! The ni$htin$ale also "reeds at the "e$innin$ of summer, and lays five or si& e$$s from autumn until sprin$ it retires to a hidin$+place! Insects copulate and "reed in winter also, that is when the weather is fine and south winds prevail such, I mean, as do not hi"ernate, as the fly and the ant! The $reater part of wild animals "rin$ forth once and once only in the year, e&cept in the case of animals like the hare, where the female can "ecome superfoetally impre$nated! In like manner the $reat ma(ority of fishes "reed only once a year, like the shoal+fishes ,or, in other words, such as are cau$ht in nets-, the tunny, the pelamys, the $rey mullet, the chalcis, the mackerel, the sciaena, the psetta and the like, with the e&ception of the la"ra& or "asse for this fish ,alone amon$st those mentioned- "reeds twice a year, and the second "rood is the weaker of the two! The trichias and the rock+fishes "reed twice a year the red mullet "reeds thrice a year, and is e&ceptional in this respect! This conclusion in re$ard to the red mullet is inferred from the spawn for the spawn of the fish may "e seen in certain places at three different times of the year! The scorpaena "reeds twice a year! The sar$ue "reeds twice, in the sprin$ and in the autumn! The saupe "reeds once a year only, in the autumn! The female tunny "reeds

only once a year, "ut owin$ to the fact that the fish in some cases spawn early and in others late, it looks as thou$h the fish "red twice over! The first spawnin$ takes place in /ecem"er "efore the solstice, and the latter spawnin$ in the sprin$! The male tunny differs from the female in "ein$ unprovided with the fin "eneath the "elly which is called aphareus! 1@ Of cartila$inous fishes, the rhina or an$elfish is the only one that "reeds twice for it "reeds at the "e$innin$ of autumn, and at the settin$ of the Aleiads: and, of the two seasons, it is in "etter condition in the autumn! It en$enders at a "irth seven or ei$ht youn$! .ertain of the do$+fishes, for e&ample the spotted do$, seem to "reed twice a month, and this results from the circumstance that the e$$s do not all reach maturity at the same time! #ome fishes "reed at all seasons, as the muraena! This animal lays a $reat num"er of e$$s at a time and the youn$ when hatched are very small "ut $row with $reat rapidity, like the youn$ of the hippurus, for these fishes from "ein$ diminutive at the outset $row with e&ceptional rapidity to an e&ceptional si3e! ,Be it o"served that the muraena "reeds at all seasons, "ut the hippurus only in the sprin$! The smyrus differs from the smyraena for the muraena is mottled and weakly, whereas the smyrus is stron$ and of one uniform colour, and the colour resem"les that of the pine+tree, and

the animal has teeth inside and out! They say that in this case, as in other similar ones, the one is the male, and the other the female, of a sin$le species! They come out on to the land, and are fre*uently cau$ht!- Fishes, then, as a $eneral rule, attain their full $rowth with $reat rapidity, "ut this is especially the case, amon$ small fishes, with the coracine or crow+fish: it spawns, "y the way, near the shore, in weedy and tan$led spots! The orphus also, or sea+perch, is small at first, and rapidly attains a $reat si3e! The pelamys and the tunny "reed in the 8u&ine, and nowhere else! The cestreus or mullet, the chrysophrys or $ilt+head, and the la"ra& or "asse, "reed "est where rivers run into the sea! The orcys or lar$e+si3ed tunny, the scorpis, and many other species spawn in the open sea! 11 Fish for the most part "reed some time or other durin$ the three months "etween the middle of 0arch and the middle of Fune! #ome few "reed in autumn: as, for instance, the saupe and the sar$us, and such others of this sort as "reed shortly "efore the autumn e*uino& likewise the electric ray and the an$el+fish! Other fishes "reed "oth in winter and in summer, as was previously o"served: as, for instance, in winter+time the "asse, the $rey mullet, and the "elone or pipe+fish and in summer+time, from the middle of Fune to the middle of Fuly, the female tunny, a"out the time of the summer solstice and the tunny lays a sac+like

enclosure in which are contained a num"er of small e$$s! The ryades or shoal+fishes "reed in summer! Of the $rey mullets, the chelon "e$ins to "e in roe "etween the middle of 5ovem"er and the middle of /ecem"er as also the sar$ue, and the smy&on or my&on, and the cephalus and their period of $estation is thirty days! And, "y the way, some of the $rey mullet species are not produced from copulation, "ut $row spontaneously from mud and sand! As a $eneral rule, then, fishes are in roe in the sprin$+time while some, as has "een said, are so in summer, in autumn, or in winter! But whereas the impre$nation in the sprin$+time follows a $eneral law, impre$nation in the other seasons does not follow the same rule either throu$hout or within the limits of one $enus and, further, conception in these variant seasons is not so prolific! And, indeed, we must "ear this in mind, that (ust as with plants and *uadrupeds diversity of locality has much to do not only with $eneral physical health "ut also with the comparative fre*uency of se&ual intercourse and $eneration, so also with re$ard to fishes locality of itself has much to do not only in re$ard to the si3e and vi$our of the creature, "ut also in re$ard to its parturition and its copulations, causin$ the same species to "reed oftener in one place and seldomer in another! 14

The molluscs also "reed in sprin$! Of the marine molluscs one of the first to "reed is the sepia! It spawns at all times of the day and its period of $estation is fifteen days! After the female has laid her e$$s, the male comes and dischar$es the milt over the e$$s, and the e$$s thereupon harden! And the two se&es of this animal $o a"out in pairs, side "y side and the male is more mottled and more "lack on the "ack than the female! The octopus pairs in winter and "reeds in sprin$, lyin$ hidden for a"out two months! Its spawn is shaped like a vine+tendril, and resem"les the fruit of the white poplar the creature is e&traordinarily prolific, for the num"er of individuals that come from the spawn is somethin$ incalcula"le! The male differs from the female in the fact that its head is lon$er, and that the or$an called "y the fishermen its penis, in the tentacle, is white! The female, after layin$ her e$$s, "roods over them, and in conse*uence $ets out of condition, "y reason of not $oin$ in *uest of food durin$ the hatchin$ period! The purple mure& "reeds a"out sprin$time, and the cery& at the close of the winter! And, as a $eneral rule, the testaceans are found to "e furnished with their so+called e$$s in sprin$+time and in autumn, with the e&ception of the edi"le urchin for this animal has the so+called e$$s in most a"undance in these seasons, "ut at no season is unfurnished with them and it is furnished with them in especial a"undance in warm weather or when a full moon is in the sky! Only, "y the way, these remarks do not apply to the sea+urchin

found in the Ayrrhaean #traits, for this urchin is at its "est for ta"le purposes in the winter and these urchins are small "ut full of e$$s! #nails are found "y o"servations to "ecome in all cases impre$nated a"out the same season! 16 ,Of "irds the wild species, as has "een stated, as a $eneral rule pair and "reed only once a year! The swallow, however, and the "lack"ird "reed twice! )ith re$ard to the "lack"ird, however, its first "rood is killed "y inclemency of weather ,for it is the earliest of all "irds to "reed-, "ut the second "rood it usually succeeds in rearin$! Birds that are domesticated or that are capa"le of domestication "reed fre*uently, (ust as the common pi$eon "reeds all throu$h the summer, and as is seen in the "arn+door hen for the "arn+door cock and hen have intercourse, and the hen "reeds, at all seasons alike: e&ceptin$ "y the way, durin$ the days a"out the winter solstice! Of the pi$eon family there are many diversities for the peristera or common pi$eon is not identical with the peleias or rock+pi$eon! In other words, the rock+pi$eon is smaller than the common pi$eon, and is less easily domesticated it is also "lack, and small, red+ footed and rou$h+footed and in conse*uence of these peculiarities it is ne$lected "y the pi$eon+fancier! The lar$est of all the pi$eon species is the phatta or rin$+dove and the ne&t in si3e is the oenas

or stock+dove and the stock+dove is a little lar$er than the common pi$eon! The smallest of all the species is the turtle+dove! Ai$eons "reed and hatch at all seasons, if they are furnished with a sunny place and all re*uisites unless they are so furnished, they "reed only in the summer! The sprin$ "rood is the "est, or the autumn "rood! At all events, without dou"t, the produce of the hot season, the summer "rood, is the poorest of the three!17 Further, animals differ from one another in re$ard to the time of life that is "est adapted for se&ual intercourse! To "e$in with, in most animals the secretion of the seminal fluid and its $enerative capacity are not phenomena simultaneously manifested, "ut manifested successively! Thus, in all animals, the earliest secretion of sperm is unfruitful, or if it "e fruitful the issue is comparatively poor and small! And this phenomenon is especially o"serva"le in man, in viviparous *uadrupeds, and in "irds for in the case of man and the *uadruped the offsprin$ is smaller, and in the case of the "ird, the e$$! For animals that copulate, of one and the same species, the a$e for maturity is in most species tolera"ly uniform, unless it occurs prematurely "y reason of a"normality, or is postponed "y physical in(ury! In man, then, maturity is indicated "y a chan$e of the tone of voice, "y an increase in si3e and an alteration in appearance of the

se&ual or$ans, as also in an increase of si3e and alteration in appearance of the "reasts and a"ove all, in the hair+$rowth at the pu"es! 0an "e$ins to possess seminal fluid a"out the a$e of fourteen, and "ecomes $eneratively capa"le at a"out the a$e of twenty+one years! In other animals there is no hair+$rowth at the pu"es ,for some animals have no hair at all, and others have none on the "elly, or less on the "elly than on the "ack-, "ut still, in some animals the chan$e of voice is *uite o"vious and in some animals other or$ans $ive indication of the commencin$ secretion of the sperm and the onset of $enerative capacity! As a $eneral rule the female is sharper+toned in voice than the male, and the youn$ animal than the elder for, "y the way, the sta$ has a much deeper+toned "ay than the hind! 0oreover, the male cries chiefly at ruttin$ time, and the female under terror and alarm and the cry of the female is short, and that of the male prolon$ed! )ith do$s also, as they $row old, the tone of the "ark $ets deeper! There is a difference o"serva"le also in the nei$hin$s of horses! That is to say, the female foal has a thin small nei$h, and the male foal a small nei$h, yet "i$$er and deeper+toned than that of the female, and a louder one as time $oes on! And when the youn$ male and female are two years old and take to "reedin$, the nei$hin$ of the stallion "ecomes loud and deep, and that of the mare louder and shriller than heretofore and this chan$e $oes on

until they reach the a$e of a"out twenty years and after this time the nei$hin$ in "oth se&es "ecomes weaker and weaker! As a rule, then, as was stated, the voice of the male differs from the voice of the female, in animals where the voice admits of a continuous and prolon$ed sound, in the fact that the note in the male voice is more deep and "ass not, however, in all animals, for the contrary holds $ood in the case of some, as for instance in kine: for here the cow has a deeper note than the "ull, and the calves a deeper note than the cattle! And we can thus understand the chan$e of voice in animals that under$o $eldin$ for male animals that under$o this process assume the characters of the female! The followin$ are the a$es at which various animals "ecome capacitated for se&ual commerce! The ewe and the she+$oat are se&ually mature when one year old, and this statement is made more confidently in respect to the she+$oat than to the ewe the ram and the he+$oat are se&ually mature at the same a$e! The pro$eny of very youn$ individuals amon$ these animals differs from that of other males: for the males improve in the course of the second year, when they "ecome fully mature! The "oar and the sow are capa"le of intercourse when ei$ht months old, and the female "rin$s forth when one year old, the difference correspondin$ to her period of $estation! The "oar is capa"le of $eneration when ei$ht months old, "ut, with a sire under a year in a$e, the litter is apt to "e a poor one! The a$es, however, are not invaria"le now and then the "oar and the sow are capa"le of intercourse when four months

old, and are capa"le of producin$ a litter which can "e reared when si& months old "ut at times the "oar "e$ins to "e capa"le of intercourse when ten months! He continues se&ually mature until he is three years old! The do$ and the "itch are, as a rule, se&ually capa"le and se&ually receptive when a year old, and sometimes when ei$ht months old "ut the priority in date is more common with the do$ than with the "itch! The period of $estation with the "itch is si&ty days, or si&ty+one, or si&ty+two, or si&ty+three at the utmost the period is never under si&ty days, or, if it is, the litter comes to no $ood! The "itch, after deliverin$ a litter, su"mits to the male in si& months, "ut not "efore! The horse and the mare are, at the earliest, se&ually capa"le and se&ually mature when two years old the issue, however, of parents of this a$e is small and poor! As a $eneral rule these animals are se&ually capa"le when three years old, and they $row "etter for "reedin$ purposes until they reach twenty years! The stallion is se&ually capa"le up to the a$e of thirty+three years, and the mare up to forty, so that, in point of fact, the animals are se&ually capa"le all their lives lon$ for the stallion, as a rule, lives for a"out thirty+five years, and the mare for a little over forty althou$h, "y the way, a horse has known to live to the a$e of seventy+five! The ass and the she+ass are se&ually capa"le when thirty months old "ut, as a rule, they are not $eneratively mature until they are three years old, or three years and a half! An instance has "een known of a she+ass "earin$ and "rin$in$ forth a foal when only a year old! A cow has "een known

to calve when only a year old, and the calf $rew as "i$ as mi$ht "e e&pected, "ut no more! #o much for the dates in time at which these animals attain to $enerative capacity! In the human species, the male is $enerative, at the lon$est, up to seventy years, and the female up to fifty "ut such e&tended periods are rare! As a rule, the male is $enerative up to the a$e of si&ty+ five, and to the a$e of forty+five the female is capa"le of conception! The ewe "ears up to ei$ht years, and, if she "e carefully tended, up to eleven years in fact, the ram and the ewe are se&ually capa"le pretty well all their lives lon$! He+$oats, if they "e fat, are more or less unservicea"le for "reedin$ and this, "y the way, is the reason why country folk say of a vine when it stops "earin$ that it is 'runnin$ the $oat%! However, if an over+fat he+$oat "e thinned down, he "ecomes se&ually capa"le and $enerative! Eams sin$le out the oldest ewes for copulation, and show no re$ard for the youn$ ones! And, as has "een stated, the issue of the youn$er ewes is poorer than that of the older ones! The "oar is $ood for "reedin$ purposes until he is three years of a$e "ut after that a$e his issue deteriorates, for after that a$e his vi$our is on the decline! The "oar is most capa"le after a $ood feed, and with the first sow it mounts if poorly fed or put to many females, the copulation is a""reviated, and the litter is comparatively poor! The first litter of the sow is the fewest in num"er at the second litter she is at her prime! The animal, as it

$rows old, continues to "reed, "ut the se&ual desire a"ates! )hen they reach fifteen years, they "ecome unproductive, and are $ettin$ old! If a sow "e hi$hly fed, it is all the more ea$er for se&ual commerce, whether old or youn$ "ut, if it "e over+fattened in pre$nancy, it $ives the less milk after parturition! )ith re$ard to the a$e of the parents, the litter is the "est when they are in their prime "ut with re$ard to the seasons of the year, the litter is the "est that comes at the "e$innin$ of winter and the summer litter the poorest, consistin$ as it usually does of animals small and thin and flaccid! The "oar, if it "e well fed, is se&ually capa"le at all hours, ni$ht and day "ut otherwise is peculiarly salacious early in the mornin$! As it $rows old the se&ual passion dies away, as we have already remarked! ;ery often a "oar, when more or less impotent from a$e or de"ility, findin$ itself una"le to accomplish the se&ual commerce with due speed, and $rowin$ fati$ued with the standin$ posture, will roll the sow over on the $round, and the pair will conclude the operation side "y side of one another! The sow is sure of conception if it drops its lu$s in ruttin$ time if the ears do not thus drop, it may have to rut a second time "efore impre$nation takes place! Bitches do not su"mit to the male throu$hout their lives, "ut only until they reach a certain maturity of years! As a $eneral rule, they are se&ually receptive and conceptive until they are twelve years old althou$h, "y the way, cases have "een known where do$s and "itches have "een respectively procreative and conceptive to the

a$es of ei$hteen and even of twenty years! But, as a rule, a$e diminishes the capa"ility of $eneration and of conception with these animals as with all others! The female of the camel is opisthuretic, and su"mits to the male in the way a"ove descri"ed and the season for copulation in Ara"ia is a"out the month of Octo"er! Its period of $estation is twelve months and it is never delivered of more than one foal at a time! The female "ecomes se&ually receptive and the male se&ually capa"le at the a$e of three years! After parturition, an interval of a year elapses "efore the female is a$ain receptive to the male! The female elephant "ecomes se&ually receptive when ten years old at the youn$est, and when fifteen at the oldest and the male is se&ually capa"le when five years old, or si&! The season for intercourse is sprin$! The male allows an interval of three years to elapse after commerce with a female: and, after it has once impre$nated a female, it has no intercourse with her a$ain! The period of $estation with the female is two years and only one youn$ animal is produced at a time, in other words it is uniparous! And the em"ryo is the si3e of a calf two or three months old! 19 #o much for the copulations of such animals as copulate! )e now proceed to treat of $eneration "oth with respect to copulatin$ and non+copulatin$ animals, and we shall commence

with discussin$ the su"(ect of $eneration in the case of the testaceans! The testacean is almost the only $enus that throu$hout all its species is non+copulative! The porphyrae, or purple murices, $ather to$ether to some one place in the sprin$+time, and deposit the so+called 'honeycom"%! This su"stance resem"les the com", only that it is not so neat and delicate and looks as thou$h a num"er of husks of white chick+ peas were all stuck to$ether! But none of these structures has any open passa$e, and the porphyra does not $row out of them, "ut these and all other testaceans $row out of mud and decayin$ matter! The su"stance, is, in fact, an e&cretion of the porphyra and the cery& for it is deposited "y the cery& as well! #uch, then, of the testaceans as deposit the honeycom" are $enerated spontaneously like all other testaceans, "ut they certainly come in $reater a"undance in places where their con$eners have "een livin$ previously! At the commencement of the process of depositin$ the honeycom", they throw off a slippery mucus, and of this the husklike formations are composed! These formations, then, all melt and deposit their contents on the $round, and at this spot there are found on the $round a num"er of minute porphyrae, and porphyrae are cau$ht at times with these animalculae upon them, some of which are too small to "e differentiated in form! If the porphyrae are cau$ht "efore producin$ this honey+com", they sometimes $o throu$h the process in fishin$+creels, not here and there in the

"askets, "ut $atherin$ to some one spot all to$ether, (ust as they do in the sea and owin$ to the narrowness of their new *uarters they cluster to$ether like a "unch of $rapes! There are many species of the purple mure& and some are lar$e, as those found off #i$eum and Bectum others are small, as those found in the 8uripus, and on the coast of .aria! And those that are found in "ays are lar$e and rou$h in most of them the peculiar "loom from which their name is derived is dark to "lackness, in others it is reddish and small in si3e some of the lar$e ones wei$h upwards of a mina apiece! But the specimens that are found alon$ the coast and on the rocks are small+si3ed, and the "loom in their case is of a reddish hue! Further, as a $eneral rule, in northern waters the "loom is "lackish, and in southern waters of a reddish hue! The mure& is cau$ht in the sprin$+time when en$a$ed in the construction of the honeycom" "ut it is not cau$ht at any time a"out the risin$ of the do$+star, for at that period it does not feed, "ut conceals itself and "urrows! The "loom of the animal is situated "etween the mecon ,or *uasi+liver- and the neck, and the co+attachment of these is an intimate one! In colour it looks like a white mem"rane, and this is what people e&tract and if it "e removed and s*uee3ed it stains your hand with the colour of the "loom! There is a kind of vein that runs throu$h it, and this *uasi+ vein would appear to "e in itself the "loom! And the *ualities, "y the way, of this or$an are astrin$ent! It is after the mure& has constructed the honeycom" that the "loom is at its worst! #mall

specimens they "reak in pieces, shells and all, for it is no easy matter to e&tract the or$an "ut in dealin$ with the lar$er ones they first strip off the shell and then a"stract the "loom! For this purpose the neck and mecon are separated, for the "loom lies in "etween them, a"ove the so+called stomach hence the necessity of separatin$ them in a"stractin$ the "loom! Fishermen are an&ious always to "reak the animal in pieces while it is yet alive, for, if it die "efore the process is completed, it vomits out the "loom and for this reason the fishermen keep the animals in creels, until they have collected a sufficient num"er and can attend to them at their leisure! Fishermen in past times used not to lower creels or attach them to the "ait, so that very often the animal $ot dropped off in the pullin$ up at present, however, they always attach a "asket, so that if the animal fall off it is not lost! The animal is more inclined to slip off the "ait if it "e full inside if it "e empty it is difficult to shake it off! #uch are the phenomena connected with the porphyra or mure&! The same phenomena are manifested "y the cery& or trumpet+shell and the seasons are the same in which the phenomena are o"serva"le! Both animals, also, the mure& and the cery&, have their opercula similarly situated+and, in fact, all the strom"oids, and this is con$enital with them all and they feed "y protrudin$ the so+ called ton$ue underneath the operculum! The ton$ue of the mure& is "i$$er than one%s fin$er, and "y means of it, it feeds, and perforates conchylia and the shells of its own kind! Both the mure&

and the cery& are lon$ lived! The mure& lives for a"out si& years and the yearly increase is indicated "y a distinct interval in the spiral convolution of the shell! The mussel also constructs a honeycom"! )ith re$ard to the limnostreae, or la$oon oysters, wherever you have slimy mud there you are sure to find them "e$innin$ to $row! .ockles and clams and ra3or+fishes and scallops row spontaneously in sandy places! The pinna $rows strai$ht up from its tuft of anchorin$ fi"res in sandy and slimy places these creatures have inside them a parasite nicknamed the pinna+$uard, in some cases a small carid and in other cases a little cra" if the pinna "e deprived of this pinna+$uard it soon dies! As a $eneral rule, then, all testaceans $row "y spontaneous $eneration in mud, differin$ from one another accordin$ to the differences of the material oysters $rowin$ in slime, and cockles and the other testaceans a"ove mentioned on sandy "ottoms and in the hollows of the rocks the ascidian and the "arnacle, and common sorts, such as the limpet and the nerites! All these animals $row with $reat rapidity, especially the mure& and the scallop for the mure& and the scallop attain their full $rowth in a year! In some of the testaceans white cra"s are found, very diminutive in si3e they are most numerous in the trou$h shaped mussel! In the pinna also is found the so+called pinna+$uard! They are found also in the scallop and in the oyster these parasites never appear to $row in si3e! Fishermen declare that the parasite is con$enital with the

lar$er animal! ,#callops "urrow for a time in the sand, like the mure&!,#hell+fish, then, $row in the way a"ove mentioned and some of them $row in shallow water, some on the sea+shore, some in rocky places, some on hard and stony $round, and some in sandy places!#ome shift a"out from place to place, others remain permanent on one spot! Of those that keep to one spot the pinnae are rooted to the $round the ra3or+fish and the clam keep to the same locality, "ut are not so rooted "ut still, if forci"ly removed they die! ,The star+fish is naturally so warm that whatever it lays hold of is found, when suddenly taken away from the animal, to have under$one a process like "oilin$! Fishermen say that the star+fish is a $reat pest in the #trait of Ayrrha! In shape it resem"les a star as seen in an ordinary drawin$! The so+called 'lun$s% are $enerated spontaneously! The shells that painters use are a $ood deal thicker, and the "loom is outside the shell on the surface! These creatures are mostly found on the coast of .aria!The hermit+cra" $rows spontaneously out of soil and slime, and finds its way into untenanted shells! As it $rows it shifts to a lar$er shell, as for instance into the shell of the nerites, or of the strom"us or the like, and very often into the shell of the small cery&! After enterin$ new shell, it carries it a"out, and "e$ins a$ain to feed, and, "y and "y, as it $rows, it shifts a$ain into another lar$er one! 1:

0oreover, the animals that are unfurnished with shells $row spontaneously, like the testaceans, as, for instance, the sea+nettles and the spon$es in rocky caves! Of the sea+nettle, or sea+anemone, there are two species and of these one species lives in hollows and never loosens its hold upon the rocks, and the other lives on smooth flat reefs, free and detached, and shifts its position from time to time! ,Bimpets also detach themselves, and shift from place to place!In the cham"ered cavities of spon$es pinna+$uards or parasites are found! And over the cham"ers there is a kind of spider%s we", "y the openin$ and closin$ of which they catch mute fishes that is to say, they open the we" to let the fish $et in, and close it a$ain to entrap them! Of spon$es there are three species the first is of loose porous te&ture, the second is close te&tured, the third, which is nicknamed 'the spon$e of Achilles%, is e&ceptionally fine and close+te&tured and stron$! This spon$e is used as a linin$ to helmets and $reaves, for the purpose of deadenin$ the sound of the "low and this is a very scarce species! Of the close te&tured spon$es such as are particularly hard and rou$h are nicknamed '$oats%! #pon$es $row spontaneously either attached to a rock or on sea+ "eaches, and they $et their nutriment in slime: a proof of this statement is the fact that when they are first secured they are found to "e full of slime! This is characteristic of all livin$ creatures that $et their nutriment "y close local attachment! And, "y the way, the

close+te&tured spon$es are weaker than the more openly porous ones "ecause their attachment e&tends over a smaller area! It is said that the spon$e is sensitive and as a proof of this statement they say that if the spon$e is made aware of an attempt "ein$ made to pluck it from its place of attachment it draws itself to$ether, and it "ecomes a difficult task to detach it! It makes a similar contractile movement in windy and "oisterous weather, o"viously with the o"(ect of ti$htenin$ its hold! #ome persons e&press dou"ts as to the truth of this assertion as, for instance, the people of Torone! The spon$e "reeds parasites, worms, and other creatures, on which, if they "e detached, the rock+fishes prey, as they prey also on the remainin$ stumps of the spon$e "ut, if the spon$e "e "roken off, it $rows a$ain from the remainin$ stump and the place is soon as well covered as "efore! The lar$est of all spon$es are the loose+te&tured ones, and these are peculiarly a"undant on the coast of Bycia! The softest are the close+te&tured spon$es for, "y the way, the so+called spon$es of Achilles are harder than these! As a $eneral rule, spon$es that are found in deep calm waters are the softest for usually windy and stormy weather has a tendency to harden them ,as it has to harden all similar $rowin$ thin$s-, and to arrest their $rowth! And this accounts for the fact that the spon$es found in the Hellespont are rou$h and close+te&tured and, as a $eneral rule, spon$es found "eyond or inside .ape 0alea are, respectively, comparatively soft

or comparatively hard! But, "y the way, the ha"itat of the spon$e should not "e too sheltered and warm, for it has a tendency to decay, like all similar ve$eta"le+like $rowths! And this accounts for the fact that the spon$e is at its "est when found in deep water close to shore for owin$ to the depth of the water they en(oy shelter alike from stormy winds and from e&cessive heat! )hilst they are still alive and "efore they are washed and cleaned, they are "lackish in colour! Their attachment is not made at one particular spot, nor is it made all over their "odies for vacant pore+ spaces intervene! There is a kind of mem"rane stretched over the under parts and in the under parts the points of attachment are the more numerous! On the top most of the pores are closed, "ut four or five are open and visi"le and we are told "y some that it is throu$h these pores that the animal takes its food! There is a particular species that is named the 'aplysia% or the 'unwasha"le%, from the circumstance that it cannot "e cleaned! This species has the lar$e open and visi"le pores, "ut all the rest of the "ody is close+te&tured and, if it "e dissected, it is found to "e closer and more $lutinous than the ordinary spon$e, and, in a word, somethin$ lun$ like in consistency! And, on all hands, it is allowed that this species is sensitive and lon$+lived! They are distin$uished in the sea from ordinary spon$es from the circumstance that the ordinary spon$es are white while the slime is in them, "ut that these spon$es are under any circumstances "lack!

And so much with re$ard to spon$es and to $eneration in the testaceans! 1< Of crustaceans, the female crawfish after copulation conceives and retains its e$$s for a"out three months, from a"out the middle of 0ay to a"out the middle of Au$ust they then lay the e$$s into the folds underneath the "elly, and their e$$s $row like $ru"s! This same phenomenon is o"serva"le in molluscs also, and in such fishes as are oviparous for in all these cases the e$$ continues to $row! The spawn of the crawfish is of a loose or $ranular consistency, and is divided into ei$ht parts for correspondin$ to each of the flaps on the side there is a $ristly formation to which the spawn is attached, and the entire structure resem"les a cluster of $rapes for each $ristly formation is split into several parts! This is o"vious enou$h if you draw the parts asunder "ut at first si$ht the whole appears to "e one and indivisi"le! And the lar$est are not those nearest to the outlet "ut those in the middle, and the farthest off are the smallest! The si3e of the small e$$s is that of a small seed in a fi$ and they are not *uite close to the outlet, "ut placed middleways for at "oth ends, tailwards and trunkwards, there are two intervals devoid of e$$s for it is thus that the flaps also $row! The side flaps, then, cannot close, "ut "y placin$ the end flap on them the animal can close up all, and this end+flap serves them for

a lid! And in the act of layin$ its e$$s it seems to "rin$ them towards the $ristly formations "y curvin$ the flap of its tail, and then, s*uee3in$ the e$$s towards the said $ristly formations and maintainin$ a "ent posture, it performs the act of layin$! The $ristly formations at these seasons increase in si3e and "ecome receptive of the e$$s for the animal lays its e$$s into these formations, (ust as the sepia lays its e$$s amon$ twi$s and driftwood! It lays its e$$s, then, in this manner, and after hatchin$ them for a"out twenty days it rids itself of them all in one solid lump, as is *uite plain from outside! And out of these e$$s crawfish form in a"out fifteen days, and these crawfish are cau$ht at times less then a fin$er%s "readth, or seven+tenths of an inch, in len$th! The animal, then, lays its e$$s "efore the middle of #eptem"er, and after the middle of that month throws off its e$$s in a lump! )ith the humped carids or prawns the time for $estation is four months or therea"outs! .rawfish are found in rou$h and rocky places, lo"sters in smooth places, and neither crawfish nor lo"sters are found in muddy ones and this accounts for the fact that lo"sters are found in the Hellespont and on the coast of Thasos, and crawfish in the nei$h"ourhood of #i$eum and 0ount Athos! Fishermen, accordin$ly, when they want to catch these various creatures out at sea, take "earin$s on the "each and elsewhere that tell them where the $round at the "ottom is stony and where soft with slime! In

winter and sprin$ these animals keep in near to land, in summer they keep in deep water thus at various times seekin$ respectively for warmth or coolness! The so+called arctus or "ear+cra" lays its e$$s at a"out the same time as the crawfish and conse*uently in winter and in the sprin$+ time, "efore layin$ their e$$s, they are at their "est, and after layin$ at their worst! They cast their shell in the sprin$+time ,(ust as serpents shed their so+called 'old+a$e% or slou$h-, "oth directly after "irth and in later life this is true "oth of cra"s and crawfish! And, "y the way, all crawfish are lon$ lived! 1= 0olluscs, after pairin$ and copulation, lay a white spawn and this spawn, as in the case of the testacean, $ets $ranular in time! The octopus dischar$es into its hole, or into a potsherd or into any similar cavity, a structure resem"lin$ the tendrils of a youn$ vine or the fruit of the white poplar, as has "een previously o"served! The e$$s, when the female has laid them, are clustered round the sides of the hole! They are so numerous that, if they "e removed they suffice to fill a vessel much lar$er than the animal%s "ody in which they were contained! #ome fifty days later, the e$$s "urst and the little polypuses creep out, like little spiders, in $reat num"ers the characteristic form of their lim"s is not yet to "e discerned in detail, "ut their $eneral outline is clear enou$h! And,

"y the way, they are so small and helpless that the $reater num"er perish it is a fact that they have "een seen so e&tremely minute as to "e a"solutely without or$ani3ation, "ut nevertheless when touched they moved! The e$$s of the sepia look like "i$ "lack myrtle+"erries, and they are linked all to$ether like a "unch of $rapes, clustered round a centre, and are not easily sundered from one another: for the male e&udes over them some moist $lairy stuff, which constitutes the sticky $um! These e$$s increase in si3e and they are white at the outset, "ut "lack and lar$er after the sprinklin$ of the male seminal fluid! )hen it has come into "ein$ the youn$ sepia is first distinctly formed inside out of the white su"stance, and when the e$$ "ursts it comes out! The inner part is formed as soon as the female lays the e$$, somethin$ like a hail+stone and out of this su"stance the youn$ sepia $rows "y a head+attachment, (ust as youn$ "irds $row "y a "elly+attachment! )hat is the e&act nature of the navel+ attachment has not yet "een o"served, e&cept that as the youn$ sepia $rows the white su"stance $rows less and less in si3e, and at len$th, as happens with the yolk in the case of "irds, the white su"stance in the case of the youn$ sepia disappears! In the case of the youn$ sepia, as in the case of the youn$ of most animals, the eyes at first seem very lar$e! To illustrate this "y way of a fi$ure, let A represent the ovum, B and . the eyes, and / the sepidium, or "ody of the little sepia! ,#ee dia$ram!-

The female sepia $oes pre$nant in the sprin$+time, and lays its e$$s after fifteen days of $estation after the e$$s are laid there comes in another fifteen days somethin$ like a "unch of $rapes, and at the "urstin$ of these the youn$ sepiae issue forth! But if, when the youn$ ones are fully formed, you sever the outer coverin$ a moment too soon, the youn$ creatures e(ect e&crement, and their colour chan$es from white to red in their alarm! .rustaceans, then, hatch their e$$s "y "roodin$ over them as they carry them a"out "eneath their "odies "ut the octopus, the sepia, and the like hatch their e$$s without stirrin$ from the spot where they may have laid them, and this statement is particularly applica"le to the sepia in fact, the nest of the female sepia is often seen e&posed to view close in to shore! The female octopus at times sits "roodin$ over her e$$s, and at other times s*uats in front of her hole, stretchin$ out her tentacles on $uard! The sepia lays her spawn near to land in the nei$h"ourhood of sea+ weed or reeds or any off+sweepin$s such as "rushwood, twi$s, or stones and fishermen place heaps of fa$$ots here and there on purpose, and on to such heaps the female deposits a lon$ continuous roe in shape like a vine tendril! It lays or spirts out the spawn with an effort, as thou$h there were difficulty in the process! The female calamary spawns at sea and it emits the spawn, as does the sepia, in the mass!

The calamary and the cuttle+fish are short+lived, as, with few e&ceptions, they never see the year out and the same statement is applica"le to the octopus! From one sin$le e$$ comes one sin$le sepia and this is likewise true of the youn$ calamary! The male calamary differs from the female for if its $ill+re$ion "e dilated and e&amined there are found two red formations resem"lin$ "reasts, with which the male is unprovided! In the sepia, apart from this distinction in the se&es, the male, as has "een stated, is more mottled than the female! 1> )ith re$ard to insects, that the male is less than the female and that he mounts upon her "ack, and how he performs the act of copulation and the circumstance that he $ives over reluctantly, all this has already "een set forth, most cases of insect copulation this process is speedily followed up "y parturition! All insects en$ender $ru"s, with the e&ception of a species of "utterfly and the female of this species lays a hard e$$, resem"lin$ the seed of the cnecus, with a (uice inside it! But from the $ru", the youn$ animal does not $row out of a mere portion of it, as a youn$ animal $rows from a portion only of an e$$, "ut the $ru" entire $rows and the animal "ecomes differentiated out of it! And of insects some are derived from insect con$eners, as the venom+spider and the common+spider from the venom+spider and

the common+spider, and so with the attela"us or locust, the acris or $rasshopper, and the tetti& or cicada! Other insects are not derived from livin$ parenta$e, "ut are $enerated spontaneously: some out of dew fallin$ on leaves, ordinarily in sprin$+time, "ut not seldom in winter when there has "een a stretch of fair weather and southerly winds others $row in decayin$ mud or dun$ others in tim"er, $reen or dry some in the hair of animals some in the flesh of animals some in e&crements: and some from e&crement after it has "een voided, and some from e&crement yet within the livin$ animal, like the helminthes or intestinal worms! And of these intestinal worms there are three species: one named the flat+worm, another the round worm, and the third the ascarid! These intestinal worms do not in any case propa$ate their kind! The flat+worm, however, in an e&ceptional way, clin$s fast to the $ut, and lays a thin$ like a melon+seed, "y o"servin$ which indication the physician concludes that his patient is trou"led with the worm! The so+called psyche or "utterfly is $enerated from caterpillars which $row on $reen leaves, chiefly leaves of the raphanus, which some call cram"e or ca""a$e! At first it is less than a $rain of millet it then $rows into a small $ru" and in three days it is a tiny caterpillar! After this it $rows on and on, and "ecomes *uiescent and chan$es its shape, and is now called a chrysalis! The outer shell is hard, and the chrysalis moves if you touch it! It attaches itself "y co"we"+like filaments, and is unfurnished with mouth or any other apparent or$an! After a little while the outer coverin$

"ursts asunder, and out flies the win$ed creature that we call the psyche or "utterfly! At first, when it is a caterpillar, it feeds and e(ects e&crement "ut when it turns into the chrysalis it neither feeds nor e(ects e&crement! The same remarks are applica"le to all such insects as are developed out of the $ru", "oth such $ru"s as are derived from the copulation of livin$ animals and such as are $enerated without copulation on the part of parents! For the $ru" of the "ee, the anthrena, and the wasp, whilst it is youn$, takes food and voids e&crement "ut when it has passed from the $ru" shape to its defined form and "ecome what is termed a 'nympha%, it ceases to take food and to void e&crement, and remains ti$htly wrapped up and motionless until it has reached its full si3e, when it "reaks the formation with which the cell is closed, and issues forth! The insects named the hypera and the penia are derived from similar caterpillars, which move in an undulatory way, pro$ressin$ with one part and then pullin$ up the hinder parts "y a "end of the "ody! The developed insect in each case takes its peculiar colour from the parent caterpillar! From one particular lar$e $ru", which has as it were horns, and in other respects differs from $ru"s in $eneral, there comes, "y a metamorphosis of the $ru", first a caterpillar, then the cocoon, then the necydalus and the creature passes throu$h all these transformations within si& months! A class of women unwind and reel off the cocoons of these creatures, and afterwards weave a

fa"ric with the threads thus unwound a .oan woman of the name of Aamphila, dau$hter of Alateus, "ein$ credited with the first invention of the fa"ric! After the same fashion the cara"us or sta$+ "eetle comes from $ru"s that live in dry wood: at first the $ru" is motionless, "ut after a while the shell "ursts and the sta$+"eetle issues forth! From the ca""a$e is en$endered the ca""a$eworm, and from the leek the prasocuris or leek"ane this creature is also win$ed! From the flat animalcule that skims over the surface of rivers comes the oestrus or $adfly and this accounts for the fact that $adflies most a"ound in the nei$h"ourhood of waters on whose surface these animalcules are o"served! From a certain small, "lack and hairy caterpillar comes first a win$less $low+worm and this creature a$ain suffers a metamorphosis, and transforms into a win$ed insect named the "ostrychus ,or hair+curl-! 2nats $row from ascarids and ascarids are en$endered in the slime of wells, or in places where there is a deposit left "y the drainin$ off of water! This slime decays, and first turns white, then "lack, and finally "lood+red and at this sta$e there ori$inate in it, as it were, little tiny "its of red weed, which at first wri$$le a"out all clin$in$ to$ether, and finally "reak loose and swim in the water, and are hereupon known as ascarids! After a few days they stand strai$ht up on the water motionless and hard, and "y and "y the husk "reaks off and the $nats are seen sittin$ upon it, until the

sun%s heat or a puff of wind sets them in motion, when they fly away! )ith all $ru"s and all animals that "reak out from the $ru" state, $eneration is due primarily to the heat of the sun or to wind! Ascarids are more likely to "e found, and $row with unusual rapidity, in places where there is a deposit of a mi&ed and hetero$eneous kind, as in kitchens and in plou$hed fields, for the contents of such places are disposed to rapid putrefaction! In autumn, also, owin$ to the dryin$ up of moisture, they $row in unusual num"ers! The tick is $enerated from couch+$rass! The cockchafer comes from a $ru" that is $enerated in the dun$ of the cow or the ass! The cantharus or scara"eus rolls a piece of dun$ into a "all, lies hidden within it durin$ the winter, and $ives "irth therein to small $ru"s, from which $ru"s come new canthari! .ertain win$ed insects also come from the $ru"s that are found in pulse, in the same fashion as in the cases descri"ed! Flies $row from $ru"s in the dun$ that farmers have $athered up into heaps: for those who are en$a$ed in this work assiduously $ather up the compost, and this they technically term 'workin$+up% the manure! The $ru" is e&ceedin$ly minute to "e$in with first even at this sta$e+it assumes a reddish colour, and then from a *uiescent state it takes on the power of motion, as thou$h "orn to it it then "ecomes a small motionless $ru" it then moves a$ain, and a$ain relapses into immo"ility it then comes out a perfect fly,

and moves away under the influence of the sun%s heat or of a puff of air! The myops or horse+fly is en$endered in tim"er! The orsodacna or "ud"ane is a transformed $ru" and this $ru" is en$endered in ca""a$e+stalks! The cantharis comes from the caterpillars that are found on fi$+trees or pear+trees or fir+treesI for on all these $ru"s are en$endered+and also from caterpillars found on the do$+rose and the cantharis takes ea$erly to ill+ scented su"stances, from the fact of its havin$ "een en$endered in ill+scented woods! The conops comes from a $ru" that is en$endered in the slime of vine$ar! And, "y the way, livin$ animals are found in su"stances that are usually supposed to "e incapa"le of putrefaction for instance, worms are found in lon$+lyin$ snow and snow of this description $ets reddish in colour, and the $ru" that is en$endered in it is red, as mi$ht have "een e&pected, and it is also hairy! The $ru"s found in the snows of 0edia are lar$e and white and all such $ru"s are little disposed to motion! In .yprus, in places where copper+ore is smelted, with heaps of the ore piled on day after day, an animal is en$endered in the fire, somewhat lar$er than a "lue "ottle fly, furnished with win$s, which can hop or crawl throu$h the fire! And the $ru"s and these latter animals perish when you keep the one away from the fire and the other from the snow! 5ow the salamander is a clear case in point, to show us that animals do actually e&ist that fire cannot destroy for this creature, so the story $oes, not only walks throu$h the fire "ut puts it out in doin$ so!

On the river Hypanis in the .immerian Bosphorus, a"out the time of the summer solstice, there are "rou$ht down towards the sea "y the stream what look like little sacks rather "i$$er than $rapes, out of which at their "urstin$ issues a win$ed *uadruped! The insect lives and flies a"out until the evenin$, "ut as the sun $oes down it pines away, and dies at sunset havin$ lived (ust one day, from which circumstance it is called the ephemeron! As a rule, insects that come from caterpillars and $ru"s are held at first "y filaments resem"lin$ the threads of a spider%s we"! #uch is the mode of $eneration of the insects a"ove enumerated! "ut if the latter impre$nation takes placedurin$ the chan$e of the yellow 4@ The wasps that are nicknamed 'the ichneumons% ,or hunters-, less in si3e, "y the way, than the ordinary wasp, kill spiders and carry off the dead "odies to a wall or some such place with a hole in it this hole they smear over with mud and lay their $ru"s inside it, and from the $ru"s come the hunter+wasps! #ome of the coleoptera and of the small and nameless insects make small holes or cells of mud on a wall or on a $rave+stone, and there deposit their $ru"s! )ith insects, as a $eneral rule, the time of $eneration from its commencement to its completion comprises three or four weeks! )ith $ru"s and $ru"+like creatures the time is usually three weeks, and in the oviparous insects as a rule four! But, in the case of

oviparous insects, the e$$+formation comes at the close of seven days from copulation, and durin$ the remainin$ three weeks the parent "roods over and hatches its youn$ i!e! where this is the result of copulation, as in the case of the spider and its con$eners! As a rule, the transformations take place in intervals of three or four days, correspondin$ to the len$ths of interval at which the crises recur in intermittent fevers! #o much for the $eneration of insects! Their death is due to the shrivellin$ of their or$ans, (ust as the lar$er animals die of old a$e! )in$ed insects die in autumn from the shrinkin$ of their win$s! The myops dies from dropsy in the eyes! 41 )ith re$ard to the $eneration of "ees different hypotheses are in vo$ue! #ome affirm that "ees neither copulate nor $ive "irth to youn$, "ut that they fetch their youn$! And some say that they fetch their youn$ from the flower of the callyntrum others assert that they "rin$ them from the flower of the reed, others, from the flower of the olive! And in respect to the olive theory, it is stated as a proof that, when the olive harvest is most a"undant, the swarms are most numerous! Others declare that they fetch the "rood of the drones from such thin$s as a"ove mentioned, "ut that the workin$ "ees are en$endered "y the rulers of the hive! 5ow of these rulers there are two kinds: the "etter kind is red in colour, the inferior kind is "lack and varie$ated the ruler is dou"le

the si3e of the workin$ "ee! These rulers have the a"domen or part "elow the waist half as lar$e a$ain, and they are called "y some the 'mothers%, from an idea that they "ear or $enerate the "ees and, as a proof of this theory of their motherhood, they declare that the "rood of the drones appears even when there is no ruler+"ee in the hive, "ut that the "ees do not appear in his a"sence! Others, a$ain, assert that these insects copulate, and that the drones are male and the "ees female! The ordinary "ee is $enerated in the cells of the com", "ut the ruler+"ees in cells down "elow attached to the com", suspended from it, apart from the rest, si& or seven in num"er, and $rowin$ in a way *uite different from the mode of $rowth of the ordinary "rood! Bees are provided with a stin$, "ut the drones are not so provided! The rulers are provided with stin$s, "ut they never use them and this latter circumstance will account for the "elief of some people that they have no stin$s at all! 44 Of "ees there are various species! The "est kind is a little round mottled insect another is lon$, and resem"les the anthrena a third is a "lack and flat+"ellied, and is nick+named the 'ro""er% a fourth kind is the drone, the lar$est of all, "ut stin$less and inactive! And this proportionate si3e of the drone e&plains why some "ee+masters

place a net+work in front of the hives for the network is put to keep the "i$ drones out while it lets the little "ees $o in! Of the kin$ "ees there are, as has "een stated, two kinds! In every hive there are more kin$s than one and a hive $oes to ruin if there "e too few kin$s, not "ecause of anarchy there"y ensuin$, "ut, as we are told, "ecause these creatures contri"ute in some way to the $eneration of the common "ees! A hive will $o also to ruin if there "e too lar$e a num"er of kin$s in it for the mem"ers of the hives are there"y su"divided into too many separate factions! )henever the sprin$+time is late a+comin$, and when there is drou$ht and mildew, then the pro$eny of the hive is small in num"er! But when the weather is dry they attend to the honey, and in rainy weather their attention is concentrated on the "rood and this will account for the coincidence of rich olive+harvests and a"undant swarms! The "ees first work at the honeycom", and then put the pupae in it: "y the mouth, say those who hold the theory of their "rin$in$ them from elsewhere! After puttin$ in the pupae they put in the honey for su"sistence, and this they do in the summer and autumn and, "y the way, the autumn honey is the "etter of the two! The honeycom" is made from flowers, and the materials for the wa& they $ather from the resinous $um of trees, while honey is distilled from dew, and is deposited chiefly at the risin$s of the constellations or when a rain"ow is in the sky: and as a $eneral rule there is no honey "efore the risin$ of the Aleiads! ,The "ee,

then, makes the wa& from flowers! The honey, however, it does not make, "ut merely $athers what is deposited out of the atmosphere and as a proof of this statement we have the known fact that occasionally "ee+keepers find the hives filled with honey within the space of two or three days! Furthermore, in autumn flowers are found, "ut honey, if it "e withdrawn, is not replaced now, after the withdrawal of the ori$inal honey, when no food or very little is in the hives, there would "e a fresh stock of honey, if the "ees made it from flowers!- Honey, if allowed to ripen and mature, $athers consistency for at first it is like water and remains li*uid for several days! If it "e drawn off durin$ these days it has no consistency "ut it attains consistency in a"out twenty days! The taste of thyme+honey is discerni"le at once, from its peculiar sweetness and consistency! The "ee $athers from every flower that is furnished with a caly& or cup, and from all other flowers that are sweet+tasted, without doin$ in(ury to any fruit and the (uices of the flowers it takes up with the or$an that resem"les a ton$ue and carries off to the hive! #warms are ro""ed of their honey on the appearance of the wild fi$! They produce the "est larvae at the time the honey is a+makin$! The "ee carries wa& and "ees% "read round its le$s, "ut vomits the honey into the cell! After depositin$ its youn$, it "roods over it like a "ird! The $ru" when it is small lies slantwise in the com", "ut "y and "y rises up strai$ht "y an effort of its own and takes food, and holds on so ti$htly to the honeycom" as actually to clin$ to it!

The youn$ of "ees and of drones is white, and from the youn$ come the $ru"s and the $ru"s $row into "ees and drones! The e$$ of the kin$ "ee is reddish in colour, and its su"stance is a"out as consistent as thick honey and from the first it is a"out as "i$ as the "ee that is produced from it! From the youn$ of the kin$ "ee there is no intermediate sta$e, it is said, of the $ru", "ut the "ee comes at once! )henever the "ee lays an e$$ in the com" there is always a drop of honey set a$ainst it! The larva of the "ee $ets feet and win$s as soon as the cell has "een stopped up with wa&, and when it arrives at its completed form it "reaks its mem"rane and flies away! It e(ects e&crement in the $ru" state, "ut not afterwards that is, not until it has $ot out of the encasin$ mem"rane, as we have already descri"ed! If you remove the heads from off the larvae "efore the comin$ of the win$s, the "ees will eat them up and if you nip off the win$s from a drone and let it $o, the "ees will spontaneously "ite off the win$s from off all the remainin$ drones! The "ee lives for si& years as a rule, as an e&ception for seven years! If a swarm lasts for nine years, or ten, $reat credit is considered due to its mana$ement! In Aontus are found "ees e&ceedin$ly white in colour, and these "ees produce their honey twice a month! ,The "ees in Themiscyra, on the "anks of the river Thermodon, "uild honeycom"s in the $round and in hives, and these honeycom"s are furnished with very little wa& "ut with honey of $reat consistency and the

honeycom", "y the way, is smooth and level!- But this is not always the case with these "ees, "ut only in the winter season for in Aontus the ivy is a"undant, and it flowers at this time of the year, and it is from the ivy+flower that they derive their honey! A white and very consistent honey is "rou$ht down from the upper country to Amisus, which is deposited "y "ees on trees without the employment of honeycom"s: and this kind of honey is produced in other districts in Aontus! There are "ees also that construct triple honeycom"s in the $round and these honeycom"s supply honey "ut never contain $ru"s! But the honeycom"s in these places are not all of this sort, nor do all the "ees construct them! 46 Anthrenae and wasps construct com"s for their youn$! )hen they have no kin$, "ut are wanderin$ a"out in search of one, the anthrene constructs its com" on some hi$h place, and the wasp inside a hole! )hen the anthrene and the wasp have a kin$, they construct their com"s under$round! Their com"s are in all cases he&a$onal like the com" of the "ee! They are composed, however, not of wa&, "ut of a "ark+like filamented fi"re, and the com" of the anthrene is much neater than the com" of the wasp! Bike the "ee, they put their youn$ (ust like a drop of li*uid on to the side of the cell, and the e$$ clin$s to the wall of the cell! But the e$$s are not deposited in the cells simultaneously on the contrary, in some

cells are creatures "i$ enou$h to fly, in others are nymphae, and in others are mere $ru"s! As in the case of "ees, e&crement is o"served only in the cells where the $ru"s are found! As lon$ as the creatures are in the nymph condition they are motionless, and the cell is cemented over! In the com" of the anthrene there is found in the cell of the youn$ a drop of honey in front of it! The larvae of the anthrene and the wasp make their appearance not in the sprin$ "ut in the autumn and their $rowth is especially discerni"le in times of full moon! And, "y the way, the e$$s and the $ru"s never rest at the "ottom of the cells, "ut always clin$ on to the side wall! 47 There is a kind of hum"le+"ee that "uilds a cone+shaped nest of clay a$ainst a stone or in some similar situation, "esmearin$ the clay with somethin$ like spittle! And this nest or hive is e&ceedin$ly thick and hard in point of fact, one can hardly "reak it open with a spike! Here the insects lay their e$$s, and white $ru"s are produced wrapped in a "lack mem"rane! Apart from the mem"rane there is found some wa& in the honeycom" and this a wa& is much sallower in hue than the wa& in the honeycom" of the "ee! 49

Ants copulate and en$ender $ru"s

and these $ru"s attach

themselves to nothin$ in particular, "ut $row on and on from small and rounded shapes until they "ecome elon$ated and defined in shape: and they are en$endered in sprin$+time! 4: The land+scorpion also lays a num"er of e$$ shaped $ru"s, and "roods over them! )hen the hatchin$ is completed, the parent animal, as happens with the parent spider, is e(ected and put to death "y the youn$ ones for very often the youn$ ones are a"out eleven in num"er! 4< #piders in all cases copulate in the way a"ove mentioned, and $enerate at first small $ru"s! And these $ru"s metamorphose in their entirety, and not partially, into spiders for, "y the way, the $ru"s are round+shaped at the outset! And the spider, when it lays its e$$s, "roods over them, and in three days the e$$s or $ru"s take definite shape! All spiders lay their e$$s in a we" "ut some spiders lay in a small and fine we", and others in a thick one and some, as a rule, lay in a round+shaped case or capsule, and some are only partially enveloped in the we"! The youn$ $ru"s are not all developed at one and the same time into youn$ spiders "ut the moment the development takes place, the youn$ spider makes a leap and "e$ins

to spin his we"! The (uice of the $ru", if you s*uee3e it, is the same as the (uice found in the spider when youn$ that is to say, it is thick and white! The meadow spider lays its e$$s into a we", one half of which is attached to itself and the other half is free and on this the parent "roods until the e$$s are hatched! The phalan$ia lay their e$$s in a sort of stron$ "asket which they have woven, and "rood over it until the e$$s are hatched! The smooth spider is much less prolific than the phalan$ium or hairy spider! These phalan$ia, when they $row to full si3e, very often envelop the mother phalan$ium and e(ect and kill her and not seldom they kill the father+phalan$ium as well, if they catch him: for, "y the way, he has the ha"it of co+ operatin$ with the mother in the hatchin$! The "rood of a sin$le phalan$ium is sometimes three hundred in num"er! The spider attains its full $rowth in a"out four weeks! 4= 2rasshoppers ,or locusts- copulate in the same way as other insects that is to say, with the lesser coverin$ the lar$er, for the male is smaller than the female! The females first insert the hollow tu"e, which they have at their tails, in the $round, and then lay their e$$s: and the male, "y the way, is not furnished with this tu"e! The females lay their e$$s all in a lump to$ether, and in one spot, so that the entire lump of e$$s resem"les a honeycom"! After they have laid their e$$s, the e$$s assume the shape of oval $ru"s

that are enveloped "y a sort of thin clay, like a mem"rane in this mem"rane+like formation they $row on to maturity! The larva is so soft that it collapses at a touch! The larva is not placed on the surface of the $round, "ut a little "eneath the surface and, when it reaches maturity, it comes out of its clayey investiture in the shape of a little "lack $rasshopper "y and "y, the skin inte$ument strips off, and it $rows lar$er and lar$er! The $rasshopper lays its e$$s at the close of summer, and dies after layin$ them! The fact is that, at the time of layin$ the e$$s, $ru"s are en$endered in the re$ion of the mother $rasshopper%s neck and the male $rasshoppers die a"out the same time! In sprin$+time they come out of the $round and, "y the way, no $rasshoppers are found in mountainous land or in poor land, "ut only in flat and loamy land, for the fact is they lay their e$$s in cracks of the soil! /urin$ the winter their e$$s remain in the $round and with the comin$ of summer the last year%s larva develops into the perfect $rasshopper! 4> The attela"i or locusts lay their e$$s and die in like manner after layin$ them! Their e$$s are su"(ect to destruction "y the autumn rains, when the rains are unusually heavy "ut in seasons of drou$ht the locusts are e&ceedin$ly numerous, from the a"sence of any destructive cause, since their destruction seems then to "e a matter of accident and to depend on luck!

6@ Of the cicada there are two kinds one, small in si3e, the first to come and the last to disappear the other, lar$e, the sin$in$ one that comes last and first disappears! Both in the small and the lar$e species some are divided at the waist, to wit, the sin$in$ ones, and some are undivided and these latter have no son$! The lar$e and sin$in$ cicada is "y some desi$nated the 'chirper%, and the small cicada the 'tetti$onium% or cicadelle! And, "y the way, such of the tetti$onia as are divided at the waist can sin$ (ust a little! The cicada is not found where there are no trees and this accounts for the fact that in the district surroundin$ the city of .yrene it is not found at all in the plain country, "ut is found in $reat num"ers in the nei$h"ourhood of the city, and especially where olive+trees are $rowin$: for an olive $rove is not thickly shaded! And the cicada is not found in cold places, and conse*uently is not found in any $rove that keeps out the sunli$ht! The lar$e and the small cicada copulate alike, "elly to "elly! The male dischar$es sperm into the female, as is the case with insects in $eneral, and the female cicada has a cleft $enerative or$an and it is the female into which the male dischar$es the sperm! They lay their e$$s in fallow lands, "orin$ a hole with the pointed or$an they carry in the rear, as do the locusts likewise for the locust lays its e$$s in untilled lands, and this fact may account for their num"ers in the territory ad(acent to the city of .yrene! The cicadae also lay their e$$s in the canes on which hus"andmen prop

vines, perforatin$ the canes and also in the stalks of the s*uill! This "rood runs into the $round! And they are most numerous in rainy weather! The $ru", on attainin$ full si3e in the $round, "ecomes a tetti$ometra ,or nymph-, and the creature is sweetest to the taste at this sta$e "efore the husk is "roken! )hen the summer solstice comes, the creature issues from the husk at ni$ht+time, and in a moment, as the husk "reaks, the larva "ecomes the perfect cicada! creature, also, at once turns "lack in colour and harder and lar$er, and takes to sin$in$! In "oth species, the lar$er and the smaller, it is the male that sin$s, and the female that is unvocal! At first, the males are the sweeter eatin$ "ut, after copulation, the females, as they are full then of white e$$s! If you make a sudden noise as they are flyin$ overhead they let drop somethin$ like water! .ountry people, in re$ard to this, say that they are voidin$ urine, ie! that they have an e&crement, and that they feed upon dew! If you present your fin$er to a cicada and "end "ack the tip of it and then e&tend it a$ain, it will endure the presentation more *uietly than if you were to keep your fin$er outstretched alto$ether and it will set to clim"in$ your fin$er: for the creature is so weak+si$hted that it will take to clim"in$ your fin$er as thou$h that were a movin$ leaf! 61

Of insects that are not carnivorous "ut that live on the (uices of livin$ flesh, such as lice and fleas and "u$s, all, without e&ception, $enerate what are called 'nits%, and these nits $enerate nothin$! Of these insects the flea is $enerated out of the sli$htest amount of putrefyin$ matter for wherever there is any dry e&crement, a flea is sure to "e found! Bu$s are $enerated from the moisture of livin$ animals, as it dries up outside their "odies! Bice are $enerated out of the flesh of animals! )hen lice are comin$ there is a kind of small eruption visi"le, unaccompanied "y any dischar$e of purulent matter and, if you prick an animal when in this condition at the spot of eruption, the lice (ump out! In some men the appearance of lice is a disease, in cases where the "ody is surchar$ed with moisture and, indeed, men have "een known to succum" to this louse+disease, as Alcman the poet and the #yrian Aherecydes are said to have done! 0oreover, in certain diseases lice appear in $reat a"undance! There is also a species of louse called the 'wild louse%, and this is harder than the ordinary louse, and there is e&ceptional difficulty in $ettin$ the skin rid of it! Boys% heads are apt to "e lousy, "ut men%s in less de$ree and women are more su"(ect to lice than men! But, whenever people are trou"led with lousy heads, they are less than ordinarily trou"led with headache! And lice are $enerated in other animals than man! For "irds are infested with them and pheasants, unless they clean themselves in the dust, are actually destroyed "y them! All other win$ed animals that are furnished with feathers are

similarly infested, and all hair+coated creatures also, with the sin$le e&ception of the ass, which is infested neither with lice nor with ticks! .attle suffer "oth from lice and from ticks! #heep and $oats "reed ticks, "ut do not "reed lice! Ai$s "reed lice lar$e and hard! In do$s are found the flea peculiar to the animal, the .ynoroestes! In all animals that are su"(ect to lice, the latter ori$inate from the animals themselves! 0oreover, in animals that "athe at all, lice are more than usually a"undant when they chan$e the water in which they "athe! In the sea, lice are found on fishes, "ut they are $enerated not out of the fish "ut out of slime and they resem"le multipedal wood+ lice, only that their tail is flat! #ea+lice are uniform in shape and universal in locality, and are particularly numerous on the "ody of the red mullet! And all these insects are multipedal and devoid of "lood! The parasite that feeds on the tunny is found in the re$ion of the fins it resem"les a scorpion, and is a"out the si3e of a spider! In the seas "etween .yrene and 8$ypt there is a fish that attends on the dolphin, which is called the 'dolphin%s louse%! This fish $ets e&ceedin$ly fat from en(oyin$ an a"undance of food while the dolphin is out in pursuit of its prey! 64

Other animalcules "esides these are $enerated, as we have already remarked, some in wool or in articles made of wool, as the ses or clothes+moth! And these animalcules come in $reater num"ers if the woollen su"stances are dusty and they come in especially lar$e num"ers if a spider "e shut up in the cloth or wool, for the creature drinks up any moisture that may "e there, and dries up the woollen su"stance! This $ru" is found also in men%s clothes! A creature is also found in wa& lon$ laid "y, (ust as in wood, and it is the smallest of animalcules and is white in colour, and is desi$nated the acari or mite! In "ooks also other animalcules are found, some resem"lin$ the $ru"s found in $arments, and some resem"lin$ tailless scorpions, "ut very small! As a $eneral rule we may state that such animalcules are found in practically anythin$, "oth in dry thin$s that are "ecomin$ moist and in moist thin$s that are dryin$, provided they contain the conditions of life! There is a $ru" entitled the 'fa$$ot+"earer%, as stran$e a creature as is known! Its head pro(ects outside its shell, mottled in colour, and its feet are near the end or ape&, as is the case with $ru"s in $eneral "ut the rest of its "ody is cased in a tunic as it were of spider%s we", and there are little dry twi$s a"out it, that look as thou$h they had stuck "y accident to the creature as it went walkin$ a"out! But these twi$+like formations are naturally connected with the tunic, for (ust as the shell is with the "ody of the snail so is the whole superstructure with our $ru" and they do not drop off, "ut can only "e torn off, as thou$h they were all of a

piece with him, and the removal of the tunic is as fatal to this $ru" as the removal of the shell would "e to the snail! In course of time this $ru" "ecomes a chrysalis, as is the case with the silkworm, and lives in a motionless condition! But as yet it is not known into what win$ed condition it is transformed! The fruit of the wild fi$ contains the psen, or fi$+wasp! This creature is a $ru" at first "ut in due time the husk peels off and the psen leaves the husk "ehind it and flies away, and enters into the fruit of the fi$+tree throu$h its orifice, and causes the fruit not to drop off and with a view to this phenomenon, country folk are in the ha"it of tyin$ wild fi$s on to fi$+trees, and of plantin$ wild fi$+ trees near domesticated ones! 66 In the case of animals that are *uadrupeds and red+"looded and oviparous, $eneration takes place in the sprin$, "ut copulation does not take place in an uniform season! In some cases it takes place in the sprin$, in others in summer time, and in others in the autumn, accordin$ as the su"se*uent season may "e favoura"le for the youn$! The tortoise lays e$$s with a hard shell and of two colours within, like "irds% e$$s, and after layin$ them "uries them in the $round and treads the $round hard over them it then "roods over the e$$s on the surface of the $round, and hatches the e$$s the ne&t year! The hemys, or fresh+water tortoise, leaves the water and lays its

e$$s! It di$s a hole of a casklike shape, and deposits therein the e$$s after rather less than thirty days it di$s the e$$s up a$ain and hatches them with $reat rapidity, and leads its youn$ at once off to the water! The sea+turtle lays on the $round e$$s (ust like the e$$s of domesticated "irds, "uries the e$$s in the $round, and "roods over them in the ni$ht+time! It lays a very $reat num"er of e$$s, amountin$ at times to one hundred! Bi3ards and crocodiles, terrestrial and fluvial, lay e$$s on land! The e$$s of li3ards hatch spontaneously on land, for the li3ard does not live on into the ne&t year in fact, the life of the animal is said not to e&ceed si& months! The river+crocodile lays a num"er of e$$s, si&ty at the most, white in colour, and "roods over them for si&ty days: for, "y the way, the creature is very lon$+lived! And the disproportion is more marked in this animal than in any other "etween the smallness of the ori$inal e$$ and the hu$e si3e of the full+$rown animal! For the e$$ is not lar$er than that of the $oose, and the youn$ crocodile is small, answerin$ to the e$$ in si3e, "ut the full+$rown animal attains the len$th of twenty+si& feet in fact, it is actually stated that the animal $oes on $rowin$ to the end of its days! 67 )ith re$ard to serpents or snakes, the viper is e&ternally viviparous, havin$ "een previously oviparous internally! The e$$, as with the e$$ of fishes, is uniform in colour and soft+skinned!

The youn$ serpent $rows on the surface of the e$$, and, like the youn$ of fishes, has no shell+like envelopment! The youn$ of the viper is "orn inside a mem"rane that "ursts from off the youn$ creature in three days and at times the youn$ viper eats its way out from the inside of the e$$! The mother viper "rin$s forth all its youn$ in one day, twenty in num"er, and one at a time! The other serpents are e&ternally oviparous, and their e$$s are strun$ on to one another like a lady%s necklace after the dam has laid her e$$s in the $round she "roods over them, and hatches the e$$s in the followin$ year! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book ;I 1 #o much for the $enerative processes in snakes and insects, and also in oviparous *uadrupeds! Birds without e&ception lay e$$s, "ut the pairin$ season and the times of parturition are not alike for all! #ome "irds couple and lay at almost any time in the year, as for instance the "arn+door hen and the pi$eon: the former of these couplin$ and layin$ durin$ the entire year, with the e&ception of

the month "efore and the month after the winter solstice! #ome hens, even in the hi$h "reeds, lay a lar$e *uantity of e$$s "efore "roodin$, amountin$ to as many as si&ty and, "y the way, the hi$her "reeds are less prolific than the inferior ones! The Adrian hens are small+si3ed, "ut they lay every day they are cross+ tempered, and often kill their chickens they are of all colours! #ome domesticated hens lay twice a day indeed, instances have "een known where hens, after e&hi"itin$ e&treme fecundity, have died suddenly! Hens, then, lay e$$s, as has "een stated, at all times indiscriminately the pi$eon, the rin$+dove, the turtle+dove, and the stock+dove lay twice a year, and the pi$eon actually lays ten times a year! The $reat ma(ority of "irds lay durin$ the sprin$+time! #ome "irds are prolific, and prolific in either of two ways+either "y layin$ often, as the pi$eon, or "y layin$ many e$$s at a sittin$, as the "arn+door hen! All "irds of prey, or "irds with crooked talons, are unprolific, e&cept the kestrel: this "ird is the most prolific of "irds of prey as many as four e$$s have "een o"served in the nest, and occasionally it lays even more! Birds in $eneral lay their e$$s in nests, "ut such as are dis*ualified for fli$ht, as the partrid$e and the *uail, do not lay them in nests "ut on the $round, and cover them over with loose material! The same is the case with the lark and the tetri&! These "irds hatch in sheltered places "ut the "ird called merops in Boeotia, alone of all "irds, "urrows into holes in the $round and hatches there!

Thrushes, like swallows, "uild nests of clay, on hi$h trees, and "uild them in rows all close to$ether, so that from their continuity the structure resem"les a necklace of nests! Of all "irds that hatch for themselves the hoopoe is the only one that "uilds no nest whatever it $ets into the hollow of the trunk of a tree, and lays its e$$s there without makin$ any sort of nest! The circus "uilds either under a dwellin$+roof or on cliffs! The tetri&, called oura& in Athens, "uilds neither on the $round nor on trees, "ut on low+lyin$ shru"s! 4 The e$$ in the case of all "irds alike is hard+shelled, if it "e the produce of copulation and "e laid "y a healthy hen+for some hens lay soft e$$s! The interior of the e$$ is of two colours, and the white part is outside and the yellow part within! The e$$s of "irds that fre*uent rivers and marshes differ from those of "irds that live on dry land that is to say, the e$$s of water"irds have comparatively more of the yellow or yolk and less of the white! 8$$s vary in colour accordin$ to their kind! #ome e$$s are white, as those of the pi$eon and of the partrid$e others are yellowish, as the e$$s of marsh "irds in some cases the e$$s are mottled, as the e$$s of the $uinea+fowl and the pheasant while the e$$s of the kestrel are red, like vermilion! 8$$s are not symmetrically shaped at "oth ends: in other words, one end is comparatively sharp, and the other end is comparatively

"lunt and it is the latter end that protrudes first at the time of layin$! Bon$ and pointed e$$s are female those that are round, or more rounded at the narrow end, are male! 8$$s are hatched "y the incu"ation of the mother+"ird! In some cases, as in 8$ypt, they are hatched spontaneously in the $round, "y "ein$ "uried in dun$ heaps! A story is told of a toper in #yracuse, how he used to put e$$s into the $round under his rush+mat and to keep on drinkin$ until he hatched them! Instances have occurred of e$$s "ein$ deposited in warm vessels and $ettin$ hatched spontaneously! The sperm of "irds, as of animals in $eneral, is white! After the female has su"mitted to the male, she draws up the sperm to underneath her midriff! At first it is little in si3e and white in colour "y and "y it is red, the colour of "lood as it $rows, it "ecomes pale and yellow all over! )hen at len$th it is $ettin$ ripe for hatchin$, it is su"(ect to differentiation of su"stance, and the yolk $athers to$ether within and the white settles round it on the outside! )hen the full time is come, the e$$ detaches itself and protrudes, chan$in$ from soft to hard with such temporal e&actitude that, whereas it is not hard durin$ the process of protrusion, it hardens immediately after the process is completed: that is if there "e no concomitant patholo$ical circumstances! .ases have occurred where su"stances resem"lin$ the e$$ at a critical point of its $rowth+that is, when it is yellow all over, as the yolk is su"se*uently+have "een found in the cock when cut open, underneath his midriff, (ust where the hen has her e$$s and these

are entirely yellow in appearance and of the same si3e as ordinary e$$s! #uch phenomena are re$arded as unnatural and portentous! #uch as affirm that wind+e$$s are the residua of e$$s previously "e$otten from copulation are mistaken in this assertion, for we have cases well authenticated where chickens of the common hen and $oose have laid wind+e$$s without ever havin$ "een su"(ected to copulation! )ind+e$$s are smaller, less palata"le, and more li*uid than true e$$s, and are produced in $reater num"ers! )hen they are put under the mother "ird, the li*uid contents never coa$ulate, "ut "oth the yellow and the white remain as they were! )ind+e$$s are laid "y a num"er of "irds: as for instance "y the common hen, the hen partrid$e, the hen pi$eon, the peahen, the $oose, and the vulpanser! 8$$s are hatched under "roodin$ hens more rapidly in summer than in winter that is to say, hens hatch in ei$hteen days in summer, "ut occasionally in winter take as many as twenty+five! And "y the way for "roodin$ purposes some "irds make "etter mothers than others! If it thunders while a hen+"ird is "roodin$, the e$$s $et addled! )ind+e$$s that are called "y some cynosura and uria are produced chiefly in summer! )ind+e$$s are called "y some 3ephyr+e$$s, "ecause at sprin$+time hen+"irds are o"served to inhale the "ree3es they do the same if they "e stroked in a peculiar way "y hand! )ind+e$$s can turn into fertile e$$s, and e$$s due to previous copulation can chan$e "reed, if "efore the chan$e of the yellow to the white the hen that contains wind+e$$s, or e$$s "e$otten of copulation "e trodden "y another cock+"ird!

?nder these circumstances the wind+e$$s turn into fertile e$$s, and the previously impre$nated e$$s follow the "reed of the impre$nator "ut if the latter impre$nation takes place durin$ the chan$e of the yellow to the white, then no chan$e in the e$$ takes place: the wind+e$$ does not "ecome a true e$$, and the true e$$ does not take on the "reed of the latter impre$nator! If when the e$$+su"stance is small copulation "e intermitted, the previously e&istin$ e$$+su"stance e&hi"its no increase "ut if the hen "e a$ain su"mitted to the male the increase in si3e proceeds with rapidity! The yolk and the white are diverse not only in colour "ut also in properties! Thus, the yolk con$eals under the influence of cold, whereas the white instead of con$ealin$ is inclined rather to li*uefy! A$ain, the white stiffens under the influence of fire, whereas the yolk does not stiffen "ut, unless it "e "urnt throu$h and throu$h, it remains soft, and in point of fact is inclined to set or to harden more from the "oilin$ than from the roastin$ of the e$$! The yolk and the white are separated "y a mem"rane from one another! The so+called 'hail+stones%, or treadles, that are found at the e&tremity of the yellow in no way contri"ute towards $eneration, as some erroneously suppose: they are two in num"er, one "elow and the other a"ove! If you take out of the shells a num"er of yolks and a num"er of whites and pour them into a sauce pan and "oil them slowly over a low fire, the yolks will $ather into the centre and the whites will set all around them!

Joun$ hens are the first to lay, and they do so at the "e$innin$ of sprin$ and lay more e$$s than the older hens, "ut the e$$s of the youn$er hens are comparatively small! As a $eneral rule, if hens $et no "roodin$ they pine and sicken! After copulation hens shiver and shake themselves, and often kick ru""ish a"out all round them+and this, "y the way, they do sometimes after layin$+whereas pi$eons trail their rumps on the $round, and $eese dive under the water! .onception of the true e$$ and conformation of the wind+ e$$ take place rapidly with most "irds as for instance with the hen+partrid$e when in heat! The fact is that, when she stands to windward and within scent of the male, she conceives, and "ecomes useless for decoy purposes: for, "y the way, the partrid$e appears to have a very acute sense of smell! The $eneration of the e$$ after copulation and the $eneration of the chick from the su"se*uent hatchin$ of the e$$ are not "rou$ht a"out within e*ual periods for all "irds, "ut differ as to time accordin$ to the si3e of the parent+"irds! The e$$ of the common hen after copulation sets and matures in ten days a $eneral rule the e$$ of the pi$eon in a somewhat lesser period! Ai$eons have the faculty of holdin$ "ack the e$$ at the very moment of parturition if a hen pi$eon "e put a"out "y any one, for instance if it "e distur"ed on its nest, or have a feather plucked out, or sustain any other annoyance or distur"ance, then even thou$h she had made up her mind to lay she can keep the e$$ "ack in a"eyance! A sin$ular phenomenon is o"served in pi$eons with re$ard to pairin$: that is,

they kiss one another (ust when the male is on the point of mountin$ the female, and without this preliminary the male would decline to perform his function! )ith the older males the preliminary kiss is only $iven to "e$in with, and su"se*uently se*uently he mounts without previously kissin$ with youn$er males the preliminary is never omitted! Another sin$ularity in these "irds is that the hens tread one another when a cock is not forthcomin$, after kissin$ one another (ust as takes place in the normal pairin$! Thou$h they do not impre$nate one another they lay more e$$s under these than under ordinary circumstances no chicks, however, result therefrom, "ut all such e$$s are wind+e$$s! 6 2eneration from the e$$ proceeds in an identical manner with all "irds, "ut the full periods from conception to "irth differ, as has "een said! )ith the common hen after three days and three ni$hts there is the first indication of the em"ryo with lar$er "irds the interval "ein$ lon$er, with smaller "irds shorter! 0eanwhile the yolk comes into "ein$, risin$ towards the sharp end, where the primal element of the e$$ is situated, and where the e$$ $ets hatched and the heart appears, like a speck of "lood, in the white of the e$$! This point "eats and moves as thou$h endowed with life, and from it two vein+ducts with "lood in them trend in a convoluted course ,as the e$$ su"stance $oes on $rowin$, towards each of the two circum(acent inte$uments- and a mem"rane

carryin$ "loody fi"res now envelops the yolk, leadin$ off from the vein+ducts! A little afterwards the "ody is differentiated, at first very small and white! The head is clearly distin$uished, and in it the eyes, swollen out to a $reat e&tent! This condition of the eyes lat on for a $ood while, as it is only "y de$rees that they diminish in si3e and collapse! At the outset the under portion of the "ody appears insi$nificant in comparison with the upper portion! Of the two ducts that lead from the heart, the one proceeds towards the circum(acent inte$ument, and the other, like a navel+strin$, towards the yolk! The life+element of the chick is in the white of the e$$, and the nutriment comes throu$h the navel+strin$ out of the yolk! )hen the e$$ is now ten days old the chick and all its parts are distinctly visi"le! The head is still lar$er than the rest of its "ody, and the eyes lar$er than the head, "ut still devoid of vision! The eyes, if removed a"out this time, are found to "e lar$er than "eans, and "lack if the cuticle "e peeled off them there is a white and cold li*uid inside, *uite $litterin$ in the sunli$ht, "ut there is no hard su"stance whatsoever! #uch is the condition of the head and eyes! At this time also the lar$er internal or$ans are visi"le, as also the stomach and the arran$ement of the viscera and veins that seem to proceed from the heart are now close to the navel! From the navel there stretch a pair of veins one towards the mem"rane that envelops the yolk ,and, "y the way, the yolk is now li*uid, or more so than is normal-, and the other towards that mem"rane

which envelops collectively the mem"rane wherein the chick lies, the mem"rane of the yolk, and the intervenin$ li*uid! ,For, as the chick $rows, little "y little one part of the yolk $oes upward, and another part downward, and the white li*uid is "etween them and the white of the e$$ is underneath the lower part of the yolk, as it was at the outset!- On the tenth day the white is at the e&treme outer surface, reduced in amount, $lutinous, firm in su"stance, and sallow in colour! The disposition of the several constituent parts is as follows! First and outermost comes the mem"rane of the e$$, not that of the shell, "ut underneath it! Inside this mem"rane is a white li*uid then comes the chick, and a mem"rane round a"out it, separatin$ it off so as to keep the chick free from the li*uid ne&t after the chick comes the yolk, into which one of the two veins was descri"ed as leadin$, the other one leadin$ into the envelopin$ white su"stance! ,A mem"rane with a li*uid resem"lin$ serum envelops the entire structure! Then comes another mem"rane ri$ht round the em"ryo, as has "een descri"ed, separatin$ it off a$ainst the li*uid! ?nderneath this comes the yolk, enveloped in another mem"rane ,into which yolk proceeds the navel+strin$ that leads from the heart and the "i$ vein-, so as to keep the em"ryo free of "oth li*uids!A"out the twentieth day, if you open the e$$ and touch the chick, it moves inside and chirps and it is already comin$ to "e covered with down, when, after the twentieth day is ast, the chick "e$ins to "reak the shell! The head is situated over the ri$ht le$ close to the

flank, and the win$ is placed over the head and a"out this time is plain to "e seen the mem"rane resem"lin$ an after+"irth that comes ne&t after the outermost mem"rane of the shell, into which mem"rane the one of the navel+strin$s was descri"ed as leadin$ ,and, "y the way, the chick in its entirety is now within it-, and so also is the other mem"rane resem"lin$ an after+"irth, namely that surroundin$ the yolk, into which the second navel+strin$ was descri"ed as leadin$ and "oth of them were descri"ed as "ein$ connected with the heart and the "i$ vein! At this con(uncture the navel+strin$ that leads to the outer after"irth collapses and "ecomes detached from the chick, and the mem"rane that leads into the yolk is fastened on to the thin $ut of the creature, and "y this time a considera"le amount of the yolk is inside the chick and a yellow sediment is in its stomach! A"out this time it dischar$es residuum in the direction of the outer after+"irth, and has residuum inside its stomach and the outer residuum is white ,and there comes a white su"stance inside-! By and "y the yolk, diminishin$ $radually in si3e, at len$th "ecomes entirely used up and comprehended within the chick ,so that, ten days after hatchin$, if you cut open the chick, a small remnant of the yolk is still left in conne&ion with the $ut-, "ut it is detached from the navel, and there is nothin$ in the interval "etween, "ut it has "een used up entirely! /urin$ the period a"ove referred to the chick sleeps, wakes up, makes a move and looks up and .hirps and the heart and the navel to$ether

palpitate as thou$h the creature were respirin$! #o much as to $eneration from the e$$ in the case of "irds! Birds lay some e$$s that are unfruitful, even e$$s that are the result of copulation, and no life comes from such e$$s "y incu"ation and this phenomenon is o"served especially with pi$eons! Twin e$$s have two yolks! In some twin e$$s a thin partition of white intervenes to prevent the yolks mi&in$ with each other, "ut some twin e$$s are unprovided with such partition, and the yokes run into one another! There are some hens that lay nothin$ "ut twin e$$s, and in their case the phenomenon re$ardin$ the yolks has "een o"served! For instance, a hen has "een known to lay ei$hteen e$$s, and to hatch twins out of them all, e&cept those that were wind+e$$s the rest were fertile ,thou$h, "y the way, one of the twins is always "i$$er than the other-, "ut the ei$hteenth was a"normal or monstrous! 7 Birds of the pi$eon kind, such as the rin$dove and the turtle+dove, lay two e$$s at a time that is to say, they do so as a $eneral rule, and they never lay more than three! The pi$eon, as has "een said, lays at all seasons the rin$+dove and the turtle+dove lay in the sprin$time, and they never lay more than twice in the same season! The hen+"ird lays the second pair of e$$s when the first pair happens to have "een destroyed, for many of the hen+pi$eons

destroy the first "rood! The hen+pi$eon, as has "een said, occasionally lays three e$$s, "ut it never rears more than two chicks, and sometimes rears only one and the odd one is always a wind+e$$! ;ery few "irds propa$ate within their first year! All "irds, after once they have "e$un layin$, keep on havin$ e$$s, thou$h in the case of some "irds it is difficult to detect the fact from the minute si3e of the creature! The pi$eon, as a rule, lays a male and a female e$$, and $enerally lays the male e$$ first after layin$ it allows a day%s interval to ensue and then lays the second e$$! The male takes its turn of sittin$ durin$ the daytime the female sits durin$ the ni$ht! The first+laid e$$ is hatched and "rou$ht to "irth within twenty days and the mother "ird pecks a hole in the e$$ the day "efore she hatches it out! The two parent "irds "rood for some time over the chicks in the way in which they "rooded previously over the e$$s! In all connected with the rearin$ of the youn$ the female parent is more cross+tempered than the male, as is the case with most animals after parturition! The hens lay as many as ten times in the year occasional instances have "een known of their layin$ eleven times, and in 8$ypt they actually lay twelve times! The pi$eon, male and female, couples within the year in fact, it couples when only si& months old! #ome assert that rin$doves and turtle+doves pair and procreate when only three months old, and instance their supera"undant num"ers "y way of proof of the assertion! The hen+

pi$eon carries her e$$s fourteen days for as many more days the parent "irds hatch the e$$s "y the end of another fourteen days the chicks are so far capa"le of fli$ht as to "e overtaken with difficulty! ,The rin$+dove, accordin$ to all accounts, lives up to forty years! The partrid$e lives over si&teen!- ,After one "rood the pi$eon is ready for another within thirty days!9 The vulture "uilds its nest on inaccessi"le cliffs for which reason its nest and youn$ are rarely seen! And therefore Herodorus, father of Bryson the #ophist, declares that vultures "elon$ to some forei$n country unknown to us, statin$ as a proof of the assertion that no one has ever seen a vulture%s nest, and also that vultures in $reat num"ers make a sudden appearance in the rear of armies! However, difficult as it is to $et a si$ht of it, a vulture%s nest has "een seen! The vulture lays two e$$s! ,.arnivorous "irds in $eneral are o"served to lay "ut once a year! The swallow is the only carnivorous "ird that "uilds a nest twice! If you prick out the eyes of swallow chicks while they are yet youn$, the "irds will $et well a$ain and will see "y and "y!: The ea$le lays three e$$s and hatches two of them, as it is said in the verses ascri"ed to 0usaeus: That lays three, hatches two, and cares for one!

This is the case in most instances, thou$h occasionally a "rood of three has "een o"served! As the youn$ ones $row, the mother "ecomes wearied with feedin$ them and e&trudes one of the pair from the nest! At the same time the "ird is said to a"stain from food, to avoid harryin$ the youn$ of wild animals! That is to say, its win$s "lanch, and for some days its talons $et turned awry! It is in conse*uence a"out this time cross+tempered to its own youn$! The phene is said to rear the youn$ one that has "een e&pelled the nest! The ea$le "roods for a"out thirty days! The hatchin$ period is a"out the same for the lar$er "irds, such as the $oose and the $reat "ustard for the middle+si3ed "irds it e&tends over a"out twenty days, as in the case of the kite and the hawk! The kite in $eneral lays two e$$s, "ut occasionally rears three youn$ ones! The so+called ae$olius at times rears four! It is not true that, as some aver, the raven lays only two e$$s it lays a lar$er num"er! It "roods for a"out twenty days and then e&trudes its youn$! Other "irds perform the same operation at all events mother "irds that lay several e$$s often e&trude one of their youn$! Birds of the ea$le species are not alike in the treatment of their youn$! The white+tailed ea$le is cross, the "lack ea$le is affectionate in the feedin$ of the youn$ thou$h, "y the way, all "irds of prey, when their "rood is rather forward in "ein$ a"le to fly, "eat and e&trude them from the nest! The ma(ority of "irds other than "irds of prey, as has "een said, also act in this manner, and after feedin$ their youn$ take no further care of them "ut the

crow is an e&ception! This "ird for a considera"le time takes char$e of her youn$ for, even when her youn$ can fly, she flies alon$side of them and supplies them with food! < The cuckoo is said "y some to "e a hawk transformed, "ecause at the time of the cuckoo%s comin$, the hawk, which it resem"les, is never seen and indeed it is only for a few days that you will see hawks a"out when the cuckoo%s note sounds early in the season! The cuckoo appears only for a short time in summer, and in winter disappears! The hawk has crooked talons, which the cuckoo has not neither with re$ard to the head does the cuckoo resem"le the hawk! In point of fact, "oth as re$ards the head and the claws it more resem"les the pi$eon! However, in colour and in colour alone it does resem"le the hawk, only that the markin$s of the hawk are striped, and of the cuckoo mottled! And, "y the way, in si3e and fli$ht it resem"les the smallest of the hawk tri"e, which "ird disappears as a rule a"out the time of the appearance of the cuckoo, thou$h the two have "een seen simultaneously! The cuckoo has "een seen to "e preyed on "y the hawk and this never happens "etween "irds of the same species! They say no one has ever seen the youn$ of the cuckoo! The "ird e$$s, "ut does not "uild a nest! #ometimes it lays its e$$s in the nest of a smaller "ird after first devourin$ the e$$s of this "ird it lays "y preference in the nest of the rin$dove, after first devourin$ the e$$s of the

pi$eon! ,It occasionally lays two, "ut usually one!- It lays also in the nest of the hypolais, and the hypolais hatches and rears the "rood! It is a"out this time that the "ird "ecomes fat and palata"le! ,The youn$ of hawks also $et palata"le and fat! One species "uilds a nest in the wilderness and on sheer and inaccessi"le cliffs!= )ith most "irds, as has "een said of the pi$eon, the hatchin$ is carried on "y the male and the female in turns: with some "irds, however, the male only sits lon$ enou$h to allow the female to provide herself with food! In the $oose tri"e the female alone incu"ates, and after once sittin$ on the e$$s she continues "roodin$ until they are hatched! The nests of all marsh+"irds are "uilt in districts fenny and well supplied with $rass conse*uently, the mother+"ird while sittin$ *uiet on her e$$s can provide herself with food without havin$ to su"mit to a"solute fastin$! )ith the crow also the female alone "roods, and "roods throu$hout the whole period the male "ird supports the female, "rin$in$ her food and feedin$ her! The female of the rin$+dove "e$ins to "rood in the afternoon and "roods throu$h the entire ni$ht until "reakfast+ time of the followin$ day the male "roods durin$ the rest of the time! Aartrid$es "uild a nest in two compartments the male "roods on the one and the female on the other! After hatchin$, each of the

parent "irds rears its "rood! But the male, when he first takes his youn$ out of the nest, treads them! > Aeafowl live for a"out twenty+five years, "reed a"out the third year, and at the same time take on their span$led pluma$e! They hatch their e$$s within thirty days or rather more! The peahen lays "ut once a year, and lays twelve e$$s, or may "e a sli$htly lesser num"er: she does not lay all the e$$s there and then one after the other, "ut at intervals of two or three days! #uch as lay for the first time lay a"out ei$ht e$$s! The peahen lays wind+e$$s! They pair in the sprin$ and layin$ "e$ins immediately after pairin$! The "ird moults when the earliest trees are sheddin$ their leaves, and recovers its pluma$e when the same trees are recoverin$ their folia$e! Aeople that rear peafowl put the e$$s under the "arn+door hen, owin$ to the fact that when the peahen is "roodin$ over them the peacock attacks her and tries to trample on them owin$ to this circumstance some "irds of wild varieties run away from the males and lay their e$$s and "rood in solitude! Only two e$$s are put under a "arn+door hen, for she could not "rood over and hatch a lar$e num"er! They take every precaution, "y supplyin$ her with food, to prevent her $oin$ off the e$$s and discontinuin$ the "roodin$! )ith male "irds a"out pairin$ time the testicles are o"viously lar$er than at other times, and this is conspicuously the case with

the more salacious "irds, such as the "arn+door cock and the cock partrid$e the peculiarity is less conspicuous in such "irds as are intermittent in re$ard to pairin$! 1@ #o much for the conception and $eneration of "irds! It has "een previously stated that fishes are not all oviparous! Fishes of the cartila$inous $enus are viviparous the rest are oviparous! And cartila$inous fishes are first oviparous internally and su"se*uently viviparous they rear the em"ryos internally, the "atrachus or fishin$+fro$ "ein$ an e&ception! Fishes also, as was a"ove stated, are provided with wom"s, and wom"s of diverse kinds! The oviparous $enera have wom"s "ifurcate in shape and low down in position the cartila$inous $enus have wom"s shaped like those of O "irds! The wom", however, in the cartila$inous fishes differs in this respect from the wom" of "irds, that with some cartila$inous fishes the e$$s do not settle close to the diaphra$m "ut middle+ways alon$ the "ack"one, and as they $row they shift their position! The e$$ with all fishes is not of two colours within "ut is of even hue and the colour is nearer to white than to yellow, and that "oth when the youn$ is inside it and previously as well! /evelopment from the e$$ in fishes differs from that in "irds in this respect, that it does not e&hi"it that one of the two navel+ strin$s that leads off to the mem"rane that lies close under the

shell, while it does e&hi"it that one of the two that in the case of "irds leads off to the yolk! In a $eneral way the rest of the development from the e$$ onwards is identical in "irds and fishes! That is to say, development takes place at the upper part of the e$$, and the veins e&tend in like manner, at first from the heart and at first the head, the eyes, and the upper parts are lar$est and as the creature $rows the e$$+su"stance decreases and eventually disappears, and "ecomes a"sor"ed within the em"ryo, (ust as takes place with the yolk in "irds! The navel+strin$ is attached a little way "elow the aperture of the "elly! )hen the creatures are youn$ the navel+strin$ is lon$, "ut as they $row it diminishes in si3e at len$th it $ets small and "ecomes incorporated, as was descri"ed in the case of "irds! The em"ryo and the e$$ are enveloped "y a common mem"rane, and (ust under this is another mem"rane that envelops the em"ryo "y itself and in "etween the two mem"ranes is a li*uid! The food inside the stomach of the little fishes resem"les that inside the stomach of youn$ chicks, and is partly white and partly yellow! As re$ards the shape of the wom", the reader is referred to my treatise on Anatomy! The wom", however, is diverse in diverse fishes, as for instance in the sharks as compared one with another or as compared with the skate! That is to say, in some sharks the e$$s adhere in the middle of the wom" round a"out the "ack"one, as has "een stated, and this is the case with the do$+fish as the e$$s $row they shift their place and since the wom" is "ifurcate

and adheres to the midriff, as in the rest of similar creatures, the e$$s pass into one or other of the two compartments! This wom" and the wom" of the other sharks e&hi"it, as you $o a little way off from the midriff, somethin$ resem"lin$ white "reasts, which never make their appearance unless there "e conception! /o$+fish and skate have a kind of e$$+shell, in the which is found an e$$+like li*uid! The shape of the e$$+shell resem"les the ton$ue of a "a$pipe, and hair+like ducts are attached to the shell! )ith the do$+fish which is called "y some the 'dappled shark%, the youn$ are "orn when the shell+formation "reaks in pieces and falls out with the ray, after it has laid the e$$ the shell+formation "reaks up and the youn$ move out! The spiny do$+fish has its close to the midriff a"ove the "reast like formations when the e$$ descends, as soon as it $ets detached the youn$ is "orn! The mode of $eneration is the same in the case of the fo&+shark! The so+called smooth shark has its e$$s in "etwi&t the wom"s like the do$+fish these e$$s shift into each of the two horns of the wom" and descend, and the youn$ develop with the navel+strin$ attached to the wom", so that, as the e$$+su"stance $ets used up, the em"ryo is sustained to all appearance (ust as in the case of *uadrupeds! The navel+strin$ is lon$ and adheres to the under part of the wom" ,each navel+strin$ "ein$ attached as it were "y a sucker-, and also to the centre of the em"ryo in the place where the liver is situated! If the em"ryo "e cut open, even thou$h it has the e$$+su"stance no lon$er, the food inside is e$$+like in appearance!

8ach em"ryo, as in the case of *uadrupeds, is provided with a chorion and separate mem"ranes! )hen youn$ the em"ryo has its head upwards, "ut downwards when it $ets stron$ and is completed in form! 0ales are $enerated on the left+hand side of the wom", and females on the ri$ht+hand side, and males and females on the same side to$ether! If the em"ryo "e cut open, then, as with *uadrupeds, such internal or$ans as it is furnished with, as for instance the liver, are found to "e lar$e and supplied with "lood! All cartila$inous fishes have at one and the same time e$$s a"ove close to the midriff ,some lar$er, some smaller-, in considera"le num"ers, and also em"ryos lower down! And this circumstance leads many to suppose that fishes of this species pair and "ear youn$ every month, inasmuch as they do not produce all their youn$ at once, "ut now and a$ain and over a len$thened period! But such e$$s as have come down "elow within the wom" are simultaneously ripened and completed in $rowth! /o$+fish in $eneral can e&trude and take in a$ain their youn$, as can also the an$el+fish and the electric ray+and, "y the way, a lar$e electric ray has "een seen with a"out ei$hty em"ryos inside it+"ut the spiny do$fish is an e&ception to the rule, "ein$ prevented "y the spine of the youn$ fish from so doin$! Of the flat cartila$inous fish, the try$on and the ray cannot e&trude and take in a$ain in conse*uence of the rou$hness of the tails of the youn$! The "atrachus or fishin$+fro$ also is una"le to take in its youn$ owin$ to the si3e of the head and the prickles and, "y the way, as was

previously remarked, it is the only one of these fishes that is not viviparous! #o much for the varieties of the cartila$inous species and for their modes of $eneration from the e$$! 11 At the "reedin$ season the sperm+ducts of the male are filled with sperm, so much so that if they "e s*uee3ed the sperm flows out spontaneously as a white fluid the ducts are "ifurcate, and start from the midriff and the $reat vein! A"out this period the sperm+ ducts of the male are *uite distinct ,from the wom" of the female"ut at any other than the actual "reedin$ time their distinctness is not o"vious to a non+e&pert! The fact is that in certain fishes at certain times these or$ans are impercepti"le, as was stated re$ardin$ the testicles of "irds! Amon$ other distinctions o"served "etween the thoric ducts and the wom"+ducts is the circumstance that the thoric ducts are attached to the loins, while the wom"+ducts move a"out freely and are attached "y a thin mem"rane! The particulars re$ardin$ the thoric ducts may "e studied "y a reference to the dia$rams in my treatise on Anatomy! .artila$inous fishes are capa"le of superfoetation, and their period of $estation is si& months at the lon$est! The so+called starry do$fish "ears youn$ the most fre*uently in other words it "ears twice a month! The "reedin$ season is in the month of

0aemacterion! The do$+fish as a $eneral rule "ear twice in the year, with the e&ception of the little do$+fish, which "ears only once a year! #ome of them "rin$ forth in the sprin$time! The rhine, or an$el+fish, "ears its first "rood in the sprin$time, and its second in the autumn, a"out the winter settin$ of the Aleiads the second "rood is the stron$er of the two! The electric ray "rin$s forth in the late autumn! .artila$inous fishes come out from the main seas and deep waters towards the shore and there "rin$ forth their youn$, and they do so for the sake of warmth and "y way of protection for their youn$! O"servations would lead to the $eneral rule that no one variety of fish pairs with another variety! The an$el+fish, however, and the "atus or skate appear to pair with one another for there is a fish called the rhino"atus, with the head and front parts of the skate and the after parts of the rhine or an$el+fish, (ust as thou$h it were made up of "oth fishes to$ether! #harks then and their con$eners, as the fo&+shark and the do$+fish, and the flat fishes, such as the electric ray, the ray, the smooth skate, and the try$on, are first oviparous and then viviparous in the way a"ove mentioned, ,as are also the saw+fish and the o&+ray!14 The dolphin, the whale, and all the rest of the .etacea, all, that is to say, that are provided with a "low+hole instead of $ills, are viviparous! That is to say, no one of all these fishes is ever seen to

"e supplied with e$$s, "ut directly with an em"ryo from whose differentiation comes the fish, (ust as in the case of mankind and the viviparous *uadrupeds! The dolphin "ears one at a time $enerally, "ut occasionally two! The whale "ears one or at the most two, $enerally two! The porpoise in this respect resem"les the dolphin, and, "y the way, it is in form like a little dolphin, and is found in the 8u&ine it differs, however, from the dolphin as "ein$ less in si3e and "roader in the "ack its colour is leaden+"lack! 0any people are of opinion that the porpoise is a variety of the dolphin! All creatures that have a "low+hole respire and inspire, for they are provided with lun$s! The dolphin has "een seen asleep with his nose a"ove water, and when asleep he snores! The dolphin and the porpoise are provided with milk, and suckle their youn$! They also take their youn$, when small, inside them! The youn$ of the dolphin $row rapidly, "ein$ full $rown at ten years of a$e! Its period of $estation is ten months! It "rin$s forth its youn$ summer, and never at any other season ,and, sin$ularly enou$h, under the /o$star it disappears for a"out thirty days-! Its youn$ accompany it for a considera"le period and, in fact, the creature is remarka"le for the stren$th of its parental affection! It lives for many years some are known to have lived for more than twenty+five, and some for thirty years the fact is fishermen nick their tails sometimes and set them adrift a$ain, and "y this e&pedient their a$es are ascertained!

The seal is an amphi"ious animal: that is to say, it cannot take in water, "ut "reathes and sleeps and "rin$s forth on dry land+only close to the shore+as "ein$ an animal furnished with feet it spends, however, the $reater part of its time in the sea and derives its food from it, so that it must "e classed in the cate$ory of marine animals! It is viviparous "y immediate conception and "rin$s forth its youn$ alive, and e&hi"its an after+"irth and all else (ust like a ewe! It "ears one or two at a time, and three at the most! It has two teats, and suckles its youn$ like a *uadruped! Bike the human species it "rin$s forth at all seasons of the year, "ut especially at the time when the earliest kids are forthcomin$! It conducts its youn$ ones, when they are a"out twelve days old, over and over a$ain durin$ the day down to the sea, accustomin$ them "y slow de$rees to the water! It slips down steep places instead of walkin$, from the fact that it cannot steady itself "y its feet! It can contract and draw itself in, for it is fleshy and soft and its "ones are $ristly! Owin$ to the fla""iness of its "ody it is difficult to kill a seal "y a "low, unless you strike it on the temple! It looks like a cow! The female in re$ard to its $enital or$ans resem"les the female of the ray in all other respects it resem"les the female of the human species! #o much for the phenomena of $eneration and of parturition in animals that live in water and are viviparous either internally or e&ternally!

16 Oviparous fishes have their wom" "ifurcate and placed low down, as was said previously+and, "y the way, all scaly fish are oviparous, as the "asse, the mullet, the $rey mullet, and the etelis, and all the so+called white+fish, and all the smooth or slippery fish e&cept the eel+and their roe is of a crum"lin$ or $ranular su"stance! This appearance is due to the fact that the whole wom" of such fishes is full of e$$s, so that in little fishes there seem to "e only a couple of e$$s there for in small fishes the wom" is indistin$uisha"le, from its diminutive si3e and thin conte&ture! The pairin$ of fishes has "een discussed previously! Fishes for the most part are divided into males and females, "ut one is pu33led to account for the erythrinus and the channa, for specimens of these species are never cau$ht e&cept in a condition of pre$nancy! )ith such fish as pair, e$$s are the result of copulation, "ut such fish have them also without copulation and this is shown in the case of some river+fish, for the minnow has e$$s when *uite small,+almost, one may say, as soon as it is "orn! These fishes shed their e$$s little "y little, and, as is stated, the males swallow the $reater part of them, and some portion of them $oes to waste in the water "ut such of the e$$s as the female deposits on the spawnin$ "eds are saved! If all the e$$s were preserved, each species would "e infinite in num"er! The $reater num"er of these e$$s so deposited are not productive, "ut only those over which the male

sheds the milt or sperm for when the female has laid her e$$s, the male follows and sheds its sperm over them, and from all the e$$s so "esprinkled youn$ fishes proceed, while the rest are left to their fate! The same phenomenon is o"served in the case of molluscs also for in the case of the cuttlefish or sepia, after the female has deposited her e$$s, the male "esprinkles them! It is hi$hly pro"a"le that a similar phenomenon takes place in re$ard to molluscs in $eneral, thou$h up to the present time the phenomenon has "een o"served only in the case of the cuttlefish! Fishes deposit their e$$s close in to shore, the $o"y close to stones and, "y the way, the spawn of the $o"y is flat and crum"ly! Fish in $eneral so deposit their e$$s for the water close in to shore is warm and is "etter supplied with food than the outer sea, and serves as a protection to the spawn a$ainst the voracity of the lar$er fish! And it is for this reason that in the 8u&ine most fishes spawn near the mouth of the river Thermodon, "ecause the locality is sheltered, $enial, and supplied with fresh water! Oviparous fish as a rule spawn only once a year! The little phycis or "lack $o"y is an e&ception, as it spawns twice the male of the "lack $o"y differs from the female as "ein$ "lacker and havin$ lar$er scales! Fishes then in $eneral produce their youn$ "y copulation, and lay their e$$s "ut the pipefish, as some call it, when the time of parturition arrives, "ursts in two, and the e$$s escape out! For the

fish has a diaphysis or cloven $rowth under the "elly and a"domen ,like the "lind snakes-, and, after it has spawned "y the splittin$ of this diaphysis, the sides of the split $row to$ether a$ain! /evelopment from the e$$ takes place similarly with fishes that are oviparous internally and with fishes that are oviparous e&ternally that is to say, the em"ryo comes at the upper end of the e$$ and is enveloped in a mem"rane, and the eyes, lar$e and spherical, are the first or$ans visi"le! From this circumstance it is plain that the assertion is untena"le which is made "y some writers, to wit, that the youn$ of oviparous fishes are $enerated like the $ru"s of worms for the opposite phenomena are o"served in the case of these $ru"s, in that their lower e&tremities are the lar$er at the outset, and that the eyes and the head appear later on! After the e$$ has "een used up, the youn$ fishes are like tadpoles in shape, and at first, without takin$ any nutriment, they $row "y sustenance derived from the (uice oo3in$ from the e$$ "y and "y, they are nourished up to full $rowth "y the river+waters! )hen the 8u&ine is 'pur$ed% a su"stance called phycus is carried into the Hellespont, and this su"stance is of a pale yellow colour! #ome writers aver that it is the flower of the phycus, from which rou$e is made it comes at the "e$innin$ of summer! Oysters and the small fish of these localities feed on this su"stance, and some of the inha"itants of these maritime districts say that the purple mure& derives its peculiar colour from it!

17 0arsh+fishes and river+fishes conceive at the a$e of five months as a $eneral rule, and deposit their spawn towards the close of the year without e&ception! And with these fishes, like as with the marine fishes, the female does not void all her e$$s at one time, nor the male his sperm "ut they are at all times more or less provided, the female with e$$s, and the male with sperm! The+carp spawns as the seasons come round, five or si& times, and follows in spawnin$ the risin$ of the $reater constellations! The chalcis spawns three times, and the other fishes once only in the year! They all spawn in pools left "y the overflowin$ of rivers, and near to reedy places in marshes as for instance the pho&inus or minnow and the perch! The $lanis or sheat+fish and the perch deposit their spawn in one continuous strin$, like the fro$ so continuous, in fact, is the convoluted spawn of the perch that, "y reason of its smoothness, the fishermen in the marshes can unwind it off the reeds like threads off a reel! The lar$er individuals of the sheat+fish spawn in deep waters, some in water of a fathom%s depth, the smaller in shallower water, $enerally close to the roots of the willow or of some other tree, or close to reeds or to moss! At times these fishes intertwine with one another, a "i$ with a little one, and "rin$ into (u&taposition the ducts+which some writers desi$nate as navels+at the point where they emit the $enerative products and dischar$e the e$$ in the case of the female and the milt in the case of the

male! #uch e$$s as are "esprinkled with the milt $row, in a day or therea"outs, whiter and lar$er, and in a little while afterwards the fish%s eyes "ecome visi"le for these or$ans in all fishes, as for that matter in all other animals, are early conspicuous and seem disproportionately "i$! But such e$$s as the milt fails to touch remain, as with marine fishes, useless and infertile! From the fertile e$$s, as the little fish $row, a kind of sheath detaches itself this is a mem"rane that envelops the e$$ and the youn$ fish! )hen the milt has min$led with the e$$s, the resultin$ product "ecomes very sticky or viscous, and adheres to the roots of trees or wherever it may have "een laid! The male keeps on $uard at the principal spawnin$+place, and the female after spawnin$ $oes away! In the case of the sheat+fish the $rowth from the e$$ is e&ceptionally slow, and, in conse*uence, the male has to keep watch for forty or fifty days to prevent the+spawn "ein$ devoured "y such little fishes as chance to come "y! 5e&t in point of slowness is the $eneration of the carp! As with fishes in $eneral, so even with these, the spawn thus protected disappears and $ets lost rapidly! In the case of some of the smaller fishes when they are only three days old youn$ fishes are $enerated! 8$$s touched "y the male sperm take on increase "oth the same day and also later! The e$$ of the sheat+fish is as "i$ as a vetch+seed the e$$ of the carp and of the carp+species as "i$ as a millet+seed!

These fishes then spawn and $enerate in the way here descri"ed! The chalcis, however, spawns in deep water in dense shoals of fish and the so+called tilon spawns near to "eaches in sheltered spots in shoals likewise! The carp, the "aleros, and fishes in $eneral push ea$erly into the shallows for the purpose of spawnin$, and very often thirteen or fourteen males are seen followin$ a sin$le female! )hen the female deposits her spawn and departs, the males follow on and shed the milt! The $reater portion of the spawn $ets wasted "ecause, owin$ to the fact that the female moves a"out while spawnin$, the spawn scatters, or so much of it as is cau$ht in the stream and does not $et entan$led with some ru""ish! For, with the e&ception of the sheatfish, no fish keeps on $uard unless, "y the way, it "e the carp, which is said to remain on $uard, if it so happen that its spawn lies in a solid mass! All male fishes are supplied with milt, e&ceptin$ the eel: with the eel, the male is devoid of milt, and the female of spawn! The mullet $oes up from the sea to marshes and rivers the eels, on the contrary, make their way down from the marshes and rivers to the sea! 19 The $reat ma(ority of fish, then, as has "een stated, proceed from e$$s! However, there are some fish that proceed from mud and sand, even of those kinds that proceed also from pairin$ and the e$$! This occurs in ponds here and there, and especially in a pond

in the nei$h"ourhood of .nidos! This pond, it is said, at one time ran dry a"out the risin$ of the /o$star, and the mud had all dried up at the first fall of the rains there was a show of water in the pond, and on the first appearance of the water shoals of tiny fish were found in the pond! The fish in *uestion was a kind of mullet, one which does not proceed from normal pairin$, a"out the si3e of a small sprat, and not one of these fishes was provided with either spawn or milt! There are found also in Asia 0inor, in rivers not communicatin$ with the sea, little fishes like white"ait, differin$ from the small fry found near .nidos "ut found under similar circumstances! #ome writers actually aver that mullet all $row spontaneously! In this assertion they are mistaken, for the female of the fish is found provided with spawn, and the male with milt! However, there is a species of mullet that $rows spontaneously out of mud and sand! From the facts a"ove enumerated it is *uite proved that certain fishes come spontaneously into e&istence, not "ein$ derived from e$$s or from copulation! #uch fish as are neither oviparous nor viviparous arise all from one of two sources, from mud, or from sand and from decayed matter that rises thence as a scum for instance, the so+called froth of the small fry comes out of sandy $round! This fry is incapa"le of $rowth and of propa$atin$ its kind after livin$ for a while it dies away and another creature takes its place, and so, with short intervals e&cepted, it may "e said to last the whole year throu$h! At all events, it lasts from the autumn

risin$ of Arcturus up to the sprin$+time! As a proof that these fish occasionally come out of the $round we have the fact that in cold weather they are not cau$ht, and that they are cau$ht in warm weather, o"viously comin$ up out of the $round to catch the heat also, when the fishermen use dred$es and the $round is scraped up fairly often, the fishes appear in lar$er num"ers and of superior *uality! All other small fry are inferior in *uality owin$ to rapidity of $rowth! The fry are found in sheltered and marshy districts, when after a spell of fine weather the $round is $ettin$ warmer, as, for instance, in the nei$h"ourhood of Athens, at #alamis and near the tom" of Themistocles and at 0arathon for in these districts the froth is found! It appears, then, in such districts and durin$ such weather, and occasionally appears after a heavy fall of rain in the froth that is thrown up "y the fallin$ rain, from which circumstance the su"stance derives its specific name! Foam is occasionally "rou$ht in on the surface of the sea in fair weather! ,And in this, where it has formed on the surface, the so+called froth collects, as $ru"s swarm in manure for which+reason this fry is often "rou$ht in from the open sea! The fish is at its "est in *uality and *uantity in moist warm weather!The ordinary fry is the normal issue of parent fishes: the so+called $ud$eon+fry of small insi$nificant $ud$eon+like fish that "urrow under the $round! From the Ahaleric fry comes the mem"ras, from the mem"ras the trichis, from the trichis the trichias, and from one particular sort of fry, to wit from that found in the har"our of

Athens, comes what is called the encrasicholus, or anchovy! There is another fry, derived from the maenis and the mullet! The unfertile fry is watery and keeps only a short time, as has "een stated, for at last only head and eyes are left! However, the fishermen of late have hit upon a method of transportin$ it to a distance, as when salted it keeps for a considera"le time! 1: 8els are not the issue of pairin$, neither are they oviparous nor was an eel ever found supplied with either milt or spawn, nor are they when cut open found to have within them passa$es for spawn or for e$$s! In point of fact, this entire species of "looded animals proceeds neither from pair nor from the e$$! There can "e no dou"t that the case is so! For in some standin$ pools, after the water has "een drained off and the mud has "een dred$ed away, the eels appear a$ain after a fall of rain! In time of drou$ht they do not appear even in sta$nant ponds, for the simple reason that their e&istence and sustenance is derived from rain+ water! There is no dou"t, then, that they proceed neither from pairin$ nor from an e$$! #ome writers, however, are of opinion that they $enerate their kind, "ecause in some eels little worms are found, from which they suppose that eels are derived! But this opinion is not founded on fact! 8els are derived from the so+called 'earth%s $uts% that $row spontaneously in mud and in humid $round in fact,

eels have at times "een seen to emer$e out of such earthworms, and on other occasions have "een rendered visi"le when the earthworms were laid open "y either scrapin$ or cuttin$! #uch earthworms are found "oth in the sea and in rivers, especially where there is decayed matter: in the sea in places where sea+weed a"ounds, and in rivers and marshes near to the ed$e for it is near to the water%s ed$e that sun+heat has its chief power and produces putrefaction! #o much for the $eneration of the eel! 1< Fish do not all "rin$ forth their youn$ at the same season nor all in like manner, neither is the period of $estation for all of the same duration! Before pairin$ the males and females $ather to$ether in shoals at the time for copulation and parturition they pair off! )ith some fishes the time of $estation is not lon$er than thirty days, with others it is a lesser period "ut with all it e&tends over a num"er of days divisi"le "y seven! The lon$est period of $estation is that of the species which some call a marinus! The sar$ue conceives durin$ the month of Aoseideon ,or /ecem"er-, and carries its spawn for thirty days and the species of mullet named "y some the chelon, and the my&on, $o with spawn at the same period and over the same len$th of time! All fish suffer $reatly durin$ the period of $estation, and are in conse*uence very apt to "e thrown up on shore at this time! In

some cases they are driven frantic with pain and throw themselves on land! At all events they are throu$hout this time continually in motion until parturition is over ,this "ein$ especially true of the mullet-, and after parturition they are in repose! )ith many fish the time for parturition terminates on the appearance of $ru"s within the "elly for small livin$ $ru"s $et $enerated there and eat up the spawn! )ith shoal fishes parturition takes place in the sprin$, and indeed, with most fishes, a"out the time of the sprin$ e*uino& with others it is at different times, in summer with some, and with others a"out the autumn e*uino&! The first of shoal fishes to spawn is the atherine, and it spawns close to land the last is the cephalus: and this is inferred from the fact that the "rood of the atherine appears first of all and the "rood of the cephalus last! The mullet also spawns early! The saupe spawns usually at the "e$innin$ of summer, "ut occasionally in the autumn! The aulopias, which some call the anthias, spawns in the summer! 5e&t in order of spawnin$ comes the chrysophrys or $ilthead, the "asse, the mormyrus, and in $eneral such fish as are nicknamed 'runners%! Batest in order of the shoal fish come the red mullet and the coracine these spawn in autumn! The red mullet spawns on mud, and conse*uently, as the mud continues cold for a lon$ while, spawns late in the year! The coracine carries its spawn for a lon$ time "ut, as it lives usually on rocky $round, it $oes to a distance and spawns in places a"oundin$ in seaweed, at a period

later than the red mullet! The maenis spawns a"out the winter solstice! Of the others, such as are pela$ic spawn for the most part in summer which fact is proved "y their not "ein$ cau$ht "y fishermen durin$ this period! Of ordinary fishes the most prolific is the sprat of cartila$inous fishes, the fishin$+fro$! #pecimens, however, of the fishin$+fro$ are rare from the facility with which the youn$ are destroyed, as the female lays her spawn all in a lump close in to shore! As a rule, cartila$inous fish are less prolific than other fish owin$ to their "ein$ viviparous and their youn$ "y reason of their si3e have a "etter chance of escapin$ destruction! The so+called needle+fish ,or pipe+fish- is late in spawnin$, and the $reater portion of them are "urst asunder "y the e$$s "efore spawnin$ and the e$$s are not so many in num"er as lar$e in si3e! The youn$ fish cluster round the parent like so many youn$ spiders, for the fish spawns on to herself and, if any one touch the youn$, they swim away! The atherine spawns "y ru""in$ its "elly a$ainst the sand! Tunny fish also "urst asunder "y reason of their fat! They live for two years and the fishermen infer this a$e from the circumstance that once when there was a failure of the youn$ tunny fish for a year there was a failure of the full+$rown tunny the ne&t summer! They are of opinion that the tunny is a fish a year older than the pelamyd! The tunny and the mackerel pair a"out the close of the month of 8laphe"olion, and spawn a"out the commencement of

the month of Hecatom"aeon they deposit their spawn in a sort of "a$! The $rowth of the youn$ tunny is rapid! After the females have spawned in the 8u&ine, there comes from the e$$ what some call scordylae, "ut what the By3antines nickname the 'au&ids% or '$rowers%, from their $rowin$ to a considera"le si3e in a few days these fish $o out of the Aontus in autumn alon$ with the youn$ tunnies, and enter Aontus in the sprin$ as pelamyds! Fishes as a rule take on $rowth with rapidity, "ut this is peculiarly the case with all species of fish found in the Aontus the $rowth, for instance, of the amia+tunny is *uite visi"le from day to day! To resume, we must "ear in mind that the same fish in the same localities have not the same season for pairin$, for conception, for parturition, or for favourin$ weather! The coracine, for instance, in some places spawns a"out wheat+harvest! The statements here $iven pretend only to $ive the results of $eneral o"servation! The con$er also spawns, "ut the fact is not e*ually o"vious in all localities, nor is the spawn plainly visi"le owin$ to the fat of the fish for the spawn is lanky in shape as it is with serpents! However, if it "e put on the fire it shows its nature for the fat evaporates and melts, while the e$$s dance a"out and e&plode with a crack! Further, if you touch the su"stances and ru" them with your fin$ers, the fat feels smooth and the e$$ rou$h! #ome con$ers are provided with fat "ut not with any spawn, others are unprovided with fat "ut have e$$+spawn as here descri"ed!

1= )e have, then, treated pretty fully of the animals that fly in the air or swim in the water, and of such of those that walk on dry land as are oviparous, to wit of their pairin$, conception, and the like phenomena it now remains to treat of the same phenomena in conne&ion with viviparous land animals and with man! The statements made in re$ard to the pairin$ of the se&es apply partly to the particular kinds of animal and partly to all in $eneral! It is common to all animals to "e most e&cited "y the desire of one se& for the other and "y the pleasure derived from copulation! The female is most cross+tempered (ust after parturition, the male durin$ the time of pairin$ for instance, stallions at this period "ite one another, throw their riders, and chase them! )ild "oars, thou$h usually enfee"led at this time as the result of copulation, are now unusually fierce, and fi$ht with one another in an e&traordinary way, clothin$ themselves with defensive armour, or in other words deli"erately thickenin$ their hide "y ru""in$ a$ainst trees or "y coatin$ themselves repeatedly all over with mud and then dryin$ themselves in the sun! They drive one another away from the swine pastures, and fi$ht with such fury that very often "oth com"atants succum"! The case is similar with "ulls, rams, and he+$oats for, thou$h at ordinary times they herd to$ether, at "reedin$ time they hold aloof from and *uarrel with one another! The male camel also is cross+tempered at pairin$ time if either a man or a camel comes near him as for a horse, a camel is ready to fi$ht him at any time!

It is the same with wild animals! The "ear, the wolf, and the lion are all at this time ferocious towards such as come in their way, "ut the males of these animals are less $iven to fi$ht with one another from the fact that they are at no time $re$arious! The she+"ear is fierce after cu""in$, and the "itch after puppin$! 0ale elephants $et sava$e a"out pairin$ time, and for this reason it is stated that men who have char$e of elephants in India never allow the males to have intercourse with the females on the $round that the males $o wild at this time and turn topsy+turvy the dwellin$s of their keepers, li$htly constructed as they are, and commit all kinds of havoc! They also state that a"undancy of food has a tendency to tame the males! They further introduce other elephants amon$st the wild ones, and punish and "reak them in "y settin$ on the new+comers to chastise the others! Animals that pair fre*uently and not at a sin$le specific season, as for instance animals domesticated "y man, such as swine and do$s, are found to indul$e in such freaks to a lesser de$ree owin$ to the fre*uency of their se&ual intercourse! Of female animals the mare is the most se&ually wanton, and ne&t in order comes the cow! In fact, the mare is said to $o a+horsin$ and the term derived from the ha"its of this one animal serves as a term of a"use applica"le to such females of the human species as are un"ridled in the way of se&ual appetite! This is the common phenomenon as o"served in the sow when she is said to $o a+ "oarin$! The mare is said also a"out this time to $et wind+

impre$nated if not impre$nated "y the stallion, and for this reason in .rete they never remove the stallion from the mares for when the mare $ets into this condition she runs away from all other horses! The mares under these circumstances fly invaria"ly either northwards or southwards, and never towards either east or west! )hen this complaint is on them they allow no one to approach, until either they are e&hausted with fati$ue or have reached the sea! ?nder either of these circumstances they dischar$e a certain su"stance 'hippomanes%, the title $iven to a $rowth on a new+"orn foal this resem"les the sow+virus, and is in $reat re*uest amon$st women who deal in dru$s and potions! A"out horsin$ time the mares huddle closer to$ether, are continually switchin$ their tails, their nei$h is a"normal in sound, and from the se&ual or$an there flows a li*uid resem"lin$ $enital sperm, "ut much thinner than the sperm of the male! It is this su"stance that some call hippomanes, instead of the $rowth found on the foal they say it is e&tremely difficult to $et as it oo3es out only in small drops at a time! 0ares also, when in heat, dischar$e urine fre*uently, and frisk with one another! #uch are the phenomena connected with the horse! .ows $o a+"ullin$ and so completely are they under the influence of the se&ual e&citement that the herdsmen have no control over them and cannot catch hold of them in the fields! 0ares and kine alike, when in heat, indicate the fact "y the upraisin$ of their $enital or$ans, and "y continually voidin$ urine! Further, kine mount the "ulls, follow them a"out and keep standin$ "eside

them! The youn$er females "oth with horses and o&en are the first to $et in heat and their se&ual appetites are all the keener if the weather warm and their "odily condition "e healthy! 0ares, when clipt of their coat, have the se&ual feelin$ checked, and assume a downcast droopin$ appearance! The stallion reco$ni3es "y the scent the mares that form his company, even thou$h they have "een to$ether only a few days "efore "reedin$ time: if they $et mi&ed up with other mares, the stallion "ites and drives away the interlopers! He feeds apart, accompanied "y his own troop of mares! 8ach stallion has assi$ned to him a"out thirty mares or even somewhat more when a stran$e stallion approaches, he huddles his mares into a close rin$, runs round them, then advances to the encounter of the newcomer if one of the mares make a movement, he "ites her and drives her "ack! The "ull in "reedin$ time "e$ins to $ra3e with the cows, and fi$hts with other "ulls ,havin$ hitherto $ra3ed with them-, which is termed "y $ra3iers 'herd+spurnin$%! Often in 8pirus a "ull disappears for three months to$ether! In a $eneral way one may state that of male animals either none or few herd with their respective females "efore "reedin$ time "ut they keep separate after reachin$ maturity, and the two se&es feed apart! #ows, when they are moved "y se&ual desire, or are, as it is called, a+"oarin$, will attack even human "ein$s! )ith "itches the same se&ual condition is termed '$ettin$ into heat%! The se&ual or$an rises at this time, and there is a moisture a"out the parts! 0ares drip with a white li*uid at this season!

Female animals are su"(ect to menstrual dischar$es, "ut never in such+a"undance as is the female of the human species! )ith ewes and she+$oats there are si$ns of menstruation in "reedin$ time, (ust "efore the for su"mittin$ to the male after copulation also the si$ns are manifest, and then cease for an interval until the period of parturition arrives the process then supervenes, and it is "y this supervention that the shepherd knows that such and such an ewe is a"out to "rin$ forth! After parturition comes copious menstruation, not at first much tin$ed with "lood, "ut deeply dyed with it "y and "y! )ith the cow, the she ass, and the mare, the dischar$e is more copious actually, owin$ to their $reater "ulk, "ut proportionally to the $reater "ulk it is far less copious! The cow, for instance, when in heat, e&hi"its a small dischar$e to the e&tent of a *uarter of a pint of li*uid or a little less and the time when this dischar$e takes place is the "est time for her to "e covered "y the "ull! Of all *uadrupeds the mare is the most easily delivered of its youn$, e&hi"its the least amount of dischar$e after parturition, and emits the least amount of "lood that is to say, of all animals in proportion to si3e! )ith kine and mares menstruation usually manifests itself at intervals of two, four, and si& months "ut, unless one "e constantly attendin$ to and thorou$hly ac*uainted with such animals, it is difficult to verify the circumstance, and the result is that many people are under the "elief that the process never takes place with these animals at all!

)ith mules menstruation never takes place, "ut the urine of the female is thicker than the urine of the male! As a $eneral rule the dischar$e from the "ladder in the case of *uadrupeds is thicker than it is in the human species, and this dischar$e with ewes and she+$oats is thicker than with rams and he+$oats "ut the urine of the (ackass is thicker than the urine of the she+ass, and the urine of the "ull is more pun$ent than the urine of the cow! After parturition the urine of all *uadrupeds "ecomes thicker, especially with such animals as e&hi"it comparatively sli$ht dischar$es! At "reedin$ time the milk "ecome purulent, "ut after parturition it "ecomes wholesome! /urin$ pre$nancy ewes and she+$oats $et fatter and eat more as is also the case with cows, and, indeed, with the females of all *uadrupeds! In $eneral the se&ual appetites of animals are keenest in sprin$+ time the time of pairin$, however, is not the same for all, "ut is adapted so as to ensure the rearin$ of the youn$ at a convenient season! /omesticated swine carry their youn$ for four months, and "rin$ forth a litter of twenty at the utmost and, "y the way, if the litter "e e&ceedin$ly numerous they cannot rear all the youn$! As the sow $rows old she continues to "ear, "ut $rows indifferent to the "oar she conceives after a sin$le copulation, "ut they have to put the "oar to her repeatedly owin$ to her droppin$ after intercourse what is called the sow+virus! This incident "efalls all sows, "ut some of them dischar$e the $enital sperm as well! /urin$

conception any one of the litter that $ets in(ured or dwarfed is called an afterpi$ or scut: such in(ury may occur at any part of the wom"! After litterin$ the mother offers the foremost teat to the first+"orn! )hen the sow is in heat, she must not at once "e put to the "oar, "ut only after she lets her lu$s drop, for otherwise she is apt to $et into heat a$ain if she "e put to the "oar when in full condition of heat, one copulation, as has "een said, is sufficient! It is as well to supply the "oar at the period of copulation with "arley, and the sow at the time of parturition with "oiled "arley! #ome swine $ive fine litters only at the "e$innin$, with others the litters improve as the mothers $row in a$e and si3e! It is said that a sow, if she have one of her eyes knocked out, is almost sure to die soon afterwards! #wine for the most part live for fifteen years, "ut some fall little short of the twenty! 1> 8wes conceive after three or four copulations with the ram! If rain falls after intercourse, the ram impre$nates the ewe a$ain and it is the same with the she+$oat! The ewe "ears usually two lam"s, sometimes three or four! Both ewe and she+$oat carry their youn$ for five months conse*uently wherever a district is sunny and the animals are used to comfort and well fed, they "ear twice in the year! The $oat lives for ei$ht years and the sheep for ten, "ut in most cases not so lon$ the "ell+wether, however, lives to fifteen years! In every flock they train one of the rams for "ell+wether!

)hen he is called on "y name "y the shepherd, he takes the lead of the flock: and to this duty the creature is trained from its earliest years! #heep in 8thiopia live for twelve or thirteen years, $oats for ten or eleven! In the case of the sheep and the $oat the two se&es have intercourse all their lives lon$! Twins with sheep and $oats may "e due to richness of pastura$e, or to the fact that either the ram or the he+$oat is a twin+"e$etter or that the ewe or the she+$oat is a twin+"earer! Of these animals some $ive "irth to males and others to females and the difference in this respect depends on the waters they drink and also on the sires! And if they su"mit to the male when north winds are "lowin$, they are apt to "ear males if when south winds are "lowin$, females! #uch as "ear females may $et to "ear males, due re$ard "ein$ paid to their lookin$ northwards when put to the male! 8wes accustomed to "e put to the ram early will refuse him if he attempt to mount them late! Bam"s are "orn white and "lack accordin$ as white or "lack veins are under the ram%s ton$ue the lam"s are white if the veins are white, and "lack if the veins are "lack, and white and "lack if the veins are white and "lack and red if the veins are red! The females that drink salted waters are the first to take the male the water should "e salted "efore and after parturition, and a$ain in the sprin$time! )ith $oats the shepherds appoint no "ell+wether, as the animal is not capa"le of repose "ut frisky and apt to ram"le! If at the appointed season the elders of the

flock are ea$er for intercourse, the shepherds say that it "odes well for the flock if the youn$er ones, that the flock is $oin$ to "e "ad! 4@ Of do$s there are several "reeds! Of these the Baconian hound of either se& is fit for "reedin$ purposes when ei$ht months old: at a"out the same a$e some do$s lift the le$ when voidin$ urine! The "itch conceives with one linin$ this is clearly seen in the case where a do$ contrives to line a "itch "y stealth, as they impre$nate after mountin$ only once! The Baconian "itch carries her youn$ the si&th part of a year or si&ty days: or more "y one, two, or three, or less "y one the pups are "lind for twelve days after "irth! After puppin$, the "itch $ets in heat a$ain in si& months, "ut not "efore! #ome "itches carry their youn$ for the fifth part of the year or for seventy+two days and their pups are "lind for fourteen days! Other "itches carry their youn$ for a *uarter of a year or for three whole months and the whelps of these are "lind for seventeen days! The "itch appears $o in heat for the same len$th of time! 0enstruation continues for seven days, and a swellin$ of the $enital or$an occurs simultaneously it is not durin$ this period that the "itch is disposed to su"mit to the do$, "ut in the seven days that follow! The "itch as a rule $oes in heat for fourteen days, "ut occasionally for si&teen! The "irth+dischar$e occurs simultaneously with the delivery of the whelps, and the su"stance of it is thick and mucous! ,The fallin$+off in "ulk on the part of the mother is not so $reat as

mi$ht have "een inferred from the si3e of her frame!- The "itch is usually supplied with milk five days "efore parturition some seven days previously, some four and the milk is servicea"le immediately after "irth! The Baconian "itch is supplied with milk thirty days after linin$! The milk at first is thickish, "ut $ets thinner "y de$rees with the "itch the milk is thicker than with the female of any other animal e&ceptin$ the sow and the hare! )hen the "itch arrives at full $rowth an indication is $iven of her capacity for the male that is to say, (ust as occurs in the female of the human species, a swellin$ takes place in the teats of the "reasts, and the "reasts take on $ristle! This incident, however, it is difficult for any "ut an e&pert to detect, as the part that $ives the indication is inconsidera"le! The precedin$ statements relate to the female, and not one of them to the male! The male as a rule lifts his le$ to void urine when si& months old some at a later period, when ei$ht months old, some "efore they reach si& months! In a $eneral way one may put it that they do so when they are out of puppyhood! The "itch s*uats down when she voids urine it is a rare e&ception that she lifts the le$ to do so! The "itch "ears twelve pups at the most, "ut usually five or si& occasionally a "itch will "ear one only! The "itch of the Baconian "reed $enerally "ears ei$ht! The two se&es have intercourse with each other at all periods of life! A very remarka"le phenomenon is o"served in the case of the Baconian hound: in other words, he is found to "e more vi$orous

in commerce with the female after "ein$ hard+worked than when allowed to live idle! The do$ of the Baconian "reed lives ten years, and the "itch twelve! The "itch of other "reeds usually lives for fourteen or fifteen years, "ut some live to twenty and for this reason certain critics consider that Homer did well in representin$ the do$ of ?lysses as havin$ died in his twentieth year! )ith the Baconian hound, owin$ to the hardships to which the male is put, he is less lon$+lived than the female with other "reeds the distinction as to lon$evity is not very apparent, thou$h as a $eneral rule the male is the lon$er+lived! The do$ sheds no teeth e&cept the so+called 'canines% these a do$ of either se& sheds when four months old! As they shed these only, many people are in dou"t as to the fact, and some people, owin$ to their sheddin$ "ut two and its "ein$ hard to hit upon the time when they do so, fancy that the animal sheds no teeth at all others, after o"servin$ the sheddin$ of two, come to the conclusion that the creature sheds the rest in due turn! 0en discern the a$e of a do$ "y inspection of its teeth with youn$ do$s the teeth are white and sharp pointed, with old do$s "lack and "lunted! 41 The "ull impre$nates the cow at a sin$le mount, and mounts with such vi$our as to wei$h down the cow if his effort "e unsuccessful, the cow must "e allowed an interval of twenty days

"efore "ein$ a$ain su"mitted! Bulls of mature a$e decline to mount the same cow several times on one day, e&cept, "y the way, at considera"le intervals! Joun$ "ulls "y reason of their vi$our are ena"led to mount the same cow several times in one day, and a $ood many cows "esides! The "ull is the least salacious of male animals!!!! The victor amon$ the "ulls is the one that mounts the females when he $ets e&hausted "y his amorous efforts, his "eaten anta$onist sets on him and very often $ets the "etter of the conflict! The "ull and the cow are a"out a year old when it is possi"le for them to have commerce with chance of offsprin$: as a rule, however, they are a"out twenty months old, "ut it is universally allowed that they are capa"le in this respect at the a$e of two years! The cow $oes with calf for nine months, and she calves in the tenth month some maintain that they $o in calf for ten months, to the very day! A calf delivered "efore the times here specified is an a"ortion and never lives, however little premature its "irth may have "een, as its hooves are weak and imperfect! The cow as a rule "ears "ut one calf, very seldom two she su"mits to the "ull and "ears as lon$ as she lives! .ows live for a"out fifteen years, and the "ulls too, if they have "een castrated "ut some live for twenty years or even more, if their "odily constitutions "e sound! The herdsmen tame the castrated "ulls, and $ive them an office in the herd analo$ous to the office of the "ell+wether in a flock and these "ulls live to an e&ceptionally advanced a$e, owin$ to their e&emption from

hardship and to their "rowsin$ on pasture of $ood *uality! The "ull is in fullest vi$our when five years old, which leads the critics to commend Homer for applyin$ to the "ull the epithets of 'five+year+ old%, or 'of nine seasons%, which epithets are alike in meanin$! The o& sheds his teeth at the a$e of two years, not all to$ether "ut (ust as the horse sheds his! )hen the animal suffers from poda$ra it does not shed the hoof, "ut is su"(ect to a painful swellin$ in the feet! The milk of the cow is servicea"le after parturition, and "efore parturition there is no milk at all! The milk that first presents itself "ecomes as hard as stone when it clots this result ensues unless it "e previously diluted with water! O&en youn$er than a year old do not copulate unless under circumstances of an unnatural and portentous kind: instances have "een recorded of copulation in "oth se&es at the a$e of four months! Gine in $eneral "e$in to su"mit to the male a"out the month of Thar$elion or of #cirophorion some, however, are capa"le of conception ri$ht on to the autumn! )hen kine in lar$e num"ers receive the "ull and conceive, it is looked upon as pro$nostic of rain and stormy weather! Gine herd to$ether like mares, "ut in lesser de$ree! 44 In the case of horses, the stallion and the mare are first fitted for "reedin$ purposes when two years old! Instances, however, of such early maturity are rare, and their youn$ are e&ceptionally small and weak the ordinary a$e for se&ual maturity is three years, and from

that a$e to twenty the two se&es $o on improvin$ in the *uality of their offsprin$! The mare carries her foal for eleven months, and casts it in the twelfth! It is not a fi&ed num"er of days that the stallion takes to impre$nate the mare it may "e one, two, three, or more! An ass in coverin$ will impre$nate more e&peditiously than a stallion! The act of intercourse with horses is not la"orious as it is with o&en! In "oth se&es the horse is the most salacious of animals ne&t after the human species! The "reedin$ faculties of the youn$er horses may "e stimulated "eyond their years if they "e supplied with $ood feedin$ in a"undance! The mare as a rule "ears only one foal occasionally she has two, "ut never more! A mare has "een known to cast two mules "ut such a circumstance was re$arded as unnatural and portentous! The horse then is first fitted for "reedin$ purposes at the a$e of two and a half years, "ut achieves full se&ual maturity when it has ceased to shed teeth, e&cept it "e naturally infertile it must "e added, however, that some horses have "een known to impre$nate the mare while the teeth were in process of sheddin$! The horse has forty teeth! It sheds its first set of four, two from the upper (aw and two from the lower, when two and a half years old! After a year%s interval, it sheds another set of four in like manner, and another set of four after yet another year%s interval after arrivin$ at the a$e of four years and si& months it sheds no more! An instance has occurred where a horse shed all his teeth at once, and another instance of a horse sheddin$ all his teeth with his last

set of four "ut such instances are very rare! It conse*uently happens that a horse when four and a half years old is in e&cellent condition for "reedin$ purposes! The older horses, whether of the male or female, are the more $eneratively productive! Horses will cover mares from which they have "een foaled and mares which they have "e$otten and, indeed, a troop of horses is only considered perfect when such promiscuity of intercourse occurs! #cythians use pre$nant mares for ridin$ when the em"ryo has turned rather soon in the wom", and they assert that there"y the mothers have all the easier delivery! Kuadrupeds as a rule lie down for parturition, and in conse*uence the youn$ of them all come out of the wom" sideways! The mare, however, when the time for parturition arrives, stands erect and in that posture casts its foal! The horse in $eneral lives for ei$hteen or twenty years some horses live for twenty+five or even thirty, and if a horse "e treated with e&treme care, it may last on to the a$e of fifty years a horse, however, when it reaches thirty years is re$arded as e&ceptionally old! The mare lives usually for twenty+five years, thou$h instances have occurred of their attainin$ the a$e of forty! The male is less lon$+lived than the female "y reason of the se&ual service he is called on to render and horses that are reared in a private sta"le live lon$er than such as are reared in troops! The mare attains her full len$th and hei$ht at five years old, the stallion at si& in another si& years the animal reaches its full "ulk, and $oes on

improvin$ until it is twenty years old! The female, then, reaches maturity more rapidly than the male, "ut in the wom" the case is reversed, (ust as is o"served in re$ard to the se&es of the human species and the same phenomenon is o"served in the case of all animals that "ear several youn$! The mare is said to suckle a mule+foal for si& months, "ut not to allow its approach for any lon$er on account of the pain it is put to "y the hard tu$$in$ of the youn$ an ordinary foal it allows to suck for a lon$er period! Horse and mule are at their "est after the sheddin$ of the teeth! After they have shed them all, it is not easy to distin$uish their a$e hence they are said to carry their mark "efore the sheddin$, "ut not after! However, even after the sheddin$ their a$e is pretty well reco$ni3ed "y the aid of the canines for in the case of horses much ridden these teeth are worn away "y attrition caused "y the insertion of the "it in the case of horses not ridden the teeth are lar$e and detached, and in youn$ horses they are sharp and small! The male of the horse will "reed at all seasons and durin$ its whole life the mare can take the horse all its life lon$, "ut is not thus ready to pair at all seasons unless it "e held in check "y a halter or some other compulsion "e "rou$ht to "ear! There is no fi&ed time at which intercourse of the two se&es cannot take place and accordin$ly intercourse may chance to take place at a time that may render difficult the rearin$ of the future pro$eny! In a sta"le in

Opus there was a stallion that used to serve mares when forty years old: his fore le$s had to "e lifted up for the operation! 0ares first take the horse in the sprin$+time! After a mare has foaled she does not $et impre$nated at once a$ain, "ut only after a considera"le interval in fact, the foals will "e all the "etter if the interval e&tend over four or five years! It is, at all events, a"solutely necessary to allow an interval of one year, and for that period to let her lie fallow! A mare, then, "reeds at intervals a she+ ass "reeds on and on without intermission! Of mares some are a"solutely sterile, others are capa"le of conception "ut incapa"le of "rin$in$ the foal to full term it is said to "e an indication of this condition in a mare, that her foal if dissected is found to have other kidney+shaped su"stances round a"out its kidneys, presentin$ the appearance of havin$ four kidneys! After parturition the mare at once swallows the after+"irth, and "ites off the $rowth, called the 'hippomanes%, that is found on the forehead of the foal! This $rowth is somewhat smaller than a dried fi$ and in shape is "road and round, and in colour "lack! If any "ystander $ets possession of it "efore the mare, and the mare $ets a smell of it, she $oes wild and frantic at the smell! And it is for this reason that venders of dru$s and simples hold the su"stance in hi$h re*uest and include it amon$ their stores! If an ass cover a mare after the mare has "een covered "y a horse, the ass will destroy the previously formed em"ryo!

,Horse+trainers do not appoint a horse as leader to a troop, as herdsmen appoint a "ull as leader to a herd, and for this reason that the horse is not steady "ut *uick+tempered and skittish!46 The ass of "oth se&es is capa"le of "reedin$, and sheds its first teeth at the a$e of two and a half years it sheds its second teeth within si& months, its third within another si& months, and the fourth after the like interval! These fourth teeth are termed the $nomons or a$e+indicators! A she+ass has "een known to conceive when a year old, and the foal to "e reared! After intercourse with the male it will dischar$e the $enital sperm unless it "e hindered, and for this reason it is usually "eaten after such intercourse and chased a"out! It casts its youn$ in the twelfth month! It usually "ears "ut one foal, and that is its natural num"er, occasionally however it "ears twins! The ass if it cover a mare destroys, as has "een said, the em"ryo previously "e$otten "y the horse "ut, after the mare has "een covered "y the ass, the horse supervenin$ will not spoil the em"ryo! The she+ass has milk in the tenth month of pre$nancy! #even days after castin$ a foal the she+ass su"mits to the male, and is almost sure to conceive if put to the male on this particular day the same result, however, is *uite possi"le later on! The she+ass will refuse to cast her foal with any one lookin$ on or in the dayli$ht and (ust "efore foalin$ she has to "e led away into a dark place! If the she+ass has

had youn$ "efore the sheddin$ of the inde&+teeth, she will "ear all her life throu$h "ut if not, then she will neither conceive nor "ear for the rest of her days! The ass lives for more than thirty years, and the she+ass lives lon$er than the male! )hen there is a cross "etween a horse and a she+ass or a (ackass and a mare, there is much $reater chance of a miscarria$e than where the commerce is normal! The period for $estation in the case of a cross depends on the male, and is (ust what it would have "een if the male had had commerce with a female of his own kind! In re$ard to si3e, looks, and vi$our, the foal is more apt to resem"le the mother than the sire! If such hy"rid conne&ions "e continued without intermittence, the female will soon $o sterile and for this reason trainers always allow of intervals "etween "reedin$ times! A mare will not take the ass, nor a she ass the horse, unless the ass or she+ass shall have "een suckled "y a mare and for this reason trainers put foals of the she+ass under mares, which foals are technically spoken of as 'mare+suckled%! These asses, thus reared, mount the mares in the open pastures, masterin$ them "y force as the stallions do! 47 A mule is fitted for commerce with the female after the first sheddin$ of its teeth, and at the a$e of seven will impre$nate effectually and where conne&ion has taken place with a mare, a 'hinny% has "een known to "e produced! After the seventh year it

has no further intercourse with the female! A female mule has "een known to "e impre$nated, "ut without the impre$nation "ein$ followed up "y parturition! In #yrophoenicia she+mules su"mit to the mule and "ear youn$ "ut the "reed, thou$h it resem"les the ordinary one, is different and specific! The hinny or stunted mule is foaled "y a mare when she has $one sick durin$ $estation, and corresponds to the dwarf in the human species and to the after+pi$ or scut in swine and as is the case with dwarfs, the se&ual or$an of the hinny is a"normally lar$e! The mule lives for a num"er of years! There are on record cases of mules livin$ to the a$e of ei$hty, as did one in Athens at the time of the "uildin$ of the temple this mule on account of its a$e was let $o free, "ut continued to assist in dra$$in$ "urdens, and would $o side "y side with the other drau$ht+"easts and stimulate them to their work and in conse*uence a pu"lic decree was passed for"iddin$ any "aker drivin$ the creature away from his "read+ tray! The she+mule $rows old more slowly than the mule! #ome assert that the she+mule menstruates "y the act of voidin$ her urine, and that the mule owes the prematurity of his decay to his ha"it of smellin$ at the urine! #o much for the modes of $eneration in conne&ion with these animals! 49 Breeders and trainers can distin$uish "etween youn$ and old *uadrupeds! If, when drawn "ack from the (aw, the skin at once

$oes "ack to its place, the animal is youn$ if it remains lon$ wrinkled up, the animal is old! 4: The camel carries its youn$ for ten months, and "ears "ut one at a time and never more the youn$ camel is removed from the mother when a year old! The animal lives for a lon$ period, more than fifty years! It "ears in sprin$+time, and $ives milk until the time of the ne&t conception! Its flesh and milk are e&ceptionally palata"le! The milk is drunk mi&ed with water in the proportion of either two to one or three to one! 4< The elephant of either se& is fitted for "reedin$ "efore reachin$ the a$e of twenty! The female carries her youn$, accordin$ to some accounts, for two and a half years accordin$ to others, for three years and the discrepancy in the assi$ned periods is due to the fact that there are never human eyewitnesses to the commerce "etween the se&es! The female settles down on its rear to cast its youn$, and o"viously suffers $reatly durin$ the process! The youn$ one, immediately after "irth, sucks the mother, not with its trunk "ut with the mouth and can walk a"out and see distinctly the moment it is "orn! 4=

The wild sow su"mits to the "oar at the "e$innin$ of winter, and in the sprin$+time retreats for parturition to a lair in some district inaccessi"le to intrusion, hemmed in with sheer cliffs and chasms and overshadowed "y trees! The "oar usually remains "y the sow for thirty days! The num"er of the litter and the period $estation is the same as in the case of the domesticated con$ener! The sound of the $runt also is similar only that the sow $runts continually, and the "oar "ut seldom! Of the wild "oars such as are castrated $row to the lar$est si3e and "ecome fiercest: to which circumstance Homer alludes when he says:I 'He reared a$ainst him a wild castrated "oar: it was not like a food+ devourin$ "rute, "ut like a forest+clad promontory!% )ild "oars "ecome castrated owin$ to an itch "efallin$ them in early life in the re$ion of the testicles, and the castration is superinduced "y their ru""in$ themselves a$ainst the trunks of trees! 4> The hind, as has "een stated, su"mits to the sta$ as a rule only under compulsion, as she is una"le to endure the male often owin$ to the ri$idity of the penis! However, they do occasionally su"mit to the sta$ as the ewe su"mits ram and when they are in heat the hinds avoid one another! The sta$ is not constant to one particular hind, "ut after a while *uits one and mates with others! The "reedin$ time is after the risin$ of Arcturus, durin$ the months of

Boedromion and 0aimacterion! The period of $estation lasts for ei$ht months! .onception comes on a few days after intercourse and a num"er of hinds can "e impre$nated "y a sin$le male! The hind, as a rule, "ears "ut one fawn, althou$h instances have "een known of her castin$ two! Out of dread of wild "easts she casts her youn$ "y the side of the hi$h+road! The youn$ fawn $rows with rapidity! 0enstruation occurs at no other time with the hind it takes place only after parturition, and the su"stance is phle$m+like! The hind leads the fawn to her lair this is her place of refu$e, a cave with a sin$le inlet, inside which she shelters herself a$ainst attack! Fa"ulous stories are told concernin$ the lon$evity of the animal, "ut the stories have never "een verified, and the "revity of the period of $estation and the rapidity of $rowth in the fawn would not lead one to attri"ute e&treme lon$evity to this creature! In the mountain called 8laphoeis or /eer 0ountain, which is in Ar$inussa in Asia 0inor+the place, "y the way, where Alci"iades was assassinated+all the hinds have the ear split, so that, if they stray to a distance, they can "e reco$ni3ed "y this mark and the em"ryo actually has the mark while yet in the wom" of the mother! The hind has four teats like the cow! After the hinds have "ecome pre$nant, the males all se$re$ate one "y one, and in conse*uence of the violence of their se&ual passions they keep each one to himself, di$ a hole in the $round, and "ellow from time to time in all these particulars they resem"le the $oat, and their foreheads

from $ettin$ wetted "ecome "lack, as is also the case with the $oat! In this way they pass the time until the rain falls, after which time they turn to pasture! The animal acts in this way owin$ to its se&ual wantonness and also to its o"esity for in summer+time it "ecomes so e&ceptionally fat as to "e una"le to run: in fact at this period they can "e overtaken "y the hunters that pursue them on foot in the second or third run and, "y the way, in conse*uence of the heat of the weather and their $ettin$ out of "reath they always make for water in their runs! In the ruttin$ season, the flesh of the deer is unsavoury and rank, like the flesh of the he+$oat! In winter+ time the deer "ecomes thin and weak, "ut towards the approach of the sprin$ he is at his "est for runnin$! )hen on the run the deer keeps pausin$ from time to time, and waits until his pursuer draws upon him, whereupon he starts off a$ain! This ha"it appears due to some internal pain: at all events, the $ut is so slender and weak that, if you strike the animal ever so softly, it is apt to "reak asunder, thou$h the hide of the animal remains sound and unin(ured! 6@ Bears, as has "een previously stated, do not copulate with the male mountin$ the "ack of the female, "ut with the female lyin$ down under the male! The she+"ear $oes with youn$ for thirty days! #he "rin$s forth sometimes one cu", sometimes two cu"s, and at most five! Of all animals the newly "orn cu" of the she "ear is the

smallest in proportion to the si3e of the mother that is to say, it is lar$er than a mouse "ut smaller than a weasel! It is also smooth and "lind, and its le$s and most of its or$ans are as yet inarticulate! Aairin$ takes Alace in the month of 8laphe"olion, and parturition a"out the time for retirin$ into winter *uarters a"out this time the "ear and the she+"ear are at the fattest! After the she+"ear has reared her youn$, she comes out of her winter lair in the third month, when it is already sprin$! The female porcupine, "y the way, hi"ernates and $oes with youn$ the same num"er of days as the she+"ear, and in all respects as to parturition resem"les this animal! )hen a she+"ear is with youn$, it is a very hard task to catch her! 61 It has already "een stated that the lion and lioness copulate rearwards, and that these animals are opisthuretic! They do not copulate nor "rin$ forth at all seasons indiscriminately, "ut once in the year only! The lioness "rin$s forth in the sprin$, $enerally two cu"s at a time, and si& at the very most "ut sometimes only one! The story a"out the lioness dischar$in$ her wom" in the act of parturition is a pure fa"le, and was merely invented to account for the scarcity of the animal for the animal is, as is well known, a rare animal, and is not found in many countries! In fact, in the whole of 8urope it is only found in the strip "etween the rivers Achelous and 5essus! The cu"s of the lioness when newly "orn are

e&ceedin$ly small, and can scarcely walk when two months old! The #yrian lion "ears cu"s five times: five cu"s at the first litter, then four, then three, then two, and lastly one after this the lioness ceases to "ear for the rest of her days! The lioness has no mane, "ut this appenda$e is peculiar to the lion! The lion sheds only the four so+called canines, two in the upper (aw and two in the lower and it sheds them when it is si& months old! 64 The hyena in colour resem"les the wolf, "ut is more sha$$y, and is furnished with a mane runnin$ all alon$ the spine! )hat is recounted concernin$ its $enital or$ans, to the effect that every hyena is furnished with the or$an "oth of the male and the female, is untrue! The fact is that the se&ual or$an of the male hyena resem"les the same or$an in the wolf and in the do$ the part resem"lin$ the female $enital or$an lies underneath the tail, and does to some e&tent resem"le the female or$an, "ut it is unprovided with duct or passa$e, and the passa$e for the residuum comes underneath it! The female hyena has the part that resem"les the or$an of the male, and, as in the case of the male, has it underneath her tail, unprovided with duct or passa$e and after it the passa$e for the residuum, and underneath this the true female $enital or$an! The female hyena has a wom", like all other female animals of the same kind! It is an e&ceedin$ly rare circumstance to

meet with a female hyena! At least a hunter said that out of eleven hyenas he had cau$ht, only one was a female! 66 Hares copulate in a rearward posture, as has "een stated, for the animal is opisthuretic! They "reed and "ear at all seasons, superfoetate durin$ pre$nancy, and "ear youn$ every month! They do not $ive "irth to their youn$ ones all to$ether at one time, "ut "rin$ them forth at intervals over as many days as the circumstances of each case may re*uire! The female is supplied with milk "efore parturition and after "earin$ su"mits immediately to the male, and is capa"le of conception while sucklin$ her youn$! The milk in consistency resem"les sow%s milk! The youn$ are "orn "lind, as is the case with the $reater part Of the fissipeds or toed animals! 67 The fo& mounts the vi&en in copulation, and the vi&en "ears youn$ like the she+"ear in fact, her youn$ ones are even more inarticulately formed! Before parturition she retires to se*uestered places, so that it is a $reat rarity for a vi&en to "e cau$ht while pre$nant! After parturition she warms her youn$ and $ets them into shape "y lickin$ them! #he "ears four at most at a "irth! 69

The wolf resem"les the do$ in re$ard to the time of conception and parturition, the num"er of the litter, and the "lindness of the new"orn youn$! The se&es couple at one special period, and the female "rin$s forth at the "e$innin$ of the summer! There is an account $iven of the parturition of the she+wolf that "orders on the fa"ulous, to the effect that she confines her lyin$+in to within twelve particular days of the year! And they $ive the reason for this in the form of a myth, vi3! that when they transported Beto in so many days from the land of the Hyper"oreans to the island of /elos, she assumed the form of a she+wolf to escape the an$er of Here! )hether the account "e correct or not has not yet "een verified I $ive it merely as it is currently told! There is no more of truth in the current statement that the she+wolf "ears once and only once in her lifetime! The cat and the ichneumon "ear as many youn$ as the do$, and live on the same food they live a"out si& years! The cu"s of the panther are "orn "lind like those of the wolf, and the female "ears four at the most at one "irth! The particulars of conception are the same for the thos, or civet, as for the do$ the cu"s of the animal are "orn "lind, and the female "ears two, or three, or four at a "irth! It is lon$ in the "ody and low in stature "ut not withstandin$ the shortness of its le$s it is e&ceptionally fleet of foot, owin$ to the suppleness of its frame and its capacity for leapin$! 6:

There is found in #yria a so+called mule! It is not the same as the cross "etween the horse and ass, "ut resem"les it (ust as a wild ass resem"les the domesticated con$ener, and derives its name from the resem"lance! Bike the wild ass, this wild mule is remarka"le for its speed! The animals of this species inter"reed with one another and a proof of this statement may "e $athered from the fact that a certain num"er of them were "rou$ht into Ahry$ia in the time of Aharnaces, the father of Aharna"a3us, and the animal is there still! The num"er ori$inally introduced was nine, and there are three there at the present day! 6< The phenomena of $eneration in re$ard to the mouse are the most astonishin$ "oth for the num"er of the youn$ and for the rapidity of recurrence in the "irths! On one occasion a she+mouse in a state of pre$nancy was shut up "y accident in a (ar containin$ millet+ seed, and after a little while the lid of the (ar was removed and upwards of one hundred and twenty mice were found inside it! The rate of propa$ation of field mice in country places, and the destruction that they cause, are "eyond all tellin$! In many places their num"er is so incalcula"le that "ut very little of the corn+crop is left to the farmer and so rapid is their mode of proceedin$ that sometimes a small farmer will one day o"serve that it is time for reapin$, and on the followin$ mornin$, when he takes his reapers afield, he finds his entire crop devoured! Their disappearance is

unaccounta"le: in a few days not a mouse will there "e to "e seen! And yet in the time "efore these few days men fail to keep down their num"ers "y fumi$atin$ and unearthin$ them, or "y re$ularly huntin$ them and turnin$ in swine upon them for pi$s, "y the way, turn up the mouse+holes "y rootin$ with their snouts! Fo&es also hunt them, and the wild ferrets in particular destroy them, "ut they make no way a$ainst the prolific *ualities of the animal and the rapidity of its "reedin$! )hen they are super+a"undant, nothin$ succeeds in thinnin$ them down e&cept the rain "ut after heavy rains they disappear rapidly! In a certain district of Aersia when a female mouse is dissected the female em"ryos appear to "e pre$nant! #ome people assert, and positively assert, that a female mouse "y lickin$ salt can "ecome pre$nant without the intervention of the male! 0ice in 8$ypt are covered with "ristles like the hed$eho$! There is also a different "reed of mice that walk on their two hind+le$s their front le$s are small and their hind+le$s lon$ the "reed is e&ceedin$ly numerous! There are many other "reeds of mice than are here referred to! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book ;II 1 As to 0an%s $rowth, first within his mother%s wom" and afterward to old a$e, the course of nature, in so far as man is specially concerned, is after the followin$ manner! And, "y the way, the difference of male and female and of their respective or$ans has "een dealt with heretofore! )hen twice seven years old, in the most of cases, the male "e$ins to en$ender seed and at the same time hair appears upon the pu"es, in like manner, so Alcmaeon of .roton remarks, as plants first "lossom and then seed! A"out the same time, the voice "e$ins to alter, $ettin$ harsher and more uneven, neither shrill as formerly nor deep as afterward, nor yet of any even tone, "ut like an instrument whose strin$s are frayed and out of tune and it is called, "y way of "y+word, the "leat of the "illy+$oat! 5ow this "reakin$ of the voice is the more apparent in those who are makin$ trial of their se&ual powers for in those who are prone to lustfulness the voice turns into the voice of a man, "ut not so in the continent! For if a lad strive dili$ently to hinder his voice from "reakin$, as some do of those who devote themselves to music, the voice lasts a lon$ while un"roken and may even persist with little chan$e! And the "reasts swell and likewise the private parts, alterin$ in si3e and shape! ,And "y the way, at this time of life those who try "y friction to provoke emission of seed are apt to e&perience pain as well as voluptuous sensations!- At the

same a$e in the female, the "reasts swell and the so+called catamenia commence to flow and this fluid resem"les fresh "lood! There is another dischar$e, a white one, "y the way, which occurs in $irls even at a very early a$e, more especially if their diet "e lar$ely of a fluid nature and this malady causes arrest of $rowth and loss of flesh! In the ma(ority of cases the catamenia are noticed "y the time the "reasts have $rown to the hei$ht of two fin$ers% "readth! In $irls, too, a"out this time the voice chan$es to a deeper note for while in $eneral the woman%s voice is hi$her than the man%s, so also the voices of $irls are pitched in a hi$her key than the elder women%s, (ust as the "oy%s are hi$her than the men%s and the $irls% voices are shriller than the "oys%, and a maid%s flute is tuned sharper than a lad%s! 2irls of this a$e have much need of surveillance! For then in particular they feel a natural impulse to make usa$e of the se&ual faculties that are developin$ in them so that unless they $uard a$ainst any further impulse "eyond that inevita"le one which their "odily development of itself supplies, even in the case of those who a"stain alto$ether from passionate indul$ence, they contract ha"its which are apt to continue into later life! For $irls who $ive way to wantonness $row more and more wanton and the same is true of "oys, unless they "e safe$uarded from one temptation and another for the passa$es "ecome dilated and set up a local flu& or runnin$, and "esides this the recollection of pleasure associated with former indul$ence creates a lon$in$ for its repetition!

#ome men are con$enitally impotent owin$ to structural defect and in like manner women also may suffer from con$enital incapacity! Both men and women are lia"le to constitutional chan$e, $rowin$ healthier or more sickly, or alterin$ in the way of leanness, stoutness, and vi$our thus, after pu"erty some lads who were thin "efore $row stout and healthy, and the converse also happens and the same is e*ually true of $irls! For when in "oy or $irl the "ody is loaded with superfluous matter, then, when such superfluities are $ot rid of in the spermatic or catamenial dischar$e, their "odies improve in health and condition owin$ to the removal of what had acted as an impediment to health and proper nutrition "ut in such as are of opposite ha"it their "odies "ecome emaciated and out of health, for then the spermatic dischar$e in the one case and the catamenial flow in the other take place at the cost of natural healthy conditions! Furthermore, in the case of maidens the condition of the "reasts is diverse in different individuals, for they are sometimes *uite "i$ and sometimes little and as a $eneral rule their si3e depends on whether or not the "ody was "urthened in childhood with superfluous material! For when the si$ns of womanhood are ni$h "ut not come, the more there "e of moisture the more will it cause the "reasts to swell, even to the "urstin$ point and the result is that the "reasts remain durin$ after+life of the "ulk that they then ac*uired! And amon$ men, the "reasts $row more conspicuous and more like to those of women, "oth in youn$ men and old, when the

individual temperament is moist and sleek and the reverse of sinewy, and all the more amon$ the dark+comple&ioned than the fair! At the outset and till the a$e of one and twenty the spermatic dischar$e is devoid of fecundity afterwards it "ecomes fertile, "ut youn$ men and women produce undersi3ed and imperfect pro$eny, as is the case also with the common run of animals! Joun$ women conceive readily, "ut, havin$ conceived, their la"our in child"ed is apt to "e difficult! The frame fails of reachin$ its full development and a$es *uickly in men of intemperate lusts and in women who "ecome mothers of many children for it appears to "e the case that $rowth ceases when the woman has $iven "irth to three children! )omen of a lascivious disposition $row more sedate and virtuous after they have "orne several children! After the a$e of twenty+one women are fully ripe for child+"earin$, "ut men $o on increasin$ in vi$our! )hen the spermatic fluid is of a thin consistency it is infertile when $ranular it is fertile and likely to produce male children, "ut when thin and unclotted it is apt to produce female offsprin$! And it is a"out this time of life that in men the "eard makes its appearance! 4 The onset of the catamenia in women takes place towards the end of the month and on this account the wiseacres assert that the

moon is feminine, "ecause the dischar$e in women and the wanin$ of the moon happen at one and the same time, and after the wane and the dischar$e "oth one and the other $row whole a$ain! ,In some women the catamenia occur re$ularly "ut sparsely every month, and more a"undantly every third month!- )ith those in whom the ailment lasts "ut a little while, two days or three, recovery is easy "ut where the duration is lon$er, the ailment is more trou"lesome! For women are ailin$ durin$ these days and sometimes the dischar$e is sudden and sometimes $radual, "ut in all cases alike there is "odily distress until the attack "e over! In many cases at the commencement of the attack, when the dischar$e is a"out to appear, there occur spasms and rum"lin$ noises within the wom" until such time as the dischar$e manifests itself! ?nder natural conditions it is after recovery from these symptoms that conception takes place in women, and women in whom the si$ns do not manifest themselves for the most part remain childless! But the rule is not without e&ception, for some conceive in spite of the a"sence of these symptoms and these are cases in which a secretion accumulates, not in such a way as actually to issue forth, "ut in amount e*ual to the residuum left in the case of child+"earin$ women after the normal dischar$e has taken place! And some conceive while the si$ns are on "ut not afterwards, those namely in whom the wom" closes up immediately after the dischar$e! In some cases the menses persist durin$ pre$nancy up to

the very last "ut the result in these cases is that the offsprin$ are poor, and either fail to survive or $row up weakly! In many cases, owin$ to e&cessive desire, arisin$ either from youthful impetuosity or from len$thened a"stinence, prolapsion of the wom" takes place and the catamenia appear repeatedly, thrice in the month, until conception occurs and then the wom" withdraws upwards a$ain to its proper place!!! As we have remarked a"ove, the dischar$e is wont to "e more a"undant in women than in the females of any other animals! In creatures that do not "rin$ forth their youn$ alive nothin$ of the sort manifests itself, this particular superfluity "ein$ converted into "odily su"stance and "y the way, in such animals the females are sometimes lar$er than the males and moreover, the material is used up sometimes for scutes and sometimes for scales, and sometimes for the a"undant coverin$ of feathers, whereas in the vivipara possessed of lim"s it is turned into hair and into "odily su"stance ,for man alone amon$ them is smooth+skinned-, and into urine, for this e&cretion is in the ma(ority of such animals thick and copious! Only in the case of women is the superfluity turned into a dischar$e instead of "ein$ utili3ed in these other ways! There is somethin$ similar to "e remarked of men: for in proportion to his si3e man emits more seminal fluid than any other animal ,for which reason man is the smoothest of animals-, especially such men as are of a moist ha"it and not over corpulent, and fair men in $reater de$ree than dark! It is likewise with

women for in the stout, $reat part of the e&cretion $oes to nourish the "ody! In the act of intercourse, women of a fair comple&ion dischar$e a more plentiful secretion than the dark phenomenon! 6 It is a si$n of conception in women when the place is dry immediately after intercourse! If the lips of the orifice "e smooth conception is difficult, for the matter slips off and if they "e thick it is also difficult! But if on di$ital e&amination the lips feel somewhat rou$h and adherent, and if they "e likewise thin, then the chances are in favour of conception! Accordin$ly, if conception "e desired, we must "rin$ the parts into such a condition as we have (ust descri"ed "ut if on the contrary we want to avoid conception then we must "rin$ a"out a contrary disposition! )herefore, since if the parts "e smooth conception is prevented, some anoint that part of the wom" on which the seed falls with oil of cedar, or with ointment of lead or with frankincense, commin$led with olive oil! If the seed remain within for seven days then it is certain that conception has taken place for it is durin$ that period that what is known as efflu&ion takes place! In most cases the menstrual dischar$e recurs for some time after conception has taken place, its duration "ein$ mostly thirty days in the case of a female and a"out forty days in the case of a male and furthermore, a watery and pun$ent diet conduces to this

child! After parturition also it is common for the dischar$e to "e withheld for an e*ual num"er of days, "ut not in all cases with e*ual e&actitude! After conception, and when the a"ove+mentioned days are past, the dischar$e no lon$er takes its natural course "ut finds its way to the "reasts and turns to milk! The first appearance of milk in the "reasts is scant in *uantity and so to speak co"we""y or interspersed with little threads! And when conception has taken place, there is apt to "e a sort of feelin$ in the re$ion of the flanks, which in some cases *uickly swell up a little, especially in thin persons, and also in the $roin! In the case of male children the first movement usually occurs on the ri$ht+hand side of the wom" and a"out the fortieth day, "ut if the child "e a female then on the left+hand side and a"out the ninetieth day! However, we must "y no means assume this to "e an accurate statement of fact, for there are many e&ceptions, in which the movement is manifested on the ri$ht+hand side thou$h a female child "e comin$, and on the left+hand side thou$h the infant "e a male! And in short, these and all suchlike phenomena are usually su"(ect to differences that may "e summed up as differences of de$ree! A"out this period the em"ryo "e$ins to resolve into distinct parts, it havin$ hitherto consisted of a fleshlike su"stance without distinction of parts! )hat is called efflu&ion is a destruction of the em"ryo within the first week, while a"ortion occurs up to the fortieth day and the

$reater num"er of such em"ryos as perish do so within the space of these forty days! In the case of a male em"ryo a"orted at the fortieth day, if it "e placed in cold water it holds to$ether in a sort of mem"rane, "ut if it "e placed in any other fluid it dissolves and disappears! If the mem"rane "e pulled to "its the em"ryo is revealed, as "i$ as one of the lar$e kind of ants and all the lim"s are plain to see, includin$ the penis, and the eyes also, which as in other animals are of $reat si3e! But the female em"ryo, if it suffer a"ortion durin$ the first three months, is as a rule found to "e undifferentiated if however it reach the fourth month it comes to "e su"divided and *uickly attains further differentiation! In short, while within the wom", the female infant accomplishes the whole development of its parts more slowly than the male, and more fre*uently than the man+child takes ten months to come to perfection! But after "irth, the females pass more *uickly than the males throu$h youth and maturity and a$e and this is especially true of those that "ear many children, as indeed I have already said! 7 )hen the wom" has conceived the seed, strai$htway in the ma(ority of cases it closes up until seven months are fulfilled "ut in the ei$hth month it opens, and the em"ryo, if it "e fertile, descends in the ei$hth month! But such em"ryos as are not fertile "ut are devoid of "reath at ei$ht months old, their mothers do not

"rin$ into the world "y parturition at ei$ht months, neither does the em"ryo descend within the wom" at that period nor does the wom" open! And it is a si$n that the em"ryo is not capa"le of life if it "e formed without the a"ove+named circumstances takin$ place! After conception women are prone to a feelin$ of heaviness in all parts of their "odies, and for instance they e&perience a sensation of darkness in front of the eyes and suffer also from headache! These symptoms appear sooner or later, sometimes as early as the tenth day, accordin$ as the patient "e more or less "urthened with superfluous humours! 5ausea also and sickness affect the most of women, and especially such as those that we have (ust now mentioned, after the menstrual dischar$e has ceased and "efore it is yet turned in the direction of the "reasts! 0oreover, some women suffer most at the "e$innin$ of their pre$nancy and some at a later period when the em"ryo has had time to $row and in some women it is a common occurrence to suffer from stran$ury towards the end of their time! As a $eneral rule women who are pre$nant of a male child escape comparatively easily and retain a comparatively healthy look, "ut it is otherwise with those whose infant is a female for these latter look as a rule paler and suffer more pain, and in many cases they are su"(ect to swellin$s of the le$s and eruptions on the "ody! 5evertheless the rule is su"(ect to e&ceptions! )omen in pre$nancy are a prey to all sorts of lon$in$s and to rapid chan$es of mood, and some folks call this the 'ivy+sickness%

and with the mothers of female infants the lon$in$s are more acute, and they are less contented when they have $ot what they desired! In a certain few cases the patient feels unusually well durin$ pre$nancy! The worst time of all is (ust when the child%s hair is "e$innin$ to $row! In pre$nant women their own natural hair is inclined to $row thin and fall out, "ut on the other hand hair tends to $row on parts of the "ody where it was not wont to "e! As a $eneral rule, a man+ child is more prone to movement within its mother%s wom" than a female child, and it is usually "orn sooner! And la"our in the case of female children is apt to "e protracted and slu$$ish, while in the case of male children it is acute and "y a lon$ way more difficult! )omen who have conne&ion with their hus"ands shortly "efore child"irth are delivered all the more *uickly! Occasionally women seem to "e in the pains of la"our thou$h la"our has not in fact commenced, what seemed like the commencement of la"our "ein$ really the result of the foetus turnin$ its head! 5ow all other animals "rin$ the time of pre$nancy to an end in a uniform way in other words, one sin$le term of pre$nancy is defined for each of them! But in the case of mankind alone of all animals the times are diverse for pre$nancy may "e of seven months% duration, or of ei$ht months or of nine, and still more commonly of ten months, while some few women $o even into the eleventh month!

.hildren that come into the world "efore seven months can under no circumstances survive! The seven+months% children are the earliest that are capa"le of life, and most of them are weakly+for which reason, "y the way, it is customary to swaddle them in wool,+and many of them are "orn with some of the orifices of the "ody imperforate, for instance the ears or the nostrils! But as they $et "i$$er they "ecome more perfectly developed, and many of them $row up! In 8$ypt, and in some other places where the women are fruitful and are wont to "ear and "rin$ forth many children without difficulty, and where the children when "orn are capa"le of livin$ even if they "e "orn su"(ect to deformity, in these places the ei$ht+ months% children live and are "rou$ht up, "ut in 2reece it is only a few of them that survive while most perish! And this "ein$ the $eneral e&perience, when such a child does happen to survive the mother is apt to think that it was not an ei$ht months% child after all, "ut that she had conceived at an earlier period without "ein$ aware of it! )omen suffer most pain a"out the fourth and the ei$hth months, and if the foetus perishes in the fourth or in the ei$hth month the mother also succum"s as a $eneral rule so that not only do the ei$ht+months% children not live, "ut when they die their mothers are in $reat dan$er of their own lives! In like manner children that are apparently "orn at a later term than eleven months are held to "e in dou"tful case inasmuch as with them also the "e$innin$ of

conception may have escaped the notice of the mother! )hat I mean to say is that often the wom" $ets filled with wind, and then when at a later period conne&ion and conception take place, they think that the former circumstance was the "e$innin$ of conception from the similarity of the symptoms that they e&perienced! #uch then are the differences "etween mankind and other animals in re$ard to the many various modes of completion of the term of pre$nancy! Furthermore, some animals produce one and some produce many at a "irth, "ut the human species does sometimes the one and sometimes the other! As a $eneral rule and amon$ most nations the women "ear one child a "irth "ut fre*uently and in many lands they "ear twins, as for instance in 8$ypt especially! #ometimes women "rin$ forth three and even four children, and especially in certain parts of the world, as has already "een stated! The lar$est num"er ever "rou$ht forth is five, and such an occurrence has "een witnessed on several occasions! There was once upon a time a certain women who had twenty children at four "irths each time she had five, and most of them $rew up! 5ow amon$ other animals, if a pair of twins happen to "e male and female they have as $ood a chance of survivin$ as thou$h "oth had "een males or "oth females "ut amon$ mankind very few twins survive if one happen to "e a "oy and the other a $irl! Of all animals the woman and the mare are most inclined to receive the commerce of the male durin$ pre$nancy while all

other animals when they are pre$nant avoid the male, save those in which the phenomenon of superfoetation occurs, such as the hare! ?nlike that animal, the mare after once conceivin$ cannot "e rendered pre$nant a$ain, "ut "rin$s forth one foal only, at least as a $eneral rule in the human species cases of superfoetation are rare, "ut they do happen now and then! An em"ryo conceived some considera"le time after a previous conception does not come to perfection, "ut $ives rise to pain and causes the destruction of the earlier em"ryo and, "y the way, a case has "een known to occur where owin$ to this destructive influence no less than twelve em"ryos conceived "y superfoetation have "een dischar$ed! But if the second conception take place at a short interval, then the mother "ears that which was later conceived, and "rin$s forth the two children like actual twins, as happened, accordin$ to the le$end, in the case of Iphicles and Hercules! The followin$ also is a strikin$ e&ample: a certain woman, havin$ committed adultery, "rou$ht forth the one child resem"lin$ her hus"and and the other resem"lin$ the adulterous lover! The case has also occurred where a woman, "ein$ pre$nant of twins, has su"se*uently conceived a third child and in course of time she "rou$ht forth the twins perfect and at full term, "ut the third a five+months% child and this last died there and then! And in another case it happened that the woman was first delivered of a

seven+months% child, and then of two which were of full term and of these the first died and the other two survived! #ome also have "een known to conceive while a"out to miscarry, and they have lost the one child and "een delivered of the other! If women while $oin$ with child coha"it after the ei$hth month the child is in most cases "orn covered over with a slimy fluid! Often also the child is found to "e replete with food of which the mother had partaken! 9 )hen women have partaken of salt in overa"undance their children are apt to "e "orn destitute of nails! 0ilk that is produced earlier than the seventh month is unfit for use "ut as soon as the child is fit to live the milk is fit to use! The first of the milk is saltish, as it is likewise with sheep! 0ost women are sensi"ly affected "y wine durin$ pre$nancy, for if they partake of it they $row rela&ed and de"ilitated! The "e$innin$ of child+"earin$ in women and of the capacity to procreate in men, and the cessation of these functions in "oth cases, coincide in the one case with the emission of seed and in the other with the dischar$e of the catamenia: with this *ualification that there is a lack of fertility at the commencement of these symptoms, and a$ain towards their close when the emissions "ecome scanty and weak! The a$e at which the se&ual powers "e$in has "een related already! As for their end, the menstrual

dischar$es ceases in most women a"out their fortieth year "ut with those in whom it $oes on lon$er it lasts even to the fiftieth year, and women of that a$e have "een known to "ear children! But "eyond that a$e there is no case on record! : 0en in most cases continue to "e se&ually competent until they are si&ty years old, and if that limit "e overpassed then until seventy years and men have "een actually known to procreate children at seventy years of a$e! )ith many men and many women it so happens that they are una"le to produce children to one another, while they are a"le to do so in union with other individuals! The same thin$ happens with re$ard to the production of male and female offsprin$ for sometimes men and women in union with one another produce male children or female, as the case may "e, "ut children of the opposite se& when otherwise mated! And they are apt to chan$e in this respect with advancin$ a$e: for sometimes a hus"and and wife while they are youn$ produce female children and in later life male children and in other cases the very contrary occurs! And (ust the same thin$ is true in re$ard to the $enerative faculty: for some while youn$ are childless, "ut have children when they $row older and some have children to "e$in with, and later on no more! There are certain women who conceive with difficulty, "ut if they do conceive, "rin$ the child to maturity while others a$ain

conceive readily, "ut are una"le to "rin$ the child to "irth! Furthermore, some men and some women produce female offsprin$ and some male, as for instance in the story of Hercules, who amon$ all his two and seventy children is said to have "e$otten "ut one $irl! Those women who are una"le to conceive, save with the help of medical treatment or some other adventitious circumstance, are as a $eneral rule apt to "ear female children rather than male! It is a common thin$ with men to "e at first se&ually competent and afterwards impotent, and then a$ain to revert to their former powers! From deformed parents come deformed children, lame from lame and "lind from "lind, and, speakin$ $enerally, children often inherit anythin$ that is peculiar in their parents and are "orn with similar marks, such as pimples or scars! #uch thin$s have "een known to "e handed down throu$h three $enerations for instance, a certain man had a mark on his arm which his son did not possess, "ut his $randson had it in the same spot thou$h not very distinct! #uch cases, however, are few for the children of cripples are mostly sound, and there is no hard and fast rule re$ardin$ them! )hile children mostly resem"le their parents or their ancestors, it sometimes happens that no such resem"lance is to "e traced! But parents may pass on resem"lance after several $enerations, as in the case of the woman in 8lis, who committed adultery with a

ne$ro in this case it was not the woman%s own dau$hter "ut the dau$hter%s child that was a "lackamoor! As a rule the dau$hters have a tendency to take after the mother, and the "oys after the father "ut sometimes it is the other way, the "oys takin$ after the mother and the $irls after the father! And they may resem"le "oth parents in particular features! There have "een known cases of twins that had no resem"lance to one another, "ut they are alike as a $eneral rule! There was once upon a time a woman who had intercourse with her hus"and a week after $ivin$ "irth to a child and she conceived and "ore a second child as like the first as any twin! #ome women have a tendency to produce children that take after themselves, and others children that take after the hus"and and this latter case is like that of the cele"rated mare in Aharsalus, that $ot the name of the Honest )ife! < In the emission of sperm there is a preliminary dischar$e of air, and the outflow is manifestly caused "y a "last of air for nothin$ is cast to a distance save "y pneumatic pressure! After the seed reaches the wom" and remains there for a while, a mem"rane forms around it for when it happens to escape "efore it is distinctly formed, it looks like an e$$ enveloped in its mem"rane after removal of the e$$shell and the mem"rane is full of veins!

All animals whatsoever, whether they fly or swim or walk upon dry land, whether they "rin$ forth their youn$ alive or in the e$$, develop in the same way: save only that some have the navel attached to the wom", namely the viviparous animals, and some have it attached to the e$$, and some to "oth parts alike, as in a certain sort of fishes! And in some cases mem"ranous envelopes surround the e$$, and in other cases the chorion surrounds it! And first of all the animal develops within the innermost envelope, and then another mem"rane appears around the former one, which latter is for the most part attached to the wom", "ut is in part separated from it and contains fluid! In "etween is a watery or san$uineous fluid, which the women folk call the forewaters! = All animals, or all such as have a navel, $row "y the navel! And the navel is attached to the cotyledon in all such as possess cotyledons, and to the wom" itself "y a vein in all such as have the wom" smooth! And as re$ards their shape within the wom", the four+footed animals all lie stretched out, and the footless animals lie on their sides, as for instance fishes "ut two+le$$ed animals lie in a "ent position, as for instance "irds and human em"ryos lie "ent, with nose "etween the knees and eyes upon the knees, and the ears free at the sides! All animals alike have the head upwards to "e$in with "ut as they $row and approach the term of e$ress from the wom" they turn

downwards, and "irth in the natural course of thin$s takes place in all animals head foremost "ut in a"normal cases it may take place in a "ent position, or feet foremost! The youn$ of *uadrupeds when they are near their full time contain e&crements, "oth li*uid and in the form of solid lumps, the latter in the lower part of the "owel and the urine in the "ladder! In those animals that have cotyledons in the wom" the cotyledons $row less as the em"ryo $rows "i$$er, and at len$th they disappear alto$ether! The navel+strin$ is a sheath wrapped a"out "lood+ vessels which have their ori$in in the wom", from the cotyledons in those animals which possess them and from a "lood+vessel in those which do not! In the lar$er animals, such as the em"ryos of o&en, the vessels are four in num"er, and in smaller animals two in the very little ones, such as fowls, one vessel only! Of the four vessels that run into the em"ryo, two pass throu$h the liver where the so+called $ates or 'portae% are, runnin$ in the direction of the $reat vein, and the other two run in the direction of the aorta towards the point where it divides and "ecomes two vessels instead of one! Around each pair of "lood+vessels are mem"ranes, and surroundin$ these mem"ranes is the navel+strin$ itself, after the manner of a sheath! And as the em"ryo $rows, the veins themselves tend more and more to dwindle in si3e! And also as the em"ryo matures it comes down into the hollow of the wom" and is o"served to move here, and sometimes rolls over in the vicinity of the $roin!

> )hen women are in la"our, their pains determine towards many divers parts of the "ody, and in most cases to one or other of the thi$hs! Those are the *uickest to "e delivered who e&perience severe pains in the re$ion of the "elly and parturition is difficult in those who "e$in "y sufferin$ pain in the loins, and speedy when the pain is a"dominal! If the child a"out to "e "orn "e a male, the preliminary flood is watery and pale in colour, "ut if a $irl it is tin$ed with "lood, thou$h still watery! In some cases of la"our these latter phenomena do not occur, either one way or the other! In other animals parturition is unaccompanied "y pain, and the dam is plainly seen to suffer "ut moderate inconvenience! In women, however, the pains are more severe, and this is especially the case in persons of sedentary ha"its, and in those who are weak+ chested and short of "reath! Ba"our is apt to "e especially difficult if durin$ the process the woman while e&ertin$ force with her "reath fails to hold it in! First of all, when the em"ryo starts to move and the mem"ranes "urst, there issues forth the watery flood then afterwards comes the em"ryo, while the wom" everts and the after"irth comes out from within! 1@ The cuttin$ of the navel+strin$, which is the nurse%s duty, is a matter callin$ for no little care and skill! For not only in cases of

difficult la"our must she "e a"le to render assistance with skilful hand, "ut she must also have her wits a"out her in all contin$encies, and especially in the operation of tyin$ the cord! For if the after"irth have come away, the navel is li$atured off from the after"irth with a woollen thread and is then cut a"ove the li$ature and at the place where it has "een tied it heals up, and the remainin$ portion drops off! ,If the li$ature come loose the child dies from loss of "lood!- But if the after"irth has not yet come away, "ut remains after the child itself is e&truded, it is cut away within after the li$aturin$ of the cord! It often happens that the child appears to have "een "orn dead when it is merely weak, and when "efore the um"ilical cord has "een li$atured, the "lood has run out into the cord and its surroundin$s! But e&perienced midwives have "een known to s*uee3e "ack the "lood into the child%s "ody from the cord, and immediately the child that a moment "efore was "loodless came "ack to life a$ain! It is the natural rule, as we have mentioned a"ove, for all animals to come into the world head foremost, and children, moreover, have their hands stretched out "y their sides! And the child $ives a cry and puts its hands up to its mouth as soon as it issues forth! 0oreover the child voids e&crement sometimes at once, sometimes a little later, "ut in all cases durin$ the first day and this e&crement is unduly copious in comparison with the si3e of the child it is what the midwives call the meconium or 'poppy+(uice%! In colour it

resem"les "lood, e&tremely dark and pitch+like, "ut later on it "ecomes milky, for the child takes at once to the "reast! Before "irth the child makes no sound, even thou$h in difficult la"our it put forth its head while the rest of the "ody remains within! In cases where floodin$ takes place rather "efore its time, it is apt to "e followed "y difficult parturition! But if dischar$e take place after "irth in small *uantity, and in cases where it only takes place at the "e$innin$ and does not continue till the fortieth day, then in such cases women make a "etter recovery and are the sooner ready to conceive a$ain! ?ntil the child is forty days old it neither lau$hs nor weeps durin$ wakin$ hours, "ut of ni$hts it sometimes does "oth and for the most part it does not even notice "ein$ tickled, "ut passes most of its time in sleep! As it keeps on $rowin$, it $ets more and more wakeful and moreover it shows si$ns of dreamin$, thou$h it is lon$ afterwards "efore it remem"ers what it dreams! In other animals there is no contrastin$ difference "etween one "one and another, "ut all are properly formed "ut in children the front part of the head is soft and late of ossifyin$! And "y the way, some animals are "orn with teeth, "ut children "e$in to cut their teeth in the seventh month and the front teeth are the first to come throu$h, sometimes the upper and sometimes the lower ones! And the warmer the nurses% milk so much the *uicker are the children%s teeth to come!

11 After parturition and the cleasin$ flood the milk comes in plenty, and in some women it flows not only from the nipples "ut at divers parts of the "reasts, and in some cases even from the armpits! And for some time afterwards there continue to "e certain indurated parts of the "reast called stran$alides, or 'knots%, which occur when it so happens that the moisture is not concocted, or when it finds no outlet "ut accumulates within! For the whole "reast is so spon$y that if a woman in drinkin$ happen to swallow a hair, she $ets a pain in her "reast, which ailment is called 'trichia% and the pain lasts till the hair either find its own way out or "e sucked out with the milk! )omen continue to have milk until their ne&t conception and then the milk stops comin$ and $oes dry, alike in the human species and in the *uadrupedal vivipara! #o lon$ as there is a flow of milk the menstrual pur$ations do not take place, at least as a $eneral rule, thou$h the dischar$e has "een known to occur durin$ the period of sucklin$! For, speakin$ $enerally, a determination of moisture does not take place at one and the same time in several directions as for instance the menstrual pur$ations tend to "e scanty in persons sufferin$ from haemorrhoids! And in some women the like happens owin$ to their sufferin$ from varices, when the fluids issue from the pelvic re$ion "efore enterin$ into the wom"! And patients who durin$ suppression of the menses happen to vomit "lood are no whit the worse!

14 .hildren are very commonly su"(ect to convulsions, more especially such of them as are more than ordinarily well+nourished on rich or unusually plentiful milk from a stout nurse! )ine is "ad for infants, in that it tends to e&cite this malady, and red wine is worse than white, especially when taken undiluted and most thin$s that tend to induce flatulency are also "ad, and constipation too is pre(udicial! The ma(ority of deaths in infancy occur "efore the child is a week old, hence it is customary to name the child at that a$e, from a "elief that it has now a "etter chance of survival! This malady is worst at the full of the moon and "y the way, it is a dan$erous symptom when the spasms "e$in in the child%s "ack! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book ;III 1 )8 have now discussed the physical characteristics of animals and their methods of $eneration! Their ha"its and their modes of livin$ vary accordin$ to their character and their food!

In the $reat ma(ority of animals there are traces of psychical *ualities or attitudes, which *ualities are more markedly differentiated in the case of human "ein$s! For (ust as we pointed out resem"lances in the physical or$ans, so in a num"er of animals we o"serve $entleness or fierceness, mildness or cross temper, coura$e, or timidity, fear or confidence, hi$h spirit or low cunnin$, and, with re$ard to intelli$ence, somethin$ e*uivalent to sa$acity! #ome of these *ualities in man, as compared with the correspondin$ *ualities in animals, differ only *uantitatively: that is to say, a man has more or less of this *uality, and an animal has more or less of some other other *ualities in man are represented "y analo$ous and not identical *ualities: for instance, (ust as in man we find knowled$e, wisdom, and sa$acity, so in certain animals there e&ists some other natural potentiality akin to these! The truth of this statement will "e the more clearly apprehended if we have re$ard to the phenomena of childhood: for in children may "e o"served the traces and seeds of what will one day "e settled psycholo$ical ha"its, thou$h psycholo$ically a child hardly differs for the time "ein$ from an animal so that one is *uite (ustified in sayin$ that, as re$ards man and animals, certain psychical *ualities are identical with one another, whilst others resem"le, and others are analo$ous to, each other! 5ature proceeds little "y little from thin$s lifeless to animal life in such a way that it is impossi"le to determine the e&act line of demarcation, nor on which side thereof an intermediate form

should lie! Thus, ne&t after lifeless thin$s in the upward scale comes the plant, and of plants one will differ from another as to its amount of apparent vitality and, in a word, the whole $enus of plants, whilst it is devoid of life as compared with an animal, is endowed with life as compared with other corporeal entities! Indeed, as we (ust remarked, there is o"served in plants a continuous scale of ascent towards the animal! #o, in the sea, there are certain o"(ects concernin$ which one would "e at a loss to determine whether they "e animal or ve$eta"le! For instance, certain of these o"(ects are fairly rooted, and in several cases perish if detached thus the pinna is rooted to a particular spot, and the solen ,or ra3or+shell- cannot survive withdrawal from its "urrow! Indeed, "roadly speakin$, the entire $enus of testaceans have a resem"lance to ve$eta"les, if they "e contrasted with such animals as are capa"le of pro$ression! In re$ard to sensi"ility, some animals $ive no indication whatsoever of it, whilst others indicate it "ut indistinctly! Further, the su"stance of some of these intermediate creatures is fleshlike, as is the case with the so+called tethya ,or ascidians- and the acalephae ,or sea+anemones- "ut the spon$e is in every respect like a ve$eta"le! And so throu$hout the entire animal scale there is a $raduated differentiation in amount of vitality and in capacity for motion! A similar statement holds $ood with re$ard to ha"its of life! Thus of plants that sprin$ from seed the one function seems to "e the

reproduction of their own particular species, and the sphere of action with certain animals is similarly limited! The faculty of reproduction, then, is common to all alike! If sensi"ility "e superadded, then their lives will differ from one another in respect to se&ual intercourse throu$h the varyin$ amount of pleasure derived therefrom, and also in re$ard to modes of parturition and ways of rearin$ their youn$! #ome animals, like plants, simply procreate their own species at definite seasons other animals "usy themselves also in procurin$ food for their youn$, and after they are reared *uit them and have no further dealin$s with them other animals are more intelli$ent and endowed with memory, and they live with their offsprin$ for a lon$er period and on a more social footin$! The life of animals, then, may "e divided into two acts+procreation and feedin$ for on these two acts all their interests and life concentrate! Their food depends chiefly on the su"stance of which they are severally constituted for the source of their $rowth in all cases will "e this su"stance! And whatsoever is in conformity with nature is pleasant, and all animals pursue pleasure in keepin$ with their nature! 4 Animals are also differentiated locally: that is to say, some live upon dry land, while others live in the water! And this differentiation may "e interpreted in two different ways! Thus,

some animals are termed terrestrial as inhalin$ air, and others a*uatic as takin$ in water and there are others which do not actually take in these elements, "ut nevertheless are constitutionally adapted to the coolin$ influence, so far as is needful to them, of one element or the other, and hence are called terrestrial or a*uatic thou$h they neither "reathe air nor take in water! A$ain, other animals are so called from their findin$ their food and fi&in$ their ha"itat on land or in water: for many animals, althou$h they inhale air and "reed on land, yet derive their food from the water, and live in water for the $reater part of their lives and these are the only animals to which as livin$ in and on two elements the term 'amphi"ious% is applica"le! There is no animal takin$ in water that is terrestrial or aerial or that derives its food from the land, whereas of the $reat num"er of land animals inhalin$ air many $et their food from the water moreover some are so peculiarly or$ani3ed that if they "e shut off alto$ether from the water they cannot possi"ly live, as for instance, the so+called sea+turtle, the crocodile, the hippopotamus, the seal, and some of the smaller creatures, such as the fresh+water tortoise and the fro$: now all these animals choke or drown if they do not from time to time "reathe atmospheric air: they "reed and rear their youn$ on dry land, or near the land, "ut they pass their lives in water! But the dolphin is e*uipped in the most remarka"le way of all animals: the dolphin and other similar a*uatic animals, includin$ the other cetaceans which resem"le it that is to say, the whale, and

all the other creatures that are furnished with a "low+hole! One can hardly allow that such an animal is terrestrial and terrestrial only, or a*uatic and a*uatic only, if "y terrestrial we mean an animal that inhales air, and if "y a*uatic we mean an animal that takes in water! For the fact is the dolphin performs "oth these processes: he takes in water and dischar$es it "y his "low+hole, and he also inhales air into his lun$s for, "y the way, the creature is furnished with this or$an and respires there"y, and accordin$ly, when cau$ht in the nets, he is *uickly suffocated for lack of air! He can also live for a considera"le while out of the water, "ut all this while he keeps up a dull moanin$ sound correspondin$ to the noise made "y air+"reathin$ animals in $eneral furthermore, when sleepin$, the animal keeps his nose a"ove water, and he does so that he may "reathe the air! 5ow it would "e unreasona"le to assi$n one and the same class of animals to "oth cate$ories, terrestrial and a*uatic, seein$ that these cate$ories are more or less e&clusive of one another we must accordin$ly supplement our definition of the term 'a*uatic% or 'marine%! For the fact is, some a*uatic animals take in water and dischar$e it a$ain, for the same reason that leads air+"reathin$ animals to inhale air: in other words, with the o"(ect of coolin$ the "lood! Others take in water as incidental to their mode of feedin$ for as they $et their food in the water they cannot "ut take in water alon$ with their food, and if they take in water they must "e provided with some or$an for dischar$in$ it! Those "looded animals, then, that use water for a purpose analo$ous to

respiration are provided with $ills and such as take in water when catchin$ their prey, with the "low+hole! #imilar remarks are applica"le to molluscs and crustaceans for a$ain it is "y way of procurin$ food that these creatures take in water! A*uatic in different ways, the differences dependin$ on "odily relation to e&ternal temperature and on ha"it of life, are such animals on the one hand as take in air "ut live in water, and such on the other hand as take in water and are furnished with $ills "ut $o upon dry land and $et their livin$ there! At present only one animal of the latter kind is known, the so+called cordylus or water+ newt this creature is furnished not with lun$s "ut with $ills, "ut for all that it is a *uadruped and fitted for walkin$ on dry land! In the case of all these animals their nature appears in some kind of a way to have $ot warped, (ust as some male animals $et to resem"le the female, and some female animals the male! The fact is that animals, if they "e su"(ected to a modification in minute or$ans, are lia"le to immense modifications in their $eneral confi$uration! This phenomenon may "e o"served in the case of $elded animals: only a minute or$an of the animal is mutilated, and the creature passes from the male to the female form! )e may infer, then, that if in the primary conformation of the em"ryo an infinitesimally minute "ut a"solutely essential or$an sustain a chan$e of ma$nitude one way or the other, the animal will in one case turn to male and in the other to female and also that, if the said or$an "e o"literated alto$ether, the animal will "e of neither

one se& nor the other! And so "y the occurrence of modification in minute or$ans it comes to pass that one animal is terrestrial and another a*uatic, in "oth senses of these terms! And, a$ain, some animals are amphi"ious whilst other animals are not amphi"ious, owin$ to the circumstance that in their conformation while in the em"ryonic condition there $ot intermi&ed into them some portion of the matter of which their su"se*uent food is constituted for, as was said a"ove, what is in conformity with nature is to every sin$le animal pleasant and a$reea"le! Animals then have "een cate$ori3ed into terrestrial and a*uatic in three ways, accordin$ to their assumption of air or of water, the temperament of their "odies, or the character of their food and the mode of life of an animal corresponds to the cate$ory in which it is found! That is to say, in some cases the animal depends for its terrestrial or a*uatic nature on temperament and diet com"ined, as well as upon its method of respiration and sometimes on temperament and ha"its alone! Of testaceans, some, that are incapa"le of motion, su"sist on fresh water, for, as the sea water dissolves into its constituents, the fresh water from its $reater thinness percolates throu$h the $rosser parts in fact, they live on fresh water (ust as they were ori$inally en$endered from the same! 5ow that fresh water is contained in the sea and can "e strained off from it can "e proved in a thorou$hly practical way! Take a thin vessel of moulded wa&, attach a cord to it, and let it down *uite empty into the sea: in

twenty+four hours it will "e found to contain a *uantity of water, and the water will "e fresh and drinka"le! #ea+anemones feed on such small fishes as come in their way! The mouth of this creature is in the middle of its "ody and this fact may "e clearly o"served in the case of the lar$er varieties! Bike the oyster it has a duct for the outlet of the residuum and this duct is at the top of the animal! In other words, the sea+anemone corresponds to the inner fleshy part of the oyster, and the stone to which the one creature clin$s corresponds to the shell which encases the other! The limpet detaches itself from the rock and $oes a"out in *uest of food! Of shell+fish that are mo"ile, some are carnivorous and live on little fishes, as for instance, the purple mure&+and there can "e no dou"t that the purple mure& is carnivorous, as it is cau$ht "y a "ait of fish others are carnivorous, "ut feed also on marine ve$etation! The sea+turtles feed on shell+fish+for, "y the way, their mouths are e&traordinarily hard whatever o"(ect it sei3es, stone or other, it crunches into "its, "ut when it leaves the water for dry land it "rowses on $rass-! These creatures suffer $reatly, and oftentimes die when they lie on the surface of the water e&posed to a scorchin$ sun for, when once they have risen to the surface, they find a difficulty in sinkin$ a$ain! .rustaceans feed in like manner! They are omnivorous that is to say, they live on stones, slime, sea+weed, and e&crement+as for instance the rock+cra"+and are also carnivorous! The crawfish or

spiny+lo"ster can $et the "etter of fishes even of the lar$er species, thou$h in some of them it occasionally finds more than its match! Thus, this animal is so overmastered and cowed "y the octopus that it dies of terror if it "ecome aware of an octopus in the same net with itself! The crawfish can master the con$er+eel, for owin$ to the rou$h spines of the crawfish the eel cannot slip away and elude its hold! The con$er+eel, however, devours the octopus, for owin$ to the slipperiness of its anta$onist the octopus can make nothin$ of it! The crawfish feeds on little fish, capturin$ them "eside its hole or dwellin$ place for, "y the way, it is found out at sea on rou$h and stony "ottoms, and in such places it makes its den! )hatever it catches, it puts into its mouth with its pincer+like claws, like the common cra"! Its nature is to walk strai$ht forward when it has nothin$ to fear, with its feelers han$in$ sideways if it "e fri$htened, it makes its escape "ackwards, dartin$ off to a $reat distance! These animals fi$ht one another with their claws, (ust as rams fi$ht with their horns, raisin$ them and strikin$ their opponents they are often also seen crowded to$ether in herds! #o much for the mode of life of the crustacean! 0olluscs are all carnivorous and of molluscs the calamary and the sepia are more than a match for fishes even of the lar$e species! The octopus for the most part $athers shellfish, e&tracts the flesh, and feeds on that in fact, fishermen reco$ni3e their holes "y the num"er of shells lyin$ a"out! #ome say that the octopus devours its own species, "ut this statement is incorrect it is dou"tless founded

on the fact that the creature is often found with its tentacles removed, which tentacles have really "een eaten off "y the con$er! Fishes, all without e&ception, feed on spawn in the spawnin$ season "ut in other respects the food varies with the varyin$ species! #ome fishes are e&clusively carnivorous, as the cartila$inous $enus, the con$er, the channa or #erranus, the tunny, the "ass, the synodon or /ente&, the amia, the sea+perch, and the muraena! The red mullet is carnivorous, "ut feeds also on sea+ weed, on shell+fish, and on mud! The $rey mullet feeds on mud, the dascyllus on mud and offal, the scarus or parrot+fish and the melanurus on sea+weed, the saupe on offal and sea+weed the saupe feeds also on 3ostera, and is the only fish that is captured with a $ourd! All fishes devour their own species, with the sin$le e&ception of the cestreus or mullet and the con$er is especially ravenous in this respect! The cephalus and the mullet in $eneral are the only fish that eat no flesh this may "e inferred from the facts that when cau$ht they are never found with flesh in their intestines, and that the "ait used to catch them is not flesh "ut "arley+cake! 8very fish of the mullet+kind lives on sea+weed and sand! The cephalus, called "y some the 'chelon%, keeps near in to the shore, the peraeas keeps out at a distance from it, and feeds on a mucous su"stance e&udin$ from itself, and conse*uently is always in a starved condition! The cephalus lives in mud, and is in conse*uence heavy and slimy it never feeds on any other fish! As it lives in mud, it has every now and then to make a leap upwards

out of the mud so as to wash the slime from off its "ody! There is no creature known to prey upon the spawn of the cephalus, so that the species is e&ceedin$ly numerous when, however, the is full+ $rown it is preyed upon "y a num"er of fishes, and especially "y the acharnas or "ass! Of all fishes the mullet is the most voracious and insatia"le, and in conse*uence its "elly is kept at full stretch whenever it is not starvin$, it may "e considered as out of condition! )hen it is fri$htened, it hides its head in mud, under the notion that it is hidin$ its whole "ody! The synodon is carnivorous and feeds on molluscs! ;ery often the synodon and the channa cast up their stomachs while chasin$ smaller fishes are not furnished with a $ullet! #ome fishes then, as has "een stated, are carnivorous, and carnivorous only, as the dolphin, the synodon, the $ilt+head, the selachians, and the molluscs! Other fishes feed ha"itually on mud or sea+weed or sea+moss or the so+called stalk+weed or $rowin$ plants as for instance, the phycis, the $o"y, and the rock+fish and, "y the way, the only meat that the phycis will touch is that of prawns! ;ery often, however, as has "een stated, they devour one another, and especially do the lar$er ones devour the smaller! The proof of their "ein$ carnivorous is the fact that they can "e cau$ht with flesh for a "ait! The mackerel, the tunny, and the "ass are for the most part carnivorous, "ut they do occasionally feed on sea+ weed! The sar$ue feeds on the leavin$s of the tri$le or red mullet! for, "e it remem"ered, fishes have their stomachs close to the mouth, and

The red mullet "urrows in the mud, when it sets the mud in motion and *uits its haunt, the sar$ue settles down into the place and feeds on what is left "ehind, and prevents any smaller fish from settlin$ in the immediate vicinity! Of all fishes the so+called scarus, or parrot, wrasse, is the only one known to chew the cud like a *uadruped! As a $eneral rule the lar$er fishes catch the smaller ones in their mouths whilst swimmin$ strai$ht after them in the ordinary position "ut the selachians, the dolphin, and all the cetacea must first turn over on their "acks, as their mouths are placed down "elow this allows a fair chance of escape to the smaller fishes, and, indeed, if it were not so, there would "e very few of the little fishes left, for the speed and voracity of the dolphin is somethin$ marvellous! Of eels a few here and there feed on mud and on chance morsels of food thrown to them the $reater part of them su"sist on fresh water! 8el+"reeders are particularly careful to have the water kept perfectly clear, "y its perpetually flowin$ on to flat sla"s of stone and then flowin$ off a$ain sometimes they coat the eel+tanks with plaster! The fact is that the eel will soon choke if the water is not clear as his $ills are peculiarly small! On this account, when fishin$ for eels, they distur" the water! In the river #trymon eel+ fishin$ takes place at the risin$ of the Aleiads, "ecause at this period the water is trou"led and the mud raised up "y contrary winds unless the water "e in this condition, it is as well to leave

the eels alone! )hen dead the eel, unlike the ma(ority of fishes, neither floats on nor rises to the surface and this is owin$ to the smallness of the stomach! A few eels are supplied with fat, "ut the $reater part have no fat whatsoever! )hen removed from the water they can live for five or si& days for a lon$er period if north winds prevail, for a shorter if south winds! If they are removed in summer from the pools to the tanks they will die "ut not so if removed in the winter! They are not capa"le of holdin$ out a$ainst any a"rupt chan$e conse*uently they often die in lar$e num"ers when men en$a$ed in transportin$ them from one place to another dip them into water particularly cold! They will also die of suffocation if they "e kept in a scanty supply of water! This same remark will hold $ood for fishes in $eneral for they are suffocated if they "e lon$ confined in a short supply of water, with the water kept unchan$ed+(ust as animals that respire are suffocated if they "e shut up with a scanty supply of air! The eel in some cases lives for seven or ei$ht years! The river+eel feeds on his own species, on $rass, or on roots, or on any chance food found in the mud! Their usual feedin$+time is at ni$ht, and durin$ the day+time they retreat into deep water! And so much for the food of fishes! 6 Of "irds, such as have crooked talons are carnivorous without e&ception, and cannot swallow corn or "read+food even if it "e put into their "ills in tit+"its as for instance, the ea$le of every variety,

the kite, the two species of hawks, to wit, the dove+hawk and the sparrow+hawk+and, "y the way, these two hawks differ $reatly in si3e from one another+and the "u33ard! The "u33ard is of the same si3e as the kite, and is visi"le at all seasons of the year! There is also the phene ,or lammer$eier- and the vulture! The phene is lar$er than the common ea$le and is ashen in colour! Of the vulture there are two varieties: one small and whitish, the other comparatively lar$e and rather more ashen+coloured than white! Further, of "irds that fly "y ni$ht, some have crooked talons, such as the ni$ht+raven, the owl, and the ea$le+owl! The ea$le+owl resem"les the common owl in shape, "ut it is *uite as lar$e as the ea$le! A$ain, there is the eleus, the Ae$olian owl, and the little horned owl! Of these "irds, the eleus is somewhat lar$er than the "arn+door cock, and the Ae$olian owl is of a"out the same si3e as the eleus, and "oth these "irds hunt the (ay the little horned owl is smaller than the common owl! All these three "irds are alike in appearance, and all three are carnivorous! A$ain, of "irds that have not crooked talons some are carnivorous, such as the swallow! Others feed on $ru"s, such as the chaffinch, the sparrow, the '"atis%, the $reen linnet, and the titmouse! Of the titmouse there are three varieties! The lar$est is the finch+titmouse Ifor it is a"out the si3e of a finch the second has a lon$ tail, and from its ha"itat is called the hill+titmouse the third resem"les the other two in appearance, "ut is less in si3e than either of them! Then come the "ecca+fico, the "lack+cap, the "ull+finch, the ro"in,

the epilais, the mid$et+"ird, and the $olden+crested wren! This wren is little lar$er than a locust, has a crest of "ri$ht red $old, and is in every way a "eautiful and $raceful little "ird! Then the anthus, a "ird a"out the si3e of a finch and the mountain+finch, which resem"les a finch and is of much the same si3e, "ut its neck is "lue, and it is named from its ha"itat and lastly the wren and the rook! The a"ove+enumerated "irds and the like of them feed either wholly or for the most part on $ru"s, "ut the followin$ and the like feed on thistles to wit, the linnet, the thraupis, and the $oldfinch! All these "irds feed on thistles, "ut never on $ru"s or any livin$ thin$ whatever they live and roost also on the plants from which they derive their food! There are other "irds whose favourite food consists of insects found "eneath the "ark of trees as for instance, the $reat and the small pie, which are nicknamed the woodpeckers! These two "irds resem"le one another in pluma$e and in note, only that the note of the lar$er "ird is the louder of the two they "oth fre*uent the trunks of trees in *uest of food! There is also the $reenpie, a "ird a"out the si3e of a turtle+dove, $reen+coloured all over, that pecks at the "ark of trees with e&traordinary vi$our, lives $enerally on the "ranch of a tree, has a loud note, and is mostly found in the Aeloponnese! There is another "ird called the '$ru"+picker% ,or tree+creeper-, a"out as small as the penduline titmouse, with speckled pluma$e of an ashen colour, and with a poor note it is a variety of the woodpecker!

There are other "irds that live on fruit and her"a$e, such as the wild pi$eon or rin$dove, the common pi$eon, the rock+dove, and the turtle+dove! The rin$+dove and the common pi$eon are visi"le at all seasons the turtledove only in the summer, for in winter it lurks in some hole or other and is never seen! The rock+dove is chiefly visi"le in the autumn, and is cau$ht at that season it is lar$er than the common pi$eon "ut smaller than the wild one it is $enerally cau$ht while drinkin$! These pi$eons "rin$ their youn$ ones with them when they visit this country! All our other "irds come to us in the early summer and "uild their nests here, and the $reater part of them rear their youn$ on animal food, with the sole e&ception of the pi$eon and its varieties! The whole $enus of "irds may "e pretty well divided into such as procure their food on dry land, such as fre*uent rivers and lakes, and such as live on or "y the sea! Of water+"irds such as are we"+footed live actually on the water, while such as are split+footed live "y the ed$e of it+and, "y the way, water+"irds that are not carnivorous live on water+plants, ,"ut most of them live on fish-, like the heron and the spoon"ill that fre*uent the "anks of lakes and rivers and the spoon"ill, "y the way, is less than the common heron, and has a lon$ flat "ill! There are furthermore the stork and the seamew and the seamew, "y the way, is ashen+coloured! There is also the schoenilus, the cinclus, and the white+rump! Of these smaller "irds the last mentioned is the lar$est, "ein$ a"out the si3e of the common thrush all three

may "e descri"ed as 'wa$+tails%! Then there is the scalidris, with pluma$e ashen+$rey, "ut speckled! 0oreover, the family of the halcyons or kin$fishers live "y the waterside! Of kin$fishers there are two varieties one that sits on reeds and sin$s the other, the lar$er of the two, is without a note! Both these varieties are "lue on the "ack! There is also the trochilus ,or sandpiper-! The halcyon also, includin$ a variety termed the cerylus, is found near the seaside! The crow also feeds on such animal life as is cast up on the "each, for the "ird is omnivorous! There are also the white $ull, the cepphus, the aethyia, and the charadrius! Of we"+footed "irds, the lar$er species live on the "anks of rivers and lakes as the swan, the duck, the coot, the $re"e, and the teal+a "ird resem"lin$ the duck "ut less in si3e+and the water+raven or cormorant! This "ird is the si3e of a stork, only that its le$s are shorter it is we"+footed and is a $ood swimmer its pluma$e is "lack! It roosts on trees, and is the only one of all such "irds as these that is found to "uild its nest in a tree! Further there is the lar$e $oose, the little $re$arious $oose, the vulpanser, the horned $re"e, and the penelops! The sea+ea$le lives in the nei$h"ourhood of the sea and seeks its *uarry in la$oons! A $reat num"er of "irds are omnivorous! Birds of prey feed on any animal or "ird, other than a "ird of prey, that they may catch! These "irds never touch one of their own $enus, whereas fishes often devour mem"ers actually of their own species!

Birds, as a rule, are very spare drinkers! In fact "irds of prey never drink at all, e&ceptin$ a very few, and these drink very rarely and this last o"servation is peculiarly applica"le to the kestrel! The kite has "een seen to drink, "ut he certainly drinks very seldom! 7 Animals that are coated with tessellates+such as the li3ard and the other *uadrupeds, and the serpents+are omnivorous: at all events they are carnivorous and $raminivorous and serpents, "y the way, are of all animals the $reatest $luttons! Tessellated animals are spare drinkers, as are also all such animals as have a spon$y lun$, and such a lun$, scantily supplied with "lood, is found in all oviparous animals! #erpents, "y the "y, have an insatiate appetite for wine conse*uently, at times men hunt for snakes "y pourin$ wine into saucers and puttin$ them into the interstices of walls, and the creatures are cau$ht when ine"riated! #erpents are carnivorous, and whenever they catch an animal they e&tract all its (uices and e(ect the creature whole! And, "y the way, this is done "y all other creatures of similar ha"its, as for instance the spider only that the spider sucks out the (uices of its prey outside, and the serpent does so in its "elly! The serpent takes any food presented to him, eats "irds and animals, and swallows e$$s entire! But after takin$ his prey he stretches himself until he stands strai$ht out to the very tip, and then he contracts and s*uee3es himself into little compass, so that the swallowed mass may pass

down his outstretched "ody and this action on his part is due to the tenuity and len$th of his $ullet! #piders and snakes can "oth $o without food for a lon$ time and this remark may "e verified "y o"servation of specimens kept alive in the shops of the apothecaries! 9 Of viviparous *uadrupeds such as are fierce and (a$+toothed are without e&ception carnivorous thou$h, "y the way, it is stated of the wolf, "ut of no other animal, that in e&tremity of hun$er it will eat a certain kind of earth! These carnivorous animals never eat $rass e&cept when they are sick, (ust as do$s "rin$ on a vomit "y eatin$ $rass and there"y pur$e themselves! The solitary wolf is more apt to attack man than the wolf that $oes with a pack! The animal called '$lanus% "y some and 'hyaena% "y others is as lar$e as a wolf, with a mane like a horse, only that the hair is stiffer and lon$er and e&tends over the entire len$th of the chine! It will lie in wait for a man and chase him, and will invei$le a do$ within its reach "y makin$ a noise that resem"les the retchin$ noise of a man vomitin$! It is e&ceedin$ly fond of putrefied flesh, and will "urrow in a $raveyard to $ratify this propensity! The "ear is omnivorous! It eats fruit, and is ena"led "y the suppleness of its "ody to clim" a tree it also eats ve$eta"les, and it will "reak up a hive to $et at the honey it eats cra"s and ants also,

and is in a $eneral way carnivorous! It is so powerful that it will attack not only the deer "ut the wild "oar, if it can take it unawares, and also the "ull! After comin$ to close *uarters with the "ull it falls on its "ack in front of the animal, and, when the "ull proceeds to "utt, the "ear sei3es hold of the "ull%s horns with its front paws, fastens its teeth into his shoulder, and dra$s him down to the $round! For a short time to$ether it can walk erect on its hind le$s! All the flesh it eats it first allows to "ecome carrion! The lion, like all other sava$e and (a$+toothed animals, is carnivorous! It devours its food $reedily and fiercely, and often swallows its prey entire without rendin$ it at all it will then $o fastin$ for two or three days to$ether, "ein$ rendered capa"le of this a"stinence "y its previous surfeit! It is a spare drinker! It dischar$es the solid residuum in small *uantities, a"out every other day or at irre$ular intervals, and the su"stance of it is hard and dry like the e&crement of a do$! The wind dischar$ed from off its stomach is pun$ent, and its urine emits a stron$ odour, a phenomenon which, in the case of do$s, accounts for their ha"it of sniffin$ at trees for, "y the way, the lion, like the do$, lifts its le$ to void its urine! It infects the food it eats with a stron$ smell "y "reathin$ on it, and when the animal is cut open an overpowerin$ vapour e&hales from its inside! #ome wild *uadrupeds feed in lakes and rivers the seal is the only one that $ets its livin$ on the sea! To the former class of animals "elon$ the so+called castor, the satyrium, the otter, and the so+

called lata&, or "eaver! The "eaver is flatter than the otter and has stron$ teeth it often at ni$ht+time emer$es from the water and $oes ni""lin$ at the "ark of the aspens that frin$e the riversides! The otter will "ite a man, and it is said that whenever it "ites it will never let $o until it hears a "one crack! The hair of the "eaver is rou$h, intermediate in appearance "etween the hair of the seal and the hair of the deer! : Fa$+toothed animals drink "y lappin$, as do also some animals with teeth differently formed, as the mouse! Animals whose upper and lower teeth meet evenly drink "y suction, as the horse and the o& the "ear neither laps nor sucks, "ut $ulps down his drink! Birds, a rule, drink "y suction, "ut the lon$ necked "irds stop and elevate their heads at intervals the purple coot is the only one ,of the lon$+necked "irds- that swallows water "y $ulps! Horned animals, domesticated or wild, and all such as are not (a$+ toothed, are all fru$ivorous and $raminivorous, save under $reat stress of hun$er! The pi$ is an e&ception, it cares little for $rass or fruit, "ut of all animals it is the fondest of roots, owin$ to the fact that its snout is peculiarly adapted for di$$in$ them out of the $round it is also of all animals the most easily pleased in the matter of food! It takes on fat more rapidly in proportion to its si3e than any other animal in fact, a pi$ can "e fattened for the market in si&ty days! Ai$+dealers can tell the amount of flesh taken on, "y

havin$ first wei$hed the animal while it was "ein$ starved! Before the fattenin$ process "e$ins, the creature must "e starved for three days and, "y the way, animals in $eneral will take on fat if su"(ected previously to a course of starvation after the three days of starvation, pi$+"reeders feed the animal lavishly! Breeders in Thrace, when fattenin$ pi$s, $ive them a drink on the first day then they miss one, and then two days, then three and four, until the interval e&tends over seven days! The pi$s% meat used for fattenin$ is composed of "arley, millet, fi$s, acorns, wild pears, and cucum"ers! These animals+and other animals that have warm "ellies+are fattened "y repose! ,Ai$s also fatten the "etter "y "ein$ allowed to wallow in mud! They like to feed in "atches of the same a$e! A pi$ will $ive "attle even to a wolf!- If a pi$ "e wei$hed when livin$, you may calculate that after death its flesh will wei$h five+si&ths of that wei$ht, and the hair, the "lood, and the rest will wei$h the other si&th! )hen sucklin$ their youn$, swinelike all other animals+$et attenuated! #o much for these animals! < .attle feed on corn and $rass, and fatten on ve$eta"les that tend to cause flatulency, such as "itter vetch or "ruised "eans or "ean+ stalks! The older ones also will fatten if they "e fed up after an incision has "een made into their hide, and air "lown thereinto! .attle will fatten also on "arley in its natural state or on "arley finely winnowed, or on sweet food, such as fi$s, or pulp from the

wine+press, or on elm+leaves! But nothin$ is so fattenin$ as the heat of the sun and wallowin$ in warm waters! If the horns of youn$ cattle "e smeared with hot wa&, you may mold them to any shape you please, and cattle are less su"(ect to disease of the hoof if you smear the horny parts with wa&, pitch, or olive oil! Herded cattle suffer more when they are forced to chan$e their pasture $round "y frost than when snow is the cause of chan$e! .attle $row all the more in si3e when they are kept from se&ual commerce over a num"er of years and it is with a view to $rowth in si3e that in 8pirus the so+called Ayrrhic kine are not allowed intercourse with the "ull until they are nine years old from which circumstance they are nicknamed the 'un"ulled% kine! Of these Ayrrhic cattle, "y the way, they say that there are only a"out four hundred in the world, that they are the private property of the 8pirote royal family, that they cannot thrive out of 8pirus, and that people elsewhere have tried to rear them, "ut without success! = Horses, mules, and asses feed on corn and $rass, "ut are fattened chiefly "y drink! Fust in proportion as "easts of "urden drink water, so will they more or less en(oy their food, and a place will $ive $ood or "ad feedin$ accordin$ as the water is $ood or "ad! 2reen corn, while ripenin$, will $ive a smooth coat "ut such corn is in(urious if the spikes are too stiff and sharp! The first crop of clover is unwholesome, and so is clover over which ill+scented

water runs for the clover is sure to $et the taint of the water! .attle like clear water for drinkin$ "ut the horse in this respect resem"les the camel, for the camel likes tur"id and thick water, and will never drink from a stream until he has trampled it into a tur"id condition! And, "y the way, the camel can $o without water for as much as four days, "ut after that when he drinks, he drinks in immense *uantities! > The elephant at the most can eat nine 0acedonian medimni of fodder at one meal "ut so lar$e an amount is unwholesome! As a $eneral rule it can take si& or seven medimni of fodder, five medimni of wheat, and five mareis of wine+si& cotylae $oin$ to the maris! An elephant has "een known to drink ri$ht off fourteen 0acedonian metretae of water, and another metretae later in the day! .amels live for a"out thirty years in some e&ceptional cases they live much lon$er, and instances have "een known of their livin$ to the a$e of a hundred! The elephant is said "y some to live for a"out two hundred years "y others, for three hundred! 1@ #heep and $oats are $raminivorous, "ut sheep "rowse assiduously and steadily, whereas $oats shift their $round rapidly, and "rowse only on the tips of the her"a$e! #heep are much improved in

condition "y drinkin$, and accordin$ly they $ive the flocks salt every five days in summer, to the e&tent of one medimnus to the hundred sheep, and this is found to render a flock healthier and fatter! In fact they mi& salt with the $reater part of their food a lar$e amount of salt is mi&ed into their "ran ,for the reason that they drink more when thirsty-, and in autumn they $et cucum"ers with a sprinklin$ of salt on them this admi&ture of salt in their food tends also to increase the *uantity of milk in the ewes! If sheep "e kept on the move at midday they will drink more copiously towards evenin$ and if the ewes "e fed with salted food as the lam"in$ season draws near they will $et lar$er udders! #heep are fattened "y twi$s of the olive or of the oleaster, "y vetch, and "ran of every kind and these articles of food fatten all the more if they "e first sprinkled with "rine! #heep will take on flesh all the "etter if they "e first put for three days throu$h a process of starvin$! In autumn, water from the north is more wholesome for sheep than water from the south! Aasture $rounds are all the "etter if they have a westerly aspect! #heep will lose flesh if they "e kept overmuch on the move or "e su"(ected to any hardship! In winter time shepherds can easily distin$uish the vi$orous sheep from the weakly, from the fact that the vi$orous sheep are covered with hoar+frost while the weakly ones are *uite free of it the fact "ein$ that the weakly ones feelin$ oppressed with the "urden shake themselves and so $et rid of it! The flesh of all *uadrupeds deteriorates in marshy pastures, and is

the "etter on hi$h $rounds! #heep that have flat tails can stand the winter "etter than lon$+tailed sheep, and short+fleeced sheep than the sha$$y+fleeced and sheep with crisp wool stand the ri$our of winter very poorly! #heep are healthier than $oats, "ut $oats are stron$er than sheep! ,The fleeces and the wool of sheep that have "een killed "y wolves, as also the clothes made from them, are e&ceptionally infested with lice!11 Of insects, such as have teeth are omnivorous such as have a ton$ue feed on li*uids only, e&tractin$ with that or$an (uices from all *uarters! And of these latter some may "e called omnivorous, inasmuch as they feed on every kind of (uice, as for instance, the common fly others are "lood+suckers, such as the $adfly and the horse+fly, others a$ain live on the (uices of fruits and plants! The "ee is the only insect that invaria"ly eschews whatever is rotten it will touch no article of food unless it have a sweet+tastin$ (uice, and it is particularly fond of drinkin$ water if it "e found "u""lin$ up clear from a sprin$ under$round! #o much for the food of animals of the leadin$ $enera! 14 The ha"its of animals are all connected with either "reedin$ and the rearin$ of youn$, or with the procurin$ a due supply of food and these ha"its are modified so as to suit cold and heat and the

variations of the seasons! For all animals have an instinctive perception of the chan$es of temperature, and, (ust as men seek shelter in houses in winter, or as men of $reat possessions spend their summer in cool places and their winter in sunny ones, so also all animals that can do so shift their ha"itat at various seasons! #ome creatures can make provision a$ainst chan$e without stirrin$ from their ordinary haunts others mi$rate, *uittin$ Aontus and the cold countries after the autumnal e*uino& to avoid the approachin$ winter, and after the sprin$ e*uino& mi$ratin$ from warm lands to cool lands to avoid the comin$ heat! In some cases they mi$rate from places near at hand, in others they may "e said to come from the ends of the world, as in the case of the crane for these "irds mi$rate from the steppes of #cythia to the marshlands south of 8$ypt where the 5ile has its source! And it is here, "y the way, that they are said to fi$ht with the py$mies and the story is not fa"ulous, "ut there is in reality a race of dwarfish men, and the horses are little in proportion, and the men live in caves under$round! Aelicans also mi$rate, and fly from the #trymon to the Ister, and "reed on the "anks of this river! They depart in flocks, and the "irds in front wait for those in the rear, owin$ to the fact that when the flock is passin$ over the intervenin$ mountain ran$e, the "irds in the rear lose si$ht of their companions in the van! Fishes also in a similar manner shift their ha"itat now out of the 8u&ine and now into it! In winter they move from the outer sea in

towards land in *uest of heat in summer they shift from shallow waters to the deep sea to escape the heat! )eakly "irds in winter and in frosty weather come down to the plains for warmth, and in summer mi$rate to the hills for coolness! The more weakly an animal is the $reater hurry will it "e in to mi$rate on account of e&tremes of temperature, either hot or cold thus the mackerel mi$rates in advance of the tunnies, and the *uail in advance of the cranes! The former mi$rates in the month of Boedromion, and the latter in the month of 0aemacterion! All creatures are fatter in mi$ratin$ from cold to heat than in mi$ratin$ from heat to cold thus the *uail is fatter when he emi$rates in autumn than when he arrives in sprin$! The mi$ration from cold countries is contemporaneous with the close of the hot season! Animals are in "etter trim for "reedin$ purposes in sprin$+time, when they chan$e from hot to cool lands! Of "irds, the crane, as has "een said, mi$rates from one end of the world to the other they fly a$ainst the wind! The story told a"out the stone is untrue: to wit, that the "ird, so the story $oes, carries in its inside a stone "y way of "allast, and that the stone when vomited up is a touchstone for $old! The cushat and the rock+dove mi$rate, and never winter in our country, as is the case also with the turtle+dove the common pi$eon, however, stays "ehind! The *uail also mi$rates only, "y the way, a few *uails and turtle+doves may stay "ehind here and there in sunny districts! .ushats and turtle+doves flock to$ether,

"oth when they arrive and when the season for mi$ration comes round a$ain! )hen *uails come to land, if it "e fair weather or if a north wind is "lowin$, they will pair off and mana$e pretty comforta"ly "ut if a southerly wind prevail they are $reatly distressed owin$ to the difficulties in the way of fli$ht, for a southerly wind is wet and violent! For this reason "ird+catchers are never on the alert for these "irds durin$ fine weather, "ut only durin$ the prevalence of southerly winds, when the "ird from the violence of the wind is una"le to fly! And, "y the way, it is owin$ to the distress occasioned "y the "ulkiness of its "ody that the "ird always screams while flyin$: for the la"our is severe! )hen the *uails come from a"road they have no leaders, "ut when they mi$rate hence, the $lottis flits alon$ with them, as does also the landrail, and the eared owl, and the corncrake! The corncrake calls them in the ni$ht, and when the "irdcatchers hear the croak of the "ird in the ni$httime they know that the *uails are on the move! The landrail is like a marsh "ird, and the $lottis has a ton$ue that can pro(ect far out of its "eak! The eared owl is like an ordinary owl, only that it has feathers a"out its ears "y some it is called the ni$ht+raven! It is a $reat ro$ue of a "ird, and is a capital mimic a "ird+catcher will dance "efore it and, while the "ird is mimickin$ his $estures, the accomplice comes "ehind and catches it! The common owl is cau$ht "y a similar trick! As a $eneral rule all "irds with crooked talons are short+necked, flat+ton$ued, and disposed to mimicry! The Indian "ird, the parrot,

which is said to have a man%s ton$ue, answers to this description and, "y the way, after drinkin$ wine, the parrot "ecomes more saucy than ever! Of "irds, the followin$ are mi$ratory+the crane, the swan, the pelican, and the lesser $oose! 16 Of fishes, some, as has "een o"served, mi$rate from the outer seas in towards shore, and from the shore towards the outer seas, to avoid the e&tremes of cold and heat! Fish livin$ near to the shore are "etter eatin$ than deep+sea fish! The fact is they have more a"undant and "etter feedin$, for wherever the sun%s heat can reach ve$etation is more a"undant, "etter in *uality, and more delicate, as is seen in any ordinary $arden! Further, the "lack shore+weed $rows near to shore the other shore+weed is like wild weed! Besides, the parts of the sea near to shore are su"(ected to a more e*ua"le temperature and conse*uently the flesh of shallow+water fishes is firm and consistent, whereas the flesh of deep+water fishes is flaccid and watery! The followin$ fishes are found near into the shore+the synodon, the "lack "ream, the merou, the $ilthead, the mullet, the red mullet, the wrasse, the weaver, the callionymus, the $o"y, and rock+fishes of all kinds! The followin$ are deep+sea fishesIthe try$on, the cartila$inous fishes, the white con$er, the serranus, the erythrinus,

and the $laucus! The "rai3e, the sea+scorpion, the "lack con$er, the muraena, and the piper or sea+cuckoo are found alike in shallow and deep waters! These fishes, however, vary for various localities for instance, the $o"y and all rock+fish are fat off the coast of .rete! A$ain, the tunny is out of season in summer, when it is "ein$ preyed on "y its own peculiar louse+parasite, "ut after the risin$ of Arcturus, when the parasite has left it, it comes into season a$ain! A num"er of fish also are found in sea+estuaries such as the saupe, the $ilthead, the red mullet, and, in point of fact, the $reater part of the $re$arious fishes! The "onito also is found in such waters, as, for instance, off the coast of Alopeconnesus and most species of fishes are found in Bake Bistonis! The coly+ mackerel as a rule does not enter the 8u&ine, "ut passes the summer in the Aropontis, where it spawns, and winters in the Ae$ean! The tunny proper, the pelamys, and the "onito penetrate into the 8u&ine in summer and pass the summer there as do also the $reater part of such fish as swim in shoals with the currents, or con$re$ate in shoals to$ether! And most fish con$re$ate in shoals, and shoal+fishes in all cases have leaders! Fish penetrate into the 8u&ine for two reasons, and firstly for food! For the feedin$ is more a"undant and "etter in *uality owin$ to the amount of fresh river+water that dischar$es into the sea, and moreover, the lar$e fishes of this inland sea are smaller than the lar$e fishes of the outer sea! In point of fact, there is no lar$e fish in the 8u&ine e&ceptin$ the dolphin and the porpoise, and the

dolphin is a small variety "ut as soon as you $et into the outer sea the "i$ fishes are on the "i$ scale! Furthermore, fish penetrate into this sea for the purpose of "reedin$ for there are recesses there favoura"le for spawnin$, and the fresh and e&ceptionally sweet water has an invi$oratin$ effect upon the spawn! After spawnin$, when the youn$ fishes have attained some si3e, the parent fish swim out of the 8u&ine immediately after the risin$ of the Aleiads! If winter comes in with a southerly wind, they swim out with more or less of deli"eration "ut, if a north wind "e "lowin$, they swim out with $reater rapidity, from the fact that the "ree3e is favoura"le to their own course! And, "y the way, the youn$ fish are cau$ht a"out this time in the nei$h"ourhood of By3antium very small in si3e, as mi$ht have "een e&pected from the shortness of their so(ourn in the 8u&ine! The shoals in $eneral are visi"le "oth as they *uit and enter the 8u&ine! The trichiae, however, only can "e cau$ht durin$ their entry, "ut are never visi"le durin$ their e&it in point of fact, when a trichia is cau$ht runnin$ outwards in the nei$h"ourhood of By3antium, the fishermen are particularly careful to cleanse their nets, as the circumstance is so sin$ular and e&ceptional! The way of accountin$ for this phenomenon is that this fish, and this one only, swims northwards into the /anu"e, and then at the point of its "ifurcation swims down southwards into the Adriatic! And, as a proof that this theory is correct, the very opposite phenomenon presents itself in the Adriatic that is to say,

they are not cau$ht in that sea durin$ their entry, "ut are cau$ht durin$ their e&it! Tunny+fish swim into the 8u&ine keepin$ the shore on their ri$ht, and swim out of it with the shore upon their left! It is stated that they do so as "ein$ naturally weak+si$hted, and seein$ "etter with the ri$ht eye! /urin$ the daytime shoal+fish continue on their way, "ut durin$ the ni$ht they rest and feed! But if there "e moonli$ht, they continue their (ourney without restin$ at all! #ome people accustomed to sea+life assert that shoal+fish at the period of the winter solstice never move at all, "ut keep perfectly still wherever they may happen to have "een overtaken "y the solstice, and this lasts until the e*uino&! The coly+mackerel is cau$ht more fre*uently on enterin$ than on *uittin$ the 8u&ine! And in the Aropontis the fish is at its "est "efore the spawnin$ season! #hoal+fish, as a rule, are cau$ht in $reater *uantities as they leave the 8u&ine, and at that season they are in the "est condition! At the time of their entrance they are cau$ht in very plump condition close to shore, "ut those are in comparatively poor condition that are cau$ht farther out to sea! ;ery often, when the coly+mackerel and the mackerel are met "y a south wind in their e&it, there are "etter catches to the southward than in the nei$h"ourhood of By3antium! #o much then for the phenomenon of mi$ration of fishes!

5ow the same phenomenon is o"served in fishes as in terrestrial animals in re$ard to hi"ernation: in other words, durin$ winter fishes take to concealin$ themselves in out of the way places, and *uit their places of concealment in the warmer season! But, "y the way, animals $o into concealment "y way of refu$e a$ainst e&treme heat, as well as a$ainst e&treme cold! #ometimes an entire $enus will thus seek concealment in other cases some species will do so and others will not! For instance, the shell+fish seek concealment without e&ception, as is seen in the case of those dwellin$ in the sea, the purple mure&, the cery&, and all such like "ut thou$h in the case of the detached species the phenomenon is o"vious+for they hide themselves, as is seen in the scallop, or they are provided with an operculum on the free surface, as in the case of land snails+in the case of the non+detached the concealment is not so clearly o"served! They do not $o into hidin$ at one and the same season "ut the snails $o in winter, the purple mure& and the cery& for a"out thirty days at the risin$ of the /o$+star, and the scallop at a"out the same period! But for the most part they $o into concealment when the weather is either e&tremely cold or e&tremely hot! 17 Insects almost all $o into hidin$, with the e&ception of such of them as live in human ha"itations or perish "efore the completion of the year! They hide in the winter some of them for several days,

others for only the coldest days, as the "ee! For the "ee also $oes into hidin$: and the proof that it does so is that durin$ a certain period "ees never touch the food set "efore them, and if a "ee creeps out of the hive, it is *uite transparent, with nothin$ whatsoever in its stomach and the period of its rest and hidin$ lasts from the settin$ of the Aleiads until sprin$time! Animals take their winter+sleep or summer+sleep "y concealin$ themselves in warm places, or in places where they have "een used to lie concealed! 19 #everal "looded animals take this sleep, such as the pholidotes or tessellates, namely, the serpent, the li3ard, the $ecko, and the river! crocodile, all of which $o into hidin$ for four months in the depth of winter, and durin$ that time eat nothin$! #erpents in $eneral "urrow under $round for this purpose the viper conceals itself under a stone! A $reat num"er of fishes also take this sleep, and nota"ly, the hippurus and coracinus in winter time for, whereas fish in $eneral may "e cau$ht at all periods of the year more or less, there is this sin$ularity o"served in these fishes, that they are cau$ht within a certain fi&ed period of the year, and never "y any chance out of it! The muraena also hides, and the orphus or sea+perch, and the con$er! Eock+fish pair off, male and female, for hidin$ ,(ust as for

"reedin$- as is o"served in the case of the species of wrasse called the thrush and the ow3el, and in the perch! The tunny also takes a sleep in winter in deep waters, and $ets e&ceedin$ly fat after the sleep! The fishin$ season for the tunny "e$ins at the risin$ of the Aleiads and lasts, at the lon$est, down to the settin$ of Arcturus durin$ the rest of the year they are hid and en(oyin$ immunity! A"out the time of hi"ernation a few tunnies or other hi"ernatin$ fishes are cau$ht while swimmin$ a"out, in particularly warm localities and in e&ceptionally fine weather, or on ni$hts of full moon for the fishes are induced ,"y the warmth or the li$ht- to emer$e for a while from their lair in *uest of food! 0ost fishes are at their "est for the ta"le durin$ the summer or winter sleep! The primas+tunny conceals itself in the mud this may "e inferred from the fact that durin$ a particular period the fish is never cau$ht, and that, when it is cau$ht after that period, it is covered with mud and has its fins dama$ed! In the sprin$ these tunnies $et in motion and proceed towards the coast, couplin$ and "reedin$, and the females are now cau$ht full of spawn! At this time they are considered as in season, "ut in autumn and in winter as of inferior *uality at this time also the males are full of milt! )hen the spawn is small, the fish is hard to catch, "ut it is easily cau$ht when the spawn $ets lar$e, as the fish is then infested "y its parasite! #ome fish "urrow for sleep in the sand and some in mud, (ust keepin$ their mouths outside!

0ost fishes hide, then, durin$ the winter only, "ut crustaceans, the rock+fish, the ray, and the cartila$inous species hide only durin$ e&tremely severe weather, and this may "e inferred from the fact that these fishes are never "y any chance cau$ht when the weather is e&tremely cold! #ome fishes, however, hide durin$ the summer, as the $laucus or $rey+"ack this fish hides in summer for a"out si&ty days! The hake also and the $ilthead hide and we infer that the hake hides over a len$thened period from the fact that it is only cau$ht at lon$ intervals! )e are led also to infer that fishes hide in summer from the circumstance that the takes of certain fish are made "etween the rise and settin$ of certain constellations: of the /o$+star in particular, the sea at this period "ein$ upturned from the lower depths! This phenomenon may "e o"served to "est advanta$e in the Bosporus for the mud is there "rou$ht up to the surface and the fish are "rou$ht up alon$ with it! They say also that very often, when the sea+"ottom is dred$ed, more fish will "e cau$ht "y the second haul than "y the first one! Furthermore, after very heavy rains numerous specimens "ecome visi"le of creatures that at other times are never seen at all or seen only at intervals! 1: A $reat num"er of "irds also $o into hidin$ they do not all mi$rate, as is $enerally supposed, to warmer countries! Thus, certain "irds ,as the kite and the swallow- when they are not far off from places of this kind, in which they have their permanent

a"ode, "etake themselves thither others, that are at a distance from such places, decline the trou"le of mi$ration and simply hide themselves where they are! #wallows, for instance, have "een often found in holes, *uite denuded of their feathers, and the kite on its first emer$ence from torpidity has "een seen to fly from out some such hidin$+place! And with re$ard to this phenomenon of periodic torpor there is no distinction o"served, whether the talons of a "ird "e crooked or strai$ht for instance, the stork, the ow3el, the turtle+ dove, and the lark, all $o into hidin$! The case of the turtledove is the most notorious of all, for we would defy any one to assert that he had anywhere seen a turtle+dove in winter+time at the "e$innin$ of the hidin$ time it is e&ceedin$ly plump, and durin$ this period it moults, "ut retains its plumpness! #ome cushats hide others, instead of hidin$, mi$rate at the same time as the swallow! The thrush and the starlin$ hide and of "irds with crooked talons the kite and the owl hide for a few days! 1< Of viviparous *uadrupeds the porcupine and the "ear retire into concealment! The fact that the "ear hides is well esta"lished, "ut there are dou"ts as to its motive for so doin$, whether it "e "y reason of the cold or from some other cause! A"out this period the male and the female "ecome so fat as to "e hardly capa"le of motion! The female "rin$s forth her youn$ at this time, and remains in concealment until it is time to "rin$ the cu"s out and

she "rin$s them out in sprin$, a"out three months after the winter solstice! The "ear hides for at least forty days durin$ fourteen of these days it is said not to move at all, "ut durin$ most of the su"se*uent days it moves, and from time to time wakes up! A she+ "ear in pre$nancy has either never "een cau$ht at all or has "een cau$ht very seldom! There can "e no dou"t "ut that durin$ this period they eat nothin$ for in the first place they never emer$e from their hidin$+place, and further, when they are cau$ht, their "elly and intestines are found to "e *uite empty! It is also said that from no food "ein$ taken the $ut almost closes up, and that in conse*uence the animal on first emer$in$ takes to eatin$ arum with the view of openin$ up and distendin$ the $ut! The dormouse actually hides in a tree, and $ets very fat at that period as does also the white mouse of Aontus! ,Of animals that hide or $o torpid some slou$h off what is called their 'old+a$e%! This name is applied to the outermost skin, and to the casin$ that envelops the developin$ or$anism!In discussin$ the case of terrestrial vivipara we stated that the reason for the "ear%s seekin$ concealment is an open *uestion! )e now proceed to treat of the tessellates! The tessellates for the most part $o into hidin$, and if their skin is soft they slou$h off their 'old+a$e%, "ut not if the skin is shell+like, as is the shell of the tortoise+for, "y the way, the tortoise and the fresh water tortoise "elon$ to the tessellates! Thus, the old+a$e is slou$hed off "y the $ecko, the li3ard, and a"ove all, "y serpents and they slou$h off

the skin in sprin$time when emer$in$ from their torpor, and a$ain in the autumn! ;ipers also slou$h off their skin "oth in sprin$ and in autumn, and it is not the case, as some aver, that this species of the serpent family is e&ceptional in not slou$hin$! )hen the serpent "e$ins to slou$h, the skin peels off at first from the eyes, so that any one i$norant of the phenomenon would suppose the animal were $oin$ "lind after that it peels off the head, and so on, until the creature presents to view only a white surface all over! The slou$hin$ $oes on for a day and a ni$ht, "e$innin$ with the head and endin$ with the tail! /urin$ the slou$hin$ of the skin an inner layer comes to the surface, for the creature emer$es (ust as the em"ryo from its after"irth! All insects that slou$h at all slou$h in the same way as the silphe, and the empis or mid$e, and all the coleoptera, as for instance the cantharus+"eetle! They all slou$h after the period of development for (ust as the after"irth "reaks from off the youn$ of the vivipara so the outer husk "reaks off from around the youn$ of the vermipara, in the same way "oth with the "ee and the $rasshopper! The cicada the moment after issuin$ from the husk $oes and sits upon an olive tree or a reed after the "reakin$ up of the husk the creature issues out, leavin$ a little moisture "ehind, and after a short interval flies up into the air and sets a! chirpin$! Of marine animals the crawfish and the lo"ster slou$h sometimes in the sprin$, and sometimes in autumn after parturition! Bo"sters have "een cau$ht occasionally with the parts a"out the thora& soft,

from the shell havin$ there peeled off, and the lower parts hard, from the shell havin$ not yet peeled off there for, "y the way, they do not slou$h in the same manner as the serpent! The crawfish hides for a"out five months! .ra"s also slou$h off their old+a$e this is $enerally allowed with re$ard to the soft+shelled cra"s, and it is said to "e the case with the testaceous kind, as for instance with the lar$e '$ranny% cra"! )hen these animals slou$h their shell "ecomes soft all over, and as for the cra", it can scarcely crawl! These animals also do not cast their skins once and for all, "ut over and over a$ain! #o much for the animals that $o into hidin$ or torpidity, for the times at which, and the ways in which, they $o and so much also for the animals that slou$h off their old+a$e, and for the times at which they under$o the process! 1= Animals do not all thrive at the same seasons, nor do they thrive alike durin$ all e&tremes of weather! Further animals of diverse species are in a diverse way healthy or sickly at certain seasons and, in point of fact, some animals have ailments that are unknown to others! Birds thrive in times of drou$ht, "oth in their $eneral health and in re$ard to parturition, and this is especially the case with the cushat fishes, however, with a few e&ceptions, thrive "est in rainy weather on the contrary rainy seasons are "ad for "irds+ and so "y the way is much drinkin$+and drou$ht is "ad for fishes!

Birds of prey, as has "een already stated, may in a $eneral way "e said never to drink at all, thou$h Hesiod appears to have "een i$norant of the fact, for in his story a"out the sie$e of 5inus he represents the ea$le that presided over the au$uries as in the act of drinkin$ all other "irds drink, "ut drink sparin$ly, as is the case also with all other spon$y+lun$ed oviparous animals! #ickness in "irds may "e dia$nosed from their pluma$e, which is ruffled when they are sickly instead of lyin$ smooth as when they are well! 1> The ma(ority of fishes, as has "een stated, thrive "est in rainy seasons! 5ot only have they food in $reater a"undance at this time, "ut in a $eneral way rain is wholesome for them (ust as it is for ve$etation+for, "y the way, kitchen ve$eta"les, thou$h artificially watered, derive "enefit from rain and the same remark applies even to reeds that $row in marshes, as they hardly $row at all without a rainfall! That rain is $ood for fishes may "e inferred from the fact that most fishes mi$rate to the 8u&ine for the summer for owin$ to the num"er of the rivers that dischar$e into this sea its water is e&ceptionally fresh, and the rivers "rin$ down a lar$e supply of food! Besides, a $reat num"er of fishes, such as the "onito and the mullet, swim up the rivers and thrive in the rivers and marshes! The sea+$ud$eon also fattens in the rivers, and, as a rule, countries a"oundin$ in la$oons furnish unusually e&cellent fish! )hile most fishes, then, are "enefited "y rain, they are chiefly

"enefited "y summer rain or we may state the case thus, that rain is $ood for fishes in sprin$, summer, and autumn, and fine dry weather in winter! As a $eneral rule what is $ood for men is $ood for fishes also! Fishes do not thrive in cold places, and those fishes suffer most in severe winters that have a stone in their head, as the chromis, the "asse, the sciaena, and the "rai3e for owin$ to the stone they $et fro3en with the cold, and are thrown up on shore! )hilst rain is wholesome for most fishes, it is, on the contrary, unwholesome for the mullet, the cephalus, and the so+called marinus, for rain superinduces "lindness in most of these fishes, and all the more rapidly if the rainfall "e supera"undant! The cephalus is peculiarly su"(ect to this malady in severe winters their eyes $row white, and when cau$ht they are in poor condition, and eventually the disease kills them! It would appear that this disease is due to e&treme cold even more than to an e&cessive rainfall for instance, in many places and more especially in shallows off the coast of 5auplia, in the Ar$olid, a num"er of fishes have "een known to "e cau$ht out at sea in seasons of severe cold! The $ilthead also suffers in winter the acharnas suffers in summer, and loses condition! The coracine is e&ceptional amon$ fishes in derivin$ "enefit from drou$ht, and this is due to the fact that heat and drou$ht are apt to come to$ether! Aarticular places suit particular fishes some are naturally fishes of the shore, and some of the deep sea, and some are at home in one

or the other of these re$ions, and others are common to the two and are at home in "oth! #ome fishes will thrive in one particular spot, and in that spot only! As a $eneral rule it may "e said that places a"oundin$ in weeds are wholesome at all events, fishes cau$ht in such places are e&ceptionally fat: that is, such fishes a a ha"it all sorts of localities as well! The fact is that weed+eatin$ fishes find a"undance of their special food in such localities, and carnivorous fish find an unusually lar$e num"er of smaller fish! It matters also whether the wind "e from the north or south: the lon$er fish thrive "etter when a north wind prevails, and in summer at one and the same spot more lon$ fish will "e cau$ht than flat fish with a north wind "lowin$! The tunny and the sword+fish are infested with a parasite a"out the risin$ of the /o$+star that is to say, a"out this time "oth these fishes have a $ru" "eside their fins that is nicknamed the '$adfly%! It resem"les the scorpion in shape, and is a"out the si3e of the spider! #o acute is the pain it inflicts that the sword+fish will often leap as hi$h out of the water as a dolphin in fact, it sometimes leaps over the "ulwarks of a vessel and falls "ack on the deck! The tunny deli$hts more than any other fish in the heat of the sun! It will "urrow for warmth in the sand in shallow waters near to shore, or will, "ecause it is warm, disport itself on the surface of the sea! The fry of little fishes escape "y "ein$ overlooked, for it is only the lar$er ones of the small species that fishes of the lar$e species will pursue! The $reater part of the spawn and the fry of fishes is

destroyed "y the heat of the sun, for whatever of them the sun reaches it spoils! Fishes are cau$ht in $reatest a"undance "efore sunrise and after sunset, or, speakin$ $enerally, (ust a"out sunset and sunrise! Fishermen haul up their nets at these times, and speak of the hauls then made as the 'nick+of+time% hauls! The fact is, that at these times fishes are particularly weak+si$hted at ni$ht they are at rest, and as the li$ht $rows stron$er they see comparatively well! )e know of no pestilential malady attackin$ fishes, such as those which attack man, and horses and o&en amon$ the *uadrupedal vivipara, and certain species of other $enera, domesticated and wild "ut fishes do seem to suffer from sickness and fishermen infer this from the fact that at times fishes in poor condition, and lookin$ as thou$h they were sick, and of altered colour, are cau$ht in a lar$e haul of well+conditioned fish of their own species! #o much for sea+fishes! 4@ Eiver+fish and lake+fish also are e&empt from diseases of a pestilential character, "ut certain species are su"(ect to special and peculiar maladies! For instance, the sheat+fish (ust "efore the risin$ of the /o$+star, owin$ to its swimmin$ near the surface of the water, is lia"le to sunstroke, and is paralysed "y a loud peal of thunder! The carp is su"(ect to the same eventualities "ut in a lesser de$ree! The sheatfish is destroyed in $reat *uantities in shallow

waters "y the serpent called the dra$on! In the "alerus and tilon a worm is en$endered a"out the risin$ of the /o$+star, that sickens these fish and causes them to rise towards the surface, where they are killed "y the e&cessive heat! The chalcis is su"(ect to a very violent malady lice are en$endered underneath their $ills in $reat num"ers, and cause destruction amon$ them "ut no other species of fish is su"(ect to any such malady! If mullein "e introduced into water it will kill fish in its vicinity! It is used e&tensively for catchin$ fish in rivers and ponds "y the Ahoenicians it is made use of also in the sea! There are two other methods employed for catch+fish! It is a known fact that in winter fishes emer$e from the deep parts of rivers and, "y the way, at all seasons fresh water is tolera"ly cold! A trench accordin$ly is du$ leadin$ into a river, and wattled at the river end with reeds and stones, an aperture "ein$ left in the wattlin$ throu$h which the river water flows into the trench when the frost comes on the fish can "e taken out of the trench in weels! Another method is adopted in summer and winter alike! They run across a stream a dam composed of "rushwood and stones leavin$ a small open space, and in this space they insert a weel they then coop the fish in towards this place, and draw them up in the weel as they swim throu$h the open space! #hell+fish, as a rule, are "enefited "y rainy weather! The purple mure& is an e&ception if it "e placed on a shore near to where a river dischar$es, it will die within a day after tastin$ the fresh

water! The mure& lives for a"out fifty days after capture durin$ this period they feed off one another, as there $rows on the shell a kind of sea+weed or sea+moss if any food is thrown to them durin$ this period, it is said to "e done not to keep them alive, "ut to make them wei$h more! To shell+fish in $eneral drou$ht is unwholesome! /urin$ dry weather they decrease in si3e and de$enerate in *uality and it is durin$ such weather that the red scallop is found in more than usual a"undance! In the Ayrrhaean #trait the clam was e&terminated, partly "y the dred$in$+machine used in their capture, and partly "y lon$+continued drou$hts! Eainy weather is wholesome to the $enerality of shellfish owin$ to the fact that the sea+water then "ecomes e&ceptionally sweet! In the 8u&ine, owin$ to the coldness of the climate, shellfish are not found: nor yet in rivers, e&ceptin$ a few "ivalves here and there! ?nivalves, "y the way, are very apt to free3e to death in e&tremely cold weather! #o much for animals that live in water! 41 To turn to *uadrupeds, the pi$ suffers from three diseases, one of which is called "ranchos, a disease attended with swellin$s a"out the windpipe and the (aws! It may "reak out in any part of the "ody very often it attacks the foot, and occasionally the ear the nei$h"ourin$ parts also soon rot, and the decay $oes on until it reaches the lun$s, when the animal succum"s! The disease

develops with $reat rapidity, and the moment it sets in the animal $ives up eatin$! The swineherds know "ut one way to cure it, namely, "y complete e&cision, when they detect the first si$ns of the disease! There are two other diseases, which are "oth alike termed craurus! The one is attended with pain and heaviness in the head, and this is the commoner of the two, the other with diarrhoea! The latter is incura"le, the former is treated "y applyin$ wine fomentations to the snout and rinsin$ the nostrils with wine! 8ven this disease is very hard to cure it has "een known to kill within three or four days! The animal is chiefly su"(ect to "ranchos when it $ets e&tremely fat, and when the heat has "rou$ht a $ood supply of fi$s! The treatment is to feed on mashed mul"erries, to $ive repeated warm "aths, and to lance the under part of the ton$ue! Ai$s with fla""y flesh are su"(ect to measles a"out the le$s, neck, and shoulders, for the pimples develop chiefly in these parts! If the pimples are few in num"er the flesh is comparatively sweet, "ut if they "e numerous it $ets watery and flaccid! The symptoms of measles are o"vious, for the pimples show chiefly on the under side of the ton$ue, and if you pluck the "ristles off the chine the skin will appear suffused with "lood, and further the animal will "e una"le to keep its hind+feet at rest! Ai$s never take this disease while they are mere sucklin$s! The pimples may "e $ot rid of "y feedin$ on this kind of spelt called tiphe and this spelt, "y the way, is very $ood for ordinary food! The "est food for rearin$ and

fattenin$ pi$s is chickpeas and fi$s, "ut the one thin$ essential is to vary the food as much as possi"le, for this animal, like animals in $eneral li$hts in a chan$e of diet and it is said that one kind of food "lows the animal out, that another superinduces flesh, and that another puts on fat, and that acorns, thou$h liked "y the animal, render the flesh flaccid! Besides, if a sow eats acorns in $reat *uantities, it will miscarry, as is also the case with the ewe and, indeed, the miscarria$e is more certain in the case of the ewe than in the case of the sow! The pi$ is the only animal known to "e su"(ect to measles! 44 /o$s suffer from three diseases ra"ies, *uinsy, and sore feet! Ea"ies drives the animal mad, and ary animal whatever, e&ceptin$ man, will take the disease if "itten "y a do$ so afflicted the disease is fatal to the do$ itself, and to any animal it may "ite, man e&cepted! Kuinsy also is fatal to do$s and only a few recover from disease of the feet! The camel, like the do$, is su"(ect to ra"ies! The elephant, which is reputed to en(oy immunity from all other illnesses, is occasionally su"(ect to flatulency! 46 .attle in herds are lia"le to two diseases, foot, sickness and craurus! In the former their feet suffer from eruptions, "ut the animal recovers from the disease without even the loss of the hoof!

It is found of service to smear the horny parts with warm pitch! In craurus, the "reath comes warm at short intervals in fact, craurus in cattle answers to fever in man! The symptoms of the disease are droopin$ of the ears and disinclination for food! The animal soon succum"s, and when the carcase is opened the lun$s are found to "e rotten! 47 Horses out at pasture are free from all diseases e&ceptin$ disease of the feet! From this disease they sometimes lose their hooves: "ut after losin$ them they $row them soon a$ain, for as one hoof is decayin$ it is "ein$ replaced "y another! #ymptoms of the malady are a sinkin$ in and wrinklin$ of the lip in the middle under the nostrils, and in the case of the male, a twitchin$ of the ri$ht testicle! #tall+reared horses are su"(ect to very numerous forms of disease! They are lia"le to disease called 'eileus%! ?nder this disease the animal trails its hind+le$s under its "elly so far forward as almost to fall "ack on its haunches if it $oes without food for several days and turns ra"id, it may "e of service to draw "lood, or to castrate the male! The animal is su"(ect also to tetanus: the veins $et ri$id, as also the head and neck, and the animal walks with its le$s stretched out strai$ht! The horse suffers also from a"scesses! Another painful illness afflicts them called the '"arley+surfeit%! The are a softenin$ of the palate and heat of the "reath the animal may

recover throu$h the stren$th of its own constitution, "ut no formal remedies are of any avail! There is also a disease called nymphia, in which the animal is said to stand still and droop its head on hearin$ flute+music if durin$ this ailment the horse "e mounted, it will run off at a $allop until it is pulled! 8ven with this ra"ies in full force, it preserves a de(ected spiritless appearance some of the symptoms are a throwin$ "ack of the ears followed "y a pro(ection of them, $reat lan$uor, and heavy "reathin$! Heart+ache also is incura"le, of which the symptom is a drawin$ in of the flanks and so is displacement of the "ladder, which is accompanied "y a retention of urine and a drawin$ up of the hooves and haunches! 5either is there any cure if the animal swallow the $rape+"eetle, which is a"out the si3e of the sphondyle or knuckle+"eetle! The "ite of the shrewmouse is dan$erous to horses and other drau$ht animals as well it is followed "y "oils! The "ite is all the more dan$erous if the mouse "e pre$nant when she "ites, for the "oils then "urst, "ut do not "urst otherwise! The cici$na+called 'chalcis% "y some, and '3i$nis% "y others+either causes death "y its "ite or, at all events, intense pain it is like a small li3ard, with the colour of the "lind snake! In point of fact, accordin$ to e&perts, the horse and the sheep have pretty well as many ailments as the human species! The dru$ known under the name of 'sandarace% or real$ar, is e&tremely in(urious to a horse, and to all drau$ht animals it is $iven to the animal as a medicine in a solution of water, the li*uid "ein$

filtered throu$h a colander! The mare when pre$nant apt to miscarry when distur"ed "y the odour of an e&tin$uished candle and a similar accident happens occasionally to women in their pre$nancy! #o much for the diseases of the horse! The so+called hippomanes $rows, as has stated, on the foal, and the mare ni""les it off as she licks and cleans the foal! All the curious stories connected with the hippomanes are due to old wives and to the venders of charms! )hat is called the 'polium% or foal%s mem"rane, is, as all the accounts state, delivered "y the mother "efore the foal appears! A horse will reco$ni3e the nei$hin$ of any other horse with which it may have fou$ht at any previous period! The horse deli$hts in meadows and marshes, and likes to drink muddy water in fact, if water "e clear, the horse will trample in it to make it tur"id, will then drink it, and afterwards will wallow in it! The animal is fond of water in every way, whether for drinkin$ or for "athin$ purposes and this e&plains the peculiar constitution of the hippopotamus or river+horse! In re$ard to water the o& is the opposite of the horse for if the water "e impure or cold, or mi&ed up with alien matter, it will refuse to drink it! 49 The ass suffers chiefly from one particular disease which they call 'melis%! It arises first in the head, and a clammy humour runs down the nostrils, thick and red if it stays in the head the animal may

recover, "ut if it descends into the lun$s the animal will die! Of all animals on its of its kind it is the least capa"le of endurin$ e&treme cold, which circumstance will account for the fact that the animal is not found on the shores of the 8u&ine, nor in #cythia! 4: 8lephants suffer from flatulence, and when thus afflicted can void neither solid nor li*uid residuum! If the elephant swallow earth+ mould it suffers from rela&ation "ut if it $o on takin$ it steadily, it will e&perience no harm! From time to time it takes to swallowin$ stones! It suffers also from diarrhoea: in this case they administer drau$hts of lukewarm water or dip its fodder in honey, and either one or the other prescription will prove a costive! )hen they suffer from insomnia, they will "e restored to health if their shoulders "e ru""ed with salt, olive+oil, and warm water when they have aches in their shoulders they will derive $reat "enefit from the application of roast pork! #ome elephants like olive oil, and others do not! If there is a "it of iron in the inside of an elephant it is said that it will pass out if the animal takes a drink of olive+oil if the animal refuses olive+oil, they soak a root in the oil and $ive it the root to swallow! #o much, then, for *uadrupeds! 4<

Insects, as a $eneral rule, thrive "est in the time of year in which they come into "ein$, especially if the season "e moist and warm, as in sprin$! In "ee+hives are found creatures that do $reat dama$e to the com"s for instance, the $ru" that spins a we" and ruins the honeycom": it is called the 'cleros%! It en$enders an insect like itself, of a spider+shape, and "rin$s disease into the swarm! There is another insect resem"lin$ the moth, called "y some the 'pyraustes%, that flies a"out a li$hted candle: this creature en$enders a "rood full of a fine down! It is never stun$ "y a "ee, and can only "e $ot out of a hive "y fumi$ation! A caterpillar also is en$endered in hives, of a species nicknamed the teredo, or '"orer%, with which creature the "ee never interferes! Bees suffer most when flowers are covered with mildew, or in seasons of drou$ht! All insects, without e&ception, die if they "e smeared over with oil and they die all the more rapidly if you smear their head with the oil and lay them out in the sun! 4= ;ariety in animal life may "e produced "y variety of locality: thus in one place an animal will not "e found at all, in another it will "e small, or short+lived, or will not thrive! #ometimes this sort of difference is o"served in closely ad(acent districts! Thus, in the territory of 0iletus, in one district cicadas are found while there

are none in the district close ad(oinin$ and in .ephalenia there is a river on one side of which the cicada is found and not on the other! In Aordoselene there is a pu"lic road one side of which the weasel is found "ut not on the other! In Boeotia the mole is found in $reat a"undance in the nei$h"ourhood of Orchomenus, "ut there are none in Be"adia thou$h it is in the immediate vicinity, and if a mole "e transported from the one district to the other it will refuse to "urrow in the soil! The hare cannot live in Ithaca if introduced there in fact it will "e found dead, turned towards the point of the "each where it was landed! The horseman+ant is not found in #icily the croakin$ fro$ has only recently appeared in the nei$h"ourhood of .yrene! In the whole of Bi"ya there is neither wild "oar, nor sta$, nor wild $oat and in India, accordin$ to .tesias+no very $ood authority, "y the way+there are no swine, wild or tame, "ut animals that are devoid of "lood and such as $o into hidin$ or $o torpid are all of immense si3e there! In the 8u&ine there are no small molluscs nor testaceans, e&cept a few here and there "ut in the Eed #ea all the testaceans are e&ceedin$ly lar$e! In #yria the sheep have tails a cu"it in "readth the $oats have ears a span and a palm lon$, and some have ears that flap down to the $round and the cattle have humps on their shoulders, like the camel! In Bycia $oats are shorn for their fleece, (ust as sheep are in all other countries! In Bi"ya the lon$+horned ram is "orn with horns, and not the ram only, as Homer% words it, "ut the ewe as

well in Aontus, on the confines of #cythia, the ram is without horns! In 8$ypt animals, as a rule, are lar$er than their con$eners in 2reece, as the cow and the sheep "ut some are less, as the do$, the wolf, the hare, the fo&, the raven, and the hawk others are of pretty much the same si3e, as the crow and the $oat! The difference, where it e&ists, is attri"uted to the food, as "ein$ a"undant in one case and insufficient in another, for instance for the wolf and the hawk for provision is scanty for the carnivorous animals, small "irds "ein$ scarce food is scanty also for the hare and for all fru$ivorous animals, "ecause neither the nuts nor the fruit last lon$! In many places the climate will account for peculiarities thus in Illyria, Thrace, and 8pirus the ass is small, and in 2aul and in #cythia the ass is not found at all owin$ to the coldness of the climate of these countries! In Ara"ia the li3ard is more than a cu"it in len$th, and the mouse is much lar$er than our field+mouse, with its hind+le$s a span lon$ and its front le$s the len$th of the first fin$er+(oint! In Bi"ya, accordin$ to all accounts, the len$th of the serpents is somethin$ appallin$ sailors spin a yarn to the effect that some crews once put ashore and saw the "ones of a num"er of o&en, and that they were sure that the o&en had "een devoured "y serpents, for, (ust as they were puttin$ out to sea, serpents came chasin$ their $alleys at full speed and overturned one $alley and set upon the crew! A$ain, lions are more numerous in Bi"ya, and in

that district of 8urope that lies "etween the Achelous and the 5essus the leopard is more a"undant in Asia 0inor, and is not found in 8urope at all! As a $eneral rule, wild animals are at their wildest in Asia, at their "oldest in 8urope, and most diverse in form in Bi"ya in fact, there is an old sayin$, 'Always somethin$ fresh in Bi"ya!% It would appear that in that country animals of diverse species meet, on account of the rainless climate, at the waterin$+places, and there pair to$ether and that such pairs will often "reed if they "e nearly of the same si3e and have periods of $estation of the same len$th! For it is said that they are tamed down in their "ehaviour towards each other "y e&tremity of thirst! And, "y the way, unlike animals elsewhere, they re*uire to drink more in wintertime than in summer: for they ac*uire the ha"it of not drinkin$ in summer, owin$ to the circumstance that there is usually no water then and the mice, if they drink, die! 8lsewhere also "astard+animals are "orn to hetero$eneous pairs thus in .yrene the wolf and the "itch will couple and "reed and the Baconian hound is a cross "etween the fo& and the do$! They say that the Indian do$ is a cross "etween the ti$er and the "itch, not the first cross, "ut a cross in the third $eneration for they say that the first cross is a sava$e creature! They take the "itch to a lonely spot and tie her up: if the ti$er "e in an amorous mood he will pair with her if not he will eat her up, and this casualty is of fre*uent occurrence!

4> Bocality will differentiate ha"its also: for instance, ru$$ed hi$hlands will not produce the same results as the soft lowlands! The animals of the hi$hlands look fiercer and "older, as is seen in the swine of 0ount Athos for a lowland "oar is no match even for a mountain sow! A$ain, locality is an important element in re$ard to the "ite of an animal! Thus, in Aharos and other places, the "ite of the scorpion is not dan$erous elsewhere+in .aria, for instances+where scorpions are venomous as well as plentiful and of lar$e si3e, the stin$ is fatal to man or "east, even to the pi$, and especially to a "lack pi$, thou$h the pi$, "y the way, is in $eneral most sin$ularly indifferent to the "ite of any other creature! If a pi$ $oes into water after "ein$ struck "y the scorpion of .aria, it will surely die! There is $reat variety in the effects produced "y the "ites of serpents! The asp is found in Bi"ya the so+called 'septic% dru$ is made from the "ody of the animal, and is the only remedy known for the "ite of the ori$inal! Amon$ the silphium, also, a snake is found, for the "ite or which a certain stone is said to "e a cure: a stone that is "rou$ht from the $rave of an ancient kin$, which stone is put into water and drunk off! In certain parts of Italy the "ite of the $ecko is fatal! But the deadliest of all "ites of venomous creatures is when one venomous animal has "itten another as, for instance, a viper%s after it has "itten a scorpion! To the $reat ma(ority of such creatures man%s is fatal! There is a very little

snake, "y some entitled the 'holy+snake%, which is dreaded "y even the lar$est serpents! It is a"out an ell lon$, and hairy+lookin$ whenever it "ites an animal, the flesh all round the wound will at once mortify! There is in India a small snake which is e&ceptional in this respect, that for its "ite no specific whatever is known! 6@ Animals also vary as to their condition of health in conne&ion with their pre$nancy! Testaceans, such as scallops and all the oyster+family, and crustaceans, such as the lo"ster family, are "est when with spawn! 8ven in the case of the testacean we speak of spawnin$ ,or pre$nancy- "ut whereas the crustaceans may "e seen couplin$ and layin$ their spawn, this is never the case with testaceans! 0olluscs are "est in the "reedin$ time, as the calamary, the sepia, and the octopus! Fishes, when they "e$in to "reed, are nearly all $ood for the ta"le "ut after the female has $one lon$ with spawn they are $ood in some cases, and in others are out of season! The maenis, for instance, is $ood at the "reedin$ time! The female of this fish is round, the male lon$er and flatter when the female is "e$innin$ to "reed the male turns "lack and mottled, and is *uite unfit for the ta"le at this period he is nicknamed the '$oat%! The wrasses called the ow3el and the thrush, and the smaris have different colours at different seasons, as is the case with the

pluma$e of certain "irds that is to say, they "ecome "lack in the sprin$ and after the sprin$ $et white a$ain! The phycis also chan$es its hue: in $eneral it is white, "ut in sprin$ it is mottled it is the only sea+fish which is said make a "ed for itself, and the female lays her spawn in this "ed or nest! The maenis, as was o"served, chan$es its colour as does the smaris, and in summer+ time chan$es "ack from whitish to "lack, the chan$e "ein$ especially marked a"out the fins and $ills! The coracine, like the maenis, is in "est condition at "reedin$ time the mullet, the "asse, and scaly fishes in $eneral are in "ad condition at this period! A few fish are in much the same condition at all times, whether with spawn or not, as the $laucus! Old fishes also are "ad eatin$ the old tunny is unfit even for picklin$, as a $reat part of its flesh wastes away with a$e, and the same wastin$ is o"served in all old fishes! The a$e of a scaly fish may "e told "y the si3e and the hardness of its scales! An old tunny has "een cau$ht wei$hin$ fifteen talents, with the span of its tail two cu"its and a palm "road! Eiver+fish and lake+fish are "est after they have dischar$ed the spawn in the case of the female and the milt in the case of the male: that is, when they have fully recovered from the e&haustion of such dischar$e! #ome are $ood in the "reedin$ time, as the saperdis, and some "ad, as the sheat+fish! As a $eneral rule, the male fish is "etter eatin$ than the female "ut the reverse holds $ood of the sheat+fish! The eels that are called females are the "est

for the ta"le: they look as thou$h they were female, "ut they really are not so! C Ta"le of .ontents C 5e&t C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide! Aristotle The History of Animals

Book IH 1 OF the animals that are comparatively o"scure and short+lived the characters or dispositions are not so o"vious to reco$nition as are those of animals that are lon$er+lived! These latter animals appear to have a natural capacity correspondin$ to each of the passions: to cunnin$ or simplicity, coura$e or timidity, to $ood temper or to "ad, and to other similar dispositions of mind! #ome also are capa"le of $ivin$ or receivin$ instruction+of receivin$ it from one another or from man: those that have the faculty of hearin$, for instance and, not to limit the matter to audi"le sound, such as can differentiate the su$$ested meanin$s of word and $esture! In all $enera in which the distinction of male and female is found, 5ature makes a similar differentiation in the mental characteristics of the two se&es! This differentiation is the most o"vious in the

case of human kind and in that of the lar$er animals and the viviparous *uadrupeds! In the case of these latter the female softer in character, is the sooner tamed, admits more readily of caressin$, is more apt in the way of learnin$ as, for instance, in the Baconian "reed of do$s the female is cleverer than the male! Of the 0olossian "reed of do$s, such as are employed in the chase are pretty much the same as those elsewhere "ut sheep+do$s of this "reed are superior to the others in si3e, and in the coura$e with which they face the attacks of wild animals! /o$s that are "orn of a mi&ed "reed "etween these two kinds are remarka"le for coura$e and endurance of hard la"our! In all cases, e&ceptin$ those of the "ear and leopard, the female is less spirited than the male in re$ard to the two e&ceptional cases, the superiority in coura$e rests with the female! )ith all other animals the female is softer in disposition than the male, is more mischievous, less simple, more impulsive, and more attentive to the nurture of the youn$: the male, on the other hand, is more spirited than the female, more sava$e, more simple and less cunnin$! The traces of these differentiated characteristics are more or less visi"le everywhere, "ut they are especially visi"le where character is the more developed, and most of all in man! The fact is, the nature of man is the most rounded off and complete, and conse*uently in man the *ualities or capacities a"ove referred to are found in their perfection! Hence woman is more compassionate than man, more easily moved to tears, at the

same time is more (ealous, more *uerulous, more apt to scold and to strike! #he is, furthermore, more prone to despondency and less hopeful than the man, more void of shame or self+respect, more false of speech, more deceptive, and of more retentive memory! #he is also more wakeful, more shrinkin$, more difficult to rouse to action, and re*uires a smaller *uantity of nutriment! As was previously stated, the male is more coura$eous than the female, and more sympathetic in the way of standin$ "y to help! 8ven in the case of molluscs, when the cuttle+fish is struck with the trident the male stands "y to help the female "ut when the male is struck the female runs away! There is enmity "etween such animals as dwell in the same localities or su"sist on the food! If the means of su"sistence run short, creatures of like kind will fi$ht to$ether! Thus it is said that seals which inha"it one and the same district will fi$ht, male with male, and female with female, until one com"atant kills the other, or one is driven away "y the other and their youn$ do even in like manner! All creatures are at enmity with the carnivores, and the carnivores with all the rest, for they all su"sist on livin$ creatures! #oothsayers take notice of cases where animals keep apart from one another, and cases where they con$re$ate to$ether callin$ those that live at war with one another 'dissociates%, and those that dwell in peace with one another 'associates%! One may $o so far as to say that if there were no lack or stint of food, then those animals

that are now afraid of man or are wild "y nature would "e tame and familiar with him, and in like manner with one another! This is shown "y the way animals are treated in 8$ypt, for owin$ to the fact that food is constantly supplied to them the very fiercest creatures live peacea"ly to$ether! The fact is they are tamed "y kindness, and in some places crocodiles are tame to their priestly keeper from "ein$ fed "y him! And elsewhere also the same phenomenon is to "e o"served! The ea$le and the snake are enemies, for the ea$le lives on snakes so are the ichneumon and the venom+spider, for the ichneumon preys upon the latter! In the case of "irds, there is mutual enmity "etween the poecilis, the crested lark, the woodpecker ,1-, and the chloreus, for they devour one another%s e$$s so also "etween the crow and the owl for, owin$ to the fact that the owl is dim+si$hted "y day, the crow at midday preys upon the owl%s e$$s, and the owl at ni$ht upon the crow%s, each havin$ the whip+hand of the other, turn and turn a"out, ni$ht and day! There is enmity also "etween the owl and the wren for the latter also devours the owl%s e$$s! In the daytime all other little "irds flutter round the owl+a practice which is popularly termed 'admirin$ him%+"uffet him, and pluck out his feathers catchin$ little "irds of all kinds! The so+called pres"ys or 'old man% is at war with the weasel and the crow, for they prey on her e$$s and her "rood and so the in conse*uence of this ha"it, "ird+catchers use the owl as a decoy for

turtle+dove with the pyrallis, for they live in the same districts and on the same food and so with the $reen wood pecker and the li"yus and so with kite and the raven, for, owin$ to his havin$ the advanta$e from stron$er talons and more rapid fli$ht the former can steal whatever the latter is holdin$, so that it is food also that makes enemies of these! In like manner there is war "etween "irds that $et their livin$ from the sea, as "etween the "renthus, the $ull, and the harpe and so "etween the "u33ard on one side and the toad and snake on the other, for the "u33ard preys upon the e$$s of the two others and so "etween the turtle+dove and the chloreus the chloreus kills the dove, and the crow kills the so+called drummer+ "ird! The ae$olius, and "irds of prey in $eneral, prey upon the calaris, and conse*uently there is war "etween it and them and so is there war "etween the $ecko+li3ard and the spider, for the former preys upon the latter and so "etween the woodpecker and the heron, for the former preys upon the e$$s and "rood of the latter! And so "etween the ae$ithus and the ass, owin$ to the fact that the ass, in passin$ a fur3e+"ush, ru"s its sore and itchin$ parts a$ainst the prickles "y so doin$, and all the more if it "rays, it topples the e$$s and the "rood out of the nest, the youn$ ones tum"le out in fri$ht, and the mother+"ird, to aven$e this wron$, flies at the "east and pecks at his sore places! The wolf is at war with the ass, the "ull, and the fo&, for as "ein$ a carnivore, he attacks these other animals and so for the same

reason with the fo& and the circus, for the circus, "ein$ carnivorous and furnished with crooked talons, attacks and maims the animal! And so the raven is at war with the "ull and the ass, for it flies at them, and strikes them, and pecks at their eyes and so with the ea$le and the heron, for the former, havin$ crooked talons, attacks the latter, and the latter usually succum"s to the attack and so the merlin with the vulture and the cre& with the eleus+owl, the "lack"ird, and the oriole ,of this latter "ird, "y the way, the story $oes that he was ori$inally "orn out of a funeral pyre-: the cause of warfare is that the cre& in(ures "oth them and their youn$! The nuthatch and the wren are at war with the ea$le the nuthatch "reaks the ea$le%s e$$s, so the ea$le is at war with it on special $rounds, thou$h, as a "ird of prey, it carries on a $eneral war all round! The horse and the anthus are enemies, and the horse will drive the "ird out of the field where he is $ra3in$: the "ird feeds on $rass, and sees too dimly to foresee an attack it mimics the whinnyin$ of the horse, flies at him, and tries to fri$hten him away "ut the horse drives the "ird away, and whenever he catches it he kills it: this "ird lives "eside rivers or on marsh $round it has pretty pluma$e, and finds its without trou"le! The ass is at enmity with the li3ard, for the li3ard sleeps in his man$er, $ets into his nostril, and prevents his eatin$! Of herons there are three kinds: the ash coloured, the white, and the starry heron ,or "ittern-! Of these the first mentioned su"mits with reluctance to the duties of incu"ation, or to union of the se&es

in fact, it screams durin$ the union, and it is said drips "lood from its eyes it lays its e$$s also in an awkward manner, not unattended with pain! It is at war with certain creatures that do it in(ury: with the ea$le for ro""in$ it, with the fo& for worryin$ it at ni$ht, and with the lark for stealin$ its e$$s! The snake is at war with the weasel and the pi$ with the weasel when they are "oth at home, for they live on the same food with the pi$ for preyin$ on her kind! The merlin is at war with the fo& it strikes and claws it, and, as it has crooked talons, it kills the animal%s youn$! The raven and the fo& are $ood friends, for the raven is at enmity with the merlin and so when the merlin assails the fo& the raven comes and helps the animal! The vulture and the merlin are mutual enemies, as "ein$ "oth furnished with crooked talons! The vulture fi$hts with the ea$le, and so, "y the way, does does swan and the swan is often victorious: moreover, of all "irds swans are most prone to the killin$ of one another! In re$ard to wild creatures, some sets are at enmity with other sets at all times and under all circumstances others, as in the case of man and man, at special times and under incidental circumstances! The ass and the acanthis are enemies for the "ird lives on thistles, and the ass "rowses on thistles when they are youn$ and tender! The anthus, the acanthis, and the ae$ithus are at enmity with one another it is said that the "lood of the anthus will not intercommin$le with the "lood of the ae$ithus! The crow and the heron are friends, as also are the sed$e+"ird and lark, the laedus

and the celeus or $reen woodpecker the woodpecker lives on the "anks of rivers and "eside "rakes, the laedus lives on rocks and "ills, and is $reatly attached to its nestin$+place! The piphin&, the harpe, and the kite are friends as are the fo& and the snake, for "oth "urrow under$round so also are the "lack"ird and the turtle+ dove! The lion and the thos or civet are enemies, for "oth are carnivorous and live on the same food! 8lephants fi$ht fiercely with one another, and sta" one another with their tusks of two com"atants the "eaten one $ets completely cowed, and dreads the sound of his con*ueror%s voice! These animals differ from one another an e&traordinary e&tent in the way of coura$e! Indians employ these animals for war purposes, irrespective of se& the females, however, are less in si3e and much inferior in point of spirit! An elephant "y pushin$ with his "i$ tusks can "atter down a wall, and will "utt with his forehead at a palm until he "rin$s it down, when he stamps on it and lays it in orderly fashion on the $round! 0en hunt the elephant in the followin$ way: they mount tame elephants of approved spirit and proceed in *uest of wild animals when they come up with these they "id the tame "rutes to "eat the wild ones until they tire the latter completely! Hereupon the driver mounts a wild "rute and $uides him with the application of his metal pron$ after this the creature soon "ecomes tame, and o"eys $uidance! 5ow when the driver is on their "ack they are all tracta"le, "ut after he has dismounted, some are tame and others vicious in the case of these latter, they tie their front+le$s with

ropes to keep them *uiet! The animal is hunted whether youn$ or full $rown! Thus we see that in the case of the creatures a"ove mentioned their mutual friendship or the is due to the food they feed on and the life they lead! 4 Of fishes, such as swim in shoals to$ether are friendly to one another such as do not so swim are enemies! #ome fishes swarm durin$ the spawnin$ season others after they have spawned! To state the matter comprehensively, we may say that the followin$ are shoalin$ fish: the tunny, the maenis, the sea+$ud$eon, the "o$ue, the horse+mackerel, the coracine, the synodon or dente&, the red mullet, the sphyraena, the anthias, the ele$inus, the atherine, the sar$inus, the $ar+fish, ,the s*uid,- the rain"ow+wrasse, the pelamyd, the mackerel, the coly+mackerel! Of these some not only swim in shoals, "ut $o in pairs inside the shoal the rest without e&ception swim in pairs, and only swim in shoals at certain periods: that is, as has "een said, when they are heavy with spawn or after they have spawned! The "asse and the $rey mullet are "itter enemies, "ut they swarm to$ether at certain times for at times not only do fishes of the same species swarm to$ether, "ut also those whose feedin$+$rounds are identical or ad(acent, if the food+supply "e a"undant! The $rey mullet is often found alive with its tail lopped off, and the con$er

with all that part of its "ody removed that lies to the rear of the vent in the case of the mullet the in(ury is wrou$ht "y the "asse, in that of the con$er+eel "y the muraena! There is war "etween the lar$er and the lesser fishes: for the "i$ fishes prey on the little ones! #o much on the su"(ect of marine animals! 6 The characters of animals, as has "een o"served, differ in respect to timidity, to $entleness, to coura$e, to tameness, to intelli$ence, and to stupidity! The sheep is said to "e naturally dull and stupid! Of all *uadrupeds it is the most foolish: it will saunter away to lonely places with no o"(ect in view oftentimes in stormy weather it will stray from shelter if it "e overtaken "y a snowstorm, it will stand still unless the shepherd sets it in motion it will stay "ehind and perish unless the shepherd "rin$s up the rams it will then follow home! If you catch hold of a $oat%s "eard at the e&tremity+the "eard is of a su"stance resem"lin$ hair+all the companion $oats will stand stock still, starin$ at this particular $oat in a kind of dum"founderment! Jou will have a warmer "ed in amon$st the $oats than amon$ the sheep, "ecause the $oats will "e *uieter and will creep up towards you for the $oat is more impatient of cold than the sheep! #hepherds train sheep to close in to$ether at a clap of their hands, for if, when a thunderstorm comes on, a ewe stays "ehind without closin$ in, the storm will kill it if it "e with youn$ conse*uently if

a sudden clap or noise is made, they close in to$ether within the sheepfold "y reason of their trainin$! 8ven "ulls, when they are roamin$ "y themselves apart from the herd, are killed "y wild animals! #heep and $oats lie crowded to$ether, kin "y kin! )hen the sun turns early towards its settin$, the $oats are said to lie no lon$er face to face, "ut "ack to "ack! 7 .attle at pasture keep to$ether in their accustomed herds, and if one animal strays away the rest will follow conse*uently if the herdsmen lose one particular animal, they keep close watch on all the rest! )hen mares with their colts pasture to$ether in the same field, if one dam dies the others will take up the rearin$ of the colt! In point of fact, the mare appears to "e sin$ularly prone "y nature to maternal fondness in proof whereof a "arren mare will steal the foal from its dam, will tend it with all the solicitude of a mother, "ut, as it will "e unprovided with mother%s milk, its solicitude will prove fatal to its char$e! 9 Amon$ wild *uadrupeds the hind appears to "e pre+eminently intelli$ent for e&ample, in its ha"it of "rin$in$ forth its youn$ on the sides of pu"lic roads, where the fear of man for"ids the

approach of wild animals! A$ain, after parturition, it first swallows the after"irth, then $oes in *uest of the seseli shru", and after eatin$ of it returns to its youn$! The mother takes its youn$ "etimes to her lair, so leadin$ it to know its place of refu$e in time of dan$er this lair is a precipitous rock, with only one approach, and there it is said to hold its own a$ainst all comers! The male when it $ets fat, which it does in a hi$h de$ree in autumn, disappears, a"andonin$ its usual resorts, apparently under an idea that its fatness facilitates its capture! They shed their horns in places difficult of access or discovery, whence the prover"ial e&pression of 'the place where the sta$ sheds his horns% the fact "ein$ that, as havin$ parted with their weapons, they take care not to "e seen! The sayin$ is that no man has ever seen the animal%s left horn that the creature keeps it out of si$ht "ecause it possesses some medicinal property! In their first year sta$s $row no horns, "ut only an e&crescence indicatin$ where horns will "e, this e&crescence "ein$ short and thick! In their second year they $row their horns for the first time, strai$ht in shape, like pe$s for han$in$ clothes on and on this account they have an appropriate nickname! In the third year the antlers are "ifurcate in the fourth year they $row trifurcate and so they $o on increasin$ in comple&ity until the creature is si& years old: after this they $row their horns without any specific differentiation, so that you cannot "y o"servation of them tell the animal%s a$e! But the patriarchs of the herd may "e told chiefly "y

two si$ns in the first place they have few teeth or none at all, and, in the second place, they have ceased to $row the pointed tips to their antlers! The forward+pointin$ tips of the $rowin$ horns ,that is to say the "row antlers-, with which the animal meets attack, are technically termed its 'defenders% with these the patriarchs are unprovided, and their antlers merely $row strai$ht upwards! #ta$s shed their horns annually, in or a"out the month of 0ay after sheddin$, they conceal themselves, it is said, durin$ the daytime, and, to avoid the flies, hide in thick copses durin$ this time, until they have $rown their horns, they feed at ni$ht+time! The horns at first $row in a kind of skin envelope, and $et rou$h "y de$rees when they reach their full si3e the animal "asks in the sun, to mature and dry them! )hen they need no lon$er ru" them a$ainst tree+trunks they *uit their hidin$ places, from a sense of security "ased upon the possession of arms defensive and offensive! An Achaeine sta$ has "een cau$ht with a *uantity of $reen ivy $rown over its horns, it havin$ $rown apparently, as on fresh $reen wood, when the horns were youn$ and tender! )hen a sta$ is stun$ "y a venom+spider or similar insect, it $athers cra"s and eats them it is said to "e a $ood thin$ for man to drink the (uice, "ut the taste is disa$reea"le! The hinds after parturition at once swallow the after"irth, and it is impossi"le to secure it, for the hind catches it "efore it falls to the $round: now this su"stance is supposed to have medicinal properties! )hen hunted the creatures are cau$ht "y sin$in$ or pipe+playin$ on the part of the hunters they are so

pleased with the music that they lie down on the $rass! If there "e two hunters, one "efore their eyes sin$s or plays the pipe, the other keeps out of si$ht and shoots, at a si$nal $iven "y the confederate! If the animal has its ears cocked, it can hear well and you cannot escape its ken if its ears are down, you can! : )hen "ears are runnin$ away from their pursuers they push their cu"s in front of them, or take them up and carry them when they are "ein$ overtaken they clim" up a tree! )hen emer$in$ from their winter+den, they at once take to eatin$ cuckoo+pint, as has "een said, and chew sticks of wood as thou$h they were cuttin$ teeth! 0any other *uadrupeds help themselves in clever ways! )ild $oats in .rete are said, when wounded "y arrows, to $o in search of dittany, which is supposed to have the property of e(ectin$ arrows in the "ody! /o$s, when they are ill, eat some kind of $rass and produce vomitin$! The panther, after eatin$ panther%s+"ane, tries to find some human e&crement, which is said to heal its pain! This panther%s+"ane kills lions as well! Hunters han$ up human e&crement in a vessel attached to the "ou$hs of a tree, to keep the animal from strayin$ to any distance the animal meets its end in leapin$ up to the "ranch and tryin$ to $et at the medicine! They say that the panther has found out that wild animals are fond of the scent it emits that, when it $oes a+huntin$, it hides itself that the

other animals come nearer and nearer, and that "y this strata$em it can catch even animals as swift of foot as sta$s! The 8$yptian ichneumon, when it sees the serpent called the asp, does not attack it until it has called in other ichneumons to help to meet the "lows and "ites of their enemy the assailants "eplaster themselves with mud, "y first soakin$ in the river and then rollin$ on the $round! )hen the crocodile yawns, the trochilus flies into his mouth and cleans his teeth! The trochilus $ets his food there"y, and the crocodile $ets ease and comfort it makes no attempt to in(ure its little friend, "ut, when it wants it to $o, it shakes its neck in warnin$, lest it should accidentally "ite the "ird! The tortoise, when it has partaken of a snake, eats mar(oram this action has "een actually o"served! A man saw a tortoise perform this operation over and over a$ain, and every time it plucked up some mar(oram $o "ack to partake of its prey he thereupon pulled the mar(oram up "y the roots, and the conse*uence was the tortoise died! The weasel, when it fi$hts with a snake, first eats wild rue, the smell of which is no&ious to the snake! The dra$on, when it eats fruit, swallows endive+(uice it has "een seen in the act! /o$s, when they suffer from worms, eat the standin$ corn! #torks, and all other "irds, when they $et a wound fi$htin$, apply mar(oram to the place in(ured! 0any have seen the locust, when fi$htin$ with the snake $et a ti$ht hold of the snake "y the neck! The weasel has a clever way of

$ettin$ the "etter of "irds it tears their throats open, as wolves do with sheep! )easels fi$ht desperately with mice+catchin$ snakes, as they "oth prey on the same animal! In re$ard to the instinct of hed$eho$s, it has "een o"served in many places that, when the wind is shiftin$ from north to south, and from south to north, they shift the outlook of their earth+holes, and those that are kept in domestication shift over from one wall to the other! The story $oes that a man in By3antium $ot into hi$h repute for foretellin$ a chan$e of weather, all owin$ to his havin$ noticed this ha"it of the hed$eho$! The polecat or marten is a"out as lar$e as the smaller "reed of 0altese do$s! In the thickness of its fur, in its look, in the white of its "elly, and in its love of mischief, it resem"les the weasel it is easily tamed from its likin$ for honey it is a pla$ue to "ee+hives it preys on "irds like the cat! Its $enital or$an, as has "een said, consists of "one: the or$an of the male is supposed to "e a cure for stran$ury doctors scrape it into powder, and administer it in that form! < In a $eneral way in the lives of animals many resem"lances to human life may "e o"served! Are+eminent intelli$ence will "e seen more in small creatures than in lar$e ones, as is e&emplified in the case of "irds "y the nest "uildin$ of the swallow! In the same way as men do, the "ird mi&es mud and chaff to$ether if it runs short

of mud, it souses its "ody in water and rolls a"out in the dry dust with wet feathers furthermore, (ust as man does, it makes a "ed of straw, puttin$ hard material "elow for a foundation, and adaptin$ all to suit its own si3e! Both parents co+operate in the rearin$ of the youn$ each of the parents will detect, with practised eye, the youn$ one that has had a helpin$, and will take care it is not helped twice over at first the parents will rid the nest of e&crement, "ut, when the youn$ are $rown, they will teach their youn$ to shift their position and let their e&crement fall over the side of the nest! Ai$eons e&hi"it other phenomena with a similar likeness to the ways of humankind! In pairin$ the same male and the same female keep to$ether and the union is only "roken "y the death of one of the two parties! At the time of parturition in the female the sympathetic attentions of the male are e&traordinary if the female is afraid on account of the impendin$ parturition to enter the nest, the male will "eat her and force her to come in! )hen the youn$ are "orn, he will take and masticate pieces of suita"le food, will open the "eaks of the fled$lin$s, and in(ect these pieces, thus preparin$ them "etimes to take food! ,)hen the male "ird is a"out to e&pel the the youn$ ones from the nest he coha"its with them all!- As a $eneral rule these "irds show this con(u$al fidelity, "ut occasionally a female will coha"it with other than her mate! These "irds are com"ative, and *uarrel with one another, and enter each other%s nests, thou$h this occurs "ut seldom at a distance from their nests this *uarrelsomeness is less marked, "ut in the close

nei$h"ourhood of their nests they will fi$ht desperately! A peculiarity common to the tame pi$eon, the rin$+dove and the turtle+dove is that they do not lean the head "ack when they are in the act of drinkin$, "ut only when they have fully *uenched their thirst! The turtle+dove and the rin$+dove "oth have "ut one mate, and let no other come ni$h "oth se&es co+operate in the process of incu"ation! It is difficult to distin$uish "etween the se&es e&cept "y an e&amination of their interiors! Ein$+doves are lon$+lived cases have "een known where such "irds were twenty+five years old, thirty years old, and in some cases forty! As they $row old their claws increase in si3e, and pi$eon+fanciers cut the claws as far as one can see, the "irds suffer no other percepti"le disfi$urement "y their increase in a$e! Turtle+doves and pi$eons that are "linded "y fanciers for use as decoys, live for ei$ht years! Aartrid$es live for a"out fifteen years! Ein$+doves and turtle+doves always "uild their nests in the same place year after year! The male, as a $eneral rule, is more lon$+lived than the female "ut in the case of pi$eons some assert that the male dies "efore the female, takin$ their inference from the statements of persons who keep decoy+"irds in captivity! #ome declare that the male sparrow lives only a year, pointin$ to the fact that early in sprin$ the male sparrow has no "lack "eard, "ut has one later on, as thou$h the "lack"earded "irds of the last year had all died out they also say that the females are the lon$er lived, on the $rounds that they are cau$ht in amon$st the youn$ "irds and that their a$e is rendered manifest "y the hardness a"out

their "eaks! Turtle+doves in summer live in cold places, ,and in warm places durin$ the winterchaffinches affect warm ha"itations in summer and cold ones in winter! = Birds of a heavy "uild, such as *uails, partrid$es, and the like, "uild no nests indeed, where they are incapa"le of fli$ht, it would "e of no use if they could do so! After scrapin$ a hole on a level piece of $round+and it is only in such a place that they lay their e$$s+they cover it over with thorns and sticks for security a$ainst hawks and ea$les, and there lay their e$$s and hatch them after the hatchin$ is over, they at once lead the youn$ out from the nest, as they are not a"le to fly afield for food for them! Kuails and partrid$es, like "arn+door hens, when they $o to rest, $ather their "rood under their win$s! 5ot to "e discovered, as mi$ht "e the case if they stayed lon$ in one spot, they do not hatch the e$$s where they laid them! )hen a man comes "y chance upon a youn$ "rood, and tries to catch them, the hen+"ird rolls in front of the hunter, pretendin$ to "e lame: the man every moment thinks he is on the point of catchin$ her, and so she draws him on and on, until every one of her "rood has had time to escape hereupon she returns to the nest and calls the youn$ "ack! The partrid$e lays not less than ten e$$s, and often lays as many as si&teen! As has "een o"served, the "ird has mischievous and deceitful ha"its! In the sprin$+time, a noisy scrimma$e takes place, out of which the male+"irds emer$e

each with a hen! Owin$ to the lecherous nature of the "ird, and from a dislike to the hen sittin$, the males, if they find any e$$s, roll them over and over until they "reak them in pieces to provide a$ainst this the female $oes to a distance and lays the e$$s, and often, under the stress of parturition, lays them in any chance spot that offers if the male "e near at hand, then to keep the e$$s intact she refrains from visitin$ them! If she "e seen "y a man, then, (ust as with her fled$ed "rood, she entices him off "y showin$ herself close at his feet until she has drawn him to a distance! )hen the females have run away and taken to sittin$, the males in a pack take to screamin$ and fi$htin$ when thus en$a$ed, they have the nickname of 'widowers%! The "ird who is "eaten follows his victor, and su"mits to "e covered "y him only and the "eaten "ird is covered "y a second one or "y any other, only clandestinely without the victor%s knowled$e this is so, not at all times, "ut at a particular season of the year, and with *uails as well as with partrid$es! A similar proceedin$ takes place occasionally with "arn+door cocks: for in temples, where cocks are set apart as dedicate without hens, they all as a matter of course tread any new+ comer! Tame partrid$es tread wild "irds, pecket their heads, and treat them with every possi"le outra$e! The leader of the wild "irds, with a counter+note of challen$e, pushes forward to attack the decoy+"ird, and after he has "een netted, another advances with a similar note! This is what is done if the decoy "e a male "ut if it "e a female that is the decoy and $ives the note, and the leader of

the wild "irds $ive a counter one, the rest of the males set upon him and chase him away from the female for makin$ advances to her instead of to them in conse*uence of this the male often advances without utterin$ any cry, so that no other may hear him and come and $ive him "attle and e&perienced fowlers assert that sometimes the male "ird, when he approaches the female, makes her keep silence, to avoid havin$ to $ive "attle to other males who mi$ht have heard him! The partrid$e has not only the note here referred to, "ut also a thin shrill cry and other notes! Oftentimes the hen+"ird rises from off her "rood when she sees the male showin$ attentions to the female decoy she will $ive the counter note and remain still, so as to "e trodden "y him and divert him from the decoy! The *uail and the partrid$e are so intent upon se&ual union that they often come ri$ht in the way of the decoy+"irds, and not seldom ali$ht upon their heads! #o much for the se&ual proclivities of the partrid$e, for the way in which it is hunted, and the $eneral nasty ha"its of the "ird! As has "een said, *uails and partrid$es "uild their nests upon the $round, and so also do some of the "irds that are capa"le of sustained fli$ht! Further, for instance, of such "irds, the lark and the woodcock, as well as the *uail, do not perch on a "ranch, "ut s*uat upon the $round! >

The woodpecker does not s*uat on the $round, "ut pecks at the "ark of trees to drive out from under it ma$$ots and $nats when they emer$e, it licks them up with its ton$ue, which is lar$e and flat! It can run up and down a tree in any way, even with the head downwards, like the $ecko+li3ard! For secure hold upon a tree, its claws are "etter adapted than those of the daw it makes its way "y stickin$ these claws into the "ark! One species of woodpecker is smaller than a "lack"ird, and has small reddish speckles a second species is lar$er than the "lack"ird, and a third is not much smaller than a "arn+door hen! It "uilds a nest on trees, as has "een said, on olive trees amon$st others! It feeds on the ma$$ots and ants that are under the "ark: it is so ea$er in the search for ma$$ots that it is said sometimes to hollow a tree out to its downfall! A woodpecker once, in course of domestication, was seen to insert an almond into a hole in a piece of tim"er, so that it mi$ht remain steady under its peckin$ at the third peck it split the shell of the fruit, and then ate the kernel! 1@ 0any indications of hi$h intelli$ence are $iven "y cranes! They will fly to a $reat distance and up in the air, to command an e&tensive view if they see clouds and si$ns of "ad weather they fly down a$ain and remain still! They, furthermore, have a leader in their fli$ht, and patrols that scream on the confines of the flock so as to "e heard "y all! )hen they settle down, the main "ody $o to

sleep with their heads under their win$, standin$ first on one le$ and then on the other, while their leader, with his head uncovered, keeps a sharp look out, and when he sees anythin$ of importance si$nals it with a cry! Aelicans that live "eside rivers swallow the lar$e smooth mussel+ shells: after cookin$ them inside the crop that precedes the stomach, they spit them out, so that, now when their shells are open, they may pick the flesh out and eat it! 11 Of wild "irds, the nests are fashioned to meet the e&i$encies of e&istence and ensure the security of the youn$! #ome of these "irds are fond of their youn$ and take $reat care of them, others are *uite the reverse some are clever in procurin$ su"sistence, others are not so! #ome of these "irds "uild in ravines and clefts, and on cliffs, as, for instance, the so+called charadrius, or stone+curlew this "ird is in no way noteworthy for pluma$e or voice it makes an appearance at ni$ht, "ut in the daytime keeps out of si$ht! The hawk also "uilds in inaccessi"le places! Althou$h a ravenous "ird, it will never eat the heart of any "ird it catches this has "een o"served in the case of the *uail, the thrush, and other "irds! They modify "etimes their method of huntin$, for in summer they do not $ra" their prey as they do at other seasons! Of the vulture, it is said that no one has ever seen either its youn$ or its nest on this account and on the $round that all of a sudden

$reat num"ers of them will appear without any one "ein$ a"le to tell from whence they come, Herodorus, the father of Bryson the sophist, says that it "elon$s to some distant and elevated land! The reason is that the "ird has its nest on inaccessi"le cra$s, and is found only in a few localities! The female lays one e$$ as a rule, and two at the most! #ome "irds live on mountains or in forests, as the hoopoe and the "renthus this latter "ird finds his food with ease and has a musical voice! The wren lives in "rakes and crevices it is difficult of capture, keeps out of si$ht, is $entle of disposition, finds its food with ease, and is somethin$ of a mechanic! It $oes "y the nickname of 'old man% or 'kin$% and the story $oes that for this reason the ea$le is at war with him! 14 #ome "irds live on the sea+shore, as the wa$tail the "ird is of a mischievous nature, hard to capture, "ut when cau$ht capa"le of complete domestication it is a cripple, as "ein$ weak in its hinder *uarters! )e"+footed "irds without e&ception live near the sea or rivers or pools, as they naturally resort to places adapted to their structure! #everal "irds, however, with cloven toes live near pools or marshes, as, for instance, the anthus lives "y the side of rivers the pluma$e of this "ird is pretty, and it finds its food with ease! The catarrhactes lives near the sea when it makes a dive, it will keep

under water for as lon$ as it would take a man to walk a furlon$ it is less than the common hawk! #wans are we"+footed, and live near pools and marshes they find their food with ease, are $ood+ tempered, are fond of their youn$, and live to a $reen old a$e! If the ea$le attacks them they will repel the attack and $et the "etter of their assailant, "ut they are never the first to attack! They are musical, and sin$ chiefly at the approach of death at this time they fly out to sea, and men, when sailin$ past the coast of Bi"ya, have fallen in with many of them out at sea sin$in$ in mournful strains, and have actually seen some of them dyin$! The cymindis is seldom seen, as it lives on mountains it is "lack in colour, and a"out the si3e of the hawk called the 'dove+killer% it is lon$ and slender in form! The Ionians call the "ird "y this name Homer in the Iliad mentions it in the line: .halcis its name with those of heavenly "irth, But called .ymindis "y the sons of earth! The hy"ris, said "y some to "e the same as the ea$le+owl, is never seen "y dayli$ht, as it is dim+si$hted, "ut durin$ the ni$ht it hunts like the ea$le it will fi$ht the ea$le with such desperation that the two com"atants are often captured alive "y shepherds it lays two e$$s, and, like others we have mentioned, it "uilds on rocks and in caverns! .ranes also fi$ht so desperately amon$ themselves as to "e cau$ht when fi$htin$, for they will not leave off the crane lays two e$$s!

16 The (ay has a $reat variety of notes: indeed, mi$ht almost say it had a different note for every day in the year! It lays a"out nine e$$s "uilds its nest on trees, out of hair and ta$s of wool when acorns are $ettin$ scarce, it lays up a store of them in hidin$! It is a common story of the stork that the old "irds are fed "y their $rateful pro$eny! #ome tell a similar story of the "ee+eater, and declare that the parents are fed "y their youn$ not only when $rowin$ old, "ut at an early period, as soon as the youn$ are capa"le of feedin$ them and the parent+"irds stay inside the nest! The under part of the "ird%s win$ is pale yellow the upper part is dark "lue, like that of the halcyon the tips of the win$s are A"out autumn+time it lays si& or seven e$$s, in overhan$in$ "anks where the soil is soft there it "urrows into the $round to a depth of si& feet! The $reenfinch, so called from the colour of its "elly, is as lar$e as a lark it lays four or five e$$s, "uilds its nest out of the plant called comfrey, pullin$ it up "y the roots, and makes an under+ mattress to lie on of hair and wool! The "lack"ird and the (ay "uild their nests after the same fashion! The nest of the penduline tit shows $reat mechanical skill it has the appearance of a "all of fla&, and the hole for entry is very small! Aeople who live where the "ird comes from say that there e&ists a cinnamon "ird which "rin$s the cinnamon from some unknown localities, and "uilds its nest out of it it "uilds on hi$h trees on the

slender top "ranches! They say that the inha"itants attach leaden wei$hts to the tips of their arrows and therewith "rin$ down the nests, and from the interte&ture collect the cinnamon sticks! 17 The halcyon is not much lar$er than the sparrow! Its colour is dark "lue, $reen, and li$ht purple the whole "ody and win$s, and especially parts a"out the neck, show these colours in a mi&ed way, without any colour "ein$ sharply defined the "eak is li$ht $reen, lon$ and slender: such, then, is the look of the "ird! Its nest is like sea+"alls, i!e! the thin$s that "y the name of halosachne or seafoam, only the colour is not the same! The colour of the nest is li$ht red, and the shape is that of the lon$+necked $ourd! The nests are lar$er than the lar$est spon$e, thou$h they vary in si3e they are roofed over, and $reat part of them is solid and $reat part hollow! If you use a sharp knife it is not easy to cut the nest throu$h "ut if you cut it, and at the same time "ruise it with your hand, it will soon crum"le to pieces, like the halosachne! The openin$ is small, (ust enou$h for a tiny entrance, so that even if the nest upset the sea does not enter in the hollow channels are like those in spon$es! It is not known for certain of what material the nest is constructed it is possi"ly made of the "ack"ones of the $ar+ fish for, "y the way, the "ird lives on fish! Besides livin$ on the shore, it ascends fresh+water streams! It lays $enerally a"out five

e$$s, and lays e$$s all its life lon$, "e$innin$ to do so at the a$e of four months! 19 The hoopoe usually constructs its nest out of human e&crement! It chan$es its appearance in summer and in winter, as in fact do the $reat ma(ority of wild "irds! ,The titmouse is said to lay a very lar$e *uantity of e$$s: ne&t to the ostrich the "lackheaded tit is said "y some to lay the lar$est num"er of e$$s seventeen e$$s have "een seen it lays, however, more than twenty it is said always to lay an odd num"er! Bike others we have mentioned, it "uilds in trees it feeds on caterpillars!- A peculiarity of this "ird and of the ni$htin$ale is that the outer e&tremity of the ton$ue is not sharp+ pointed! The ae$ithus finds its food with ease, has many youn$, and walks with a limp! The $olden oriole is apt at learnin$, is clever at makin$ a livin$, "ut is awkward in fli$ht and has an u$ly pluma$e! 1: The reed+war"ler makes its livin$ as easily as any other "ird, sits in summer in a shady spot facin$ the wind, in winter in a sunny and sheltered place amon$ reeds in a marsh it is small in si3e, with a pleasant note! The so+called chatterer has a pleasant note, "eautiful pluma$e, makes a livin$ cleverly, and is $raceful in form it

appears to "e alien to our country at all events it is seldom seen at a distance from its own immediate home! 1< The crake is *uarrelsome, clever at makin$ a livin$, "ut in other ways an unlucky "ird! The "ird called sitta is *uarrelsome, "ut clever and tidy, makes its livin$ with ease, and for its knowin$ness is re$arded as uncanny it has a numerous "rood, of which it is fond, and lives "y peckin$ the "ark of trees! The ae$olius+owl flies "y ni$ht, is seldom seen "y day like others we have mentioned, it lives on cliffs or in caverns it feeds on two kinds of food it has a stron$ hold on life and is full of resource! The tree+creeper is a little "ird, of fearless disposition it lives amon$ trees, feeds on caterpillars, makes a livin$ with ease, and has a loud clear note! The acanthis finds its food with difficulty its pluma$e is poor, "ut its note is musical! 1= Of the herons, the ashen+coloured one, as has "een said, unites with the female not without pain it is full of resource, carries its food with it, is ea$er in the *uest of it, and works "y day its pluma$e is poor, and its e&crement is always wet! Of the other two species+for there are three in all+the white heron has handsome pluma$e, unites without harm to itself with the female, "uilds a nest and lays its e$$s neatly in trees it fre*uents marshes and lakes

and Alains and meadow land! The speckled heron, which is nicknamed 'the skulker%, is said in folklore stories to "e of servile ori$in, and, as its nickname implies, it is the la3iest "ird of the three species! #uch are the ha"its of herons! The "ird that is called the poyn& has this peculiarity, that it is more prone than any other "ird to peck at the eyes of an assailant or its prey it is at war with the harpy, as the two "irds live on the same food! 1> There are two kinds of owsels the one is "lack, and is found everywhere, the other is *uite white, a"out the same si3e as the other, and with the same pipe! This latter is found on .yllene in Arcadia, and is found nowhere else! The laius, or "lue+thrush, is like the "lack owsel, only a little smaller it lives on cliffs or on tile roofin$s it has not a red "eak as the "lack owsel has! 4@ Of thrushes there are three species! One is the misselthrush it feeds only on mistletoe and resin it is a"out the si3e of the (ay! A second is the son$+thrush it has a sharp pipe, and is a"out the si3e of the owsel! There is another species called the Illas it is the smallest species of the three, and is less varie$ated in pluma$e than the others! 41

There is a "ird that lives on rocks, called the "lue+"ird from its colour! It is comparatively common in 5isyros, and is somewhat less than the owsel and a little "i$$er than the chaffinch! It has lar$e claws, and clim"s on the face of the rocks! It is steel+"lue all over its "eak is lon$ and slender its le$s are short, like those of the woodpecker! 44 The oriole is yellow all over it is not visi"le durin$ winter, "ut puts in an appearance a"out the time of the summer solstice, and departs a$ain at the risin$ of Arcturus it is the si3e of the turtle+ dove! The so+called soft+head ,or shrike- always settles on one and the same "ranch, where it falls a prey to the "irdcatcher! Its head is "i$, and composed of $ristle it is a little smaller than the thrush its "eak is stron$, small, and round it is ashen+coloured all over is fleet of foot, "ut slow of win$! The "ird+catcher usually catches it "y help of the owl! 46 There is also the pardalus! As a rule, it is seen in flocks and not sin$ly it is ashen+coloured all over, and a"out the si3e of the "irds last descri"ed it is fleet of foot and stron$ of win$, and its pipe is loud and hi$h+pitched! The collyrion ,or fieldfare- feeds on the same food as the owsel is of the same si3e as the a"ove mentioned "irds and is trapped usually in the winter! All these "irds are found

at all times! Further, there are the "irds that live as a rule in towns, the raven and the crow! These also are visi"le at all seasons, never shift their place of a"ode, and never $o into winter *uarters! 47 Of daws there are three species! One is the chou$h it is as lar$e as the crow, "ut has a red "eak! There is another, called the 'wolf% and further there is the little daw, called the 'railer%! There is another kind of daw found in By"ia and Ahry$ia, which is we"+ footed! 49 Of larks there are two kinds! One lives on the $round and has a crest on its head the other is $re$arious, and not sporadic like the first it is, however, of the same coloured pluma$e, "ut is smaller, and has no crest it is an article of human food! 4: The woodcock is cau$ht with nets in $ardens! It is a"out the si3e of a "arn+door hen it has a lon$ "eak, and in pluma$e is like the francolin+partrid$e! It runs *uickly, and is pretty easily domesticated! The starlin$ is speckled it is of the same si3e as the owsel! 4<

Of the 8$yptian i"is there are two kinds, the white and the "lack! The white ones are found over 8$ypt, e&ceptin$ in Aelusium the "lack ones are found in Aelusium, and nowhere else in 8$ypt! 4= Of the little horned owls there are two kinds, and one is visi"le at all seasons, and for that reason has the nickname of 'all+the+year+ round owl% it is not sufficiently palata"le to come to ta"le another species makes its appearance sometimes in the autumn, is seen for a sin$le day or at the most for two days, and is re$arded as a ta"le delicacy it scarcely differs from the first species save only in "ein$ fatter it has no note, "ut the other species has! )ith re$ard to their ori$in, nothin$ is known from ocular o"servation the only fact known for certain is that they are first seen when a west wind is "lowin$! 4> The cuckoo, as has "een said elsewhere, makes no nest, "ut deposits its e$$s in an alien nest, $enerally in the nest of the rin$+ dove, or on the $round in the nest of the hypolais or lark, or on a tree in the nest of the $reen linnet! it lays only one e$$ and does not hatch it itself, "ut the mother+"ird in whose nest it has deposited it hatches and rears it and, as they say, this mother "ird, when the youn$ cuckoo has $rown "i$, thrusts her own "rood out of the nest and lets them perish others say that this mother+"ird

kills her own "rood and $ives them to the alien to devour, despisin$ her own youn$ owin$ to the "eauty of the cuckoo! Aersonal o"servers a$ree in tellin$ most of these stories, "ut are not in a$reement as to the instruction of the youn$! #ome say that the mother+cuckoo comes and devours the "rood of the rearin$ mother others say that the youn$ cuckoo from its superior si3e snaps up the food "rou$ht "efore the smaller "rood have a chance, and that in conse*uence the smaller "rood die of hun$er others say that, "y its superior stren$th, it actually kills the other ones whilst it is "ein$ reared up with them! The cuckoo shows $reat sa$acity in the disposal of its pro$eny the fact is, the mother cuckoo is *uite conscious of her own cowardice and of the fact that she could never help her youn$ one in an emer$ency, and so, for the security of the youn$ one, she makes of him a supposititious child in an alien nest! The truth is, this "ird is pre+eminent amon$ "irds in the way of cowardice it allows itself to "e pecked at "y little "irds, and flies away from their attacks! 6@ It has already "een stated that the footless "ird, which some term the cypselus, resem"les the swallow indeed, it is not easy to distin$uish "etween the two "irds, e&ceptin$ in the fact that the cypselus has feathers on the shank! These "irds rear their youn$ in lon$ cells made of mud, and furnished with a hole (ust "i$ enou$h

for entry and e&it they "uild under cover of some roofin$+under a rock or in a cavern+for protection a$ainst animals and men! The so+called $oat+sucker lives on mountains it is a little lar$er than the owsel, and less than the cuckoo it lays two e$$s, or three at the most, and is of a slu$$ish disposition! It flies up to the she+ $oat and sucks its milk, from which ha"it it derives its name it is said that, after it has sucked the teat of the animal, the teat dries up and the animal $oes "lind! It is dim+si$hted in the day+time, "ut sees well enou$h "y ni$ht! 61 In narrow circumscri"ed districts where the food would "e insufficient for more "irds than two, ravens are only found in isolated pairs when their youn$ are old enou$h to fly, the parent couple first e(ect them from the nest, and "y and "y chase them from the nei$h"ourhood! The raven lays four or five e$$s! A"out the time when the mercenaries under 0edius were slau$htered at Aharsalus, the districts a"out Athens and the Aeloponnese were left destitute of ravens, from which it would appear that these "irds have some means of intercommunicatin$ with one another! 64 Of ea$les there are several species! One of them, called 'the white+ tailed ea$le%, is found on low lands, in $roves, and in the nei$h"ourhood of cities some call it the 'heron+killer%! It is "old

enou$h to fly to mountains and the interior of forests! The other ea$les seldom visit $roves or low+lyin$ land! There is another species called the 'plan$us% it ranks second in point of si3e and stren$th it lives in mountain com"es and $lens, and "y marshy lakes, and $oes "y the name of 'duck+killer% and 'swart+ea$le!% It is mentioned "y Homer in his account of the visit made "y Ariam to the tent of Achilles! There is another species with "lack Aluma$e, the smallest "ut "oldest of all the kinds! It dwells on mountains or in forests, and is called 'the "lack+ea$le% or 'the hare+killer% it is the only ea$le that rears its youn$ and thorou$hly takes them out with it! It is swift of fli$ht, is neat and tidy in its ha"its, too proud for (ealousy, fearless, *uarrelsome it is also silent, for it neither whimpers nor screams! There is another species, the percnopterus, very lar$e, with white head, very short win$s, lon$ tail+feathers, in appearance like a vulture! It $oes "y the name of 'mountain+stork% or 'half+ea$le%! It lives in $roves has all the "ad *ualities of the other species, and none of the $ood ones for it lets itself "e chased and cau$ht "y the raven and the other "irds! It is clumsy in its movements, has difficulty in procurin$ its food, preys on dead animals, is always hun$ry, and at all times whinin$ and screamin$! There is another species, called the 'sea+ea$le% or 'osprey%! This "ird has a lar$e thick neck, curved win$s, and "road tailfeathers it lives near the sea, $rasps its prey with its talons, and often, from ina"ility to carry it, tum"les down into the water! There is another species called the 'true+"red% people say that these are the only

true+"red "irds to "e found, that all other "irds+ea$les, hawks, and the smallest "irds+are all spoilt "y the inter"reedin$ of different species! The true+"red ea$le is the lar$est of all ea$les it is lar$er than the phene is half as lar$e a$ain as the ordinary ea$le, and has yellow pluma$e it is seldom seen, as is the case with the so+called cymindis! The time for an ea$le to "e on the win$ in search of prey is from midday to evenin$ in the mornin$ until the market+hour it remains on the nest! In old a$e the upper "eak of the ea$le $rows $radually lon$er and more crooked, and the "ird dies eventually of starvation there is a folklore story that the ea$le is thus punished "ecause it once was a man and refused entertainment to a stran$er! The ea$le puts aside its superfluous food for its youn$ for owin$ to the difficulty in procurin$ food day "y day, it at times may come "ack to the nest with nothin$! If it catch a man prowlin$ a"out in the nei$h"ourhood of its nest, it will strike him with its win$s and scratch him with its talons! The nest is "uilt not on low $round "ut on an elevated spot, $enerally on an inaccessi"le led$e of a cliff it does, however, "uild upon a tree! The youn$ are fed until they can fly hereupon the parent+"irds topple them out of the nest, and chase them completely out of the locality! The fact is that a pair of ea$les demands an e&tensive space for its maintenance, and conse*uently cannot allow other "irds to *uarter themselves in close nei$h"ourhood! They do not hunt in the vicinity of their nest, "ut $o to a $reat distance to find their prey! )hen the ea$le has captured a "east, it puts it down without attemptin$ to carry it off

at once if on trial it finds the "urden too heavy, it will leave it! )hen it has spied a hare, it does not swoop on it at once, "ut lets it $o on into the open $round neither does it descend to the $round at one swoop, "ut $oes $radually down from hi$her fli$hts to lower and lower: these devices it adopts "y way of security a$ainst the strata$em of the hunter! It ali$hts on hi$h places "y reason of the difficulty it e&periences in soarin$ up from the level $round it flies hi$h in the air to have the more e&tensive view from its hi$h fli$ht it is said to "e the only "ird that resem"les the $ods! Birds of prey, as a rule, seldom ali$ht upon rock, as the crookedness of their talons prevents a sta"le footin$ on hard stone! The ea$le hunts hares, fawns, fo&es, and in $eneral all such animals as he can master with ease! It is a lon$+lived "ird, and this fact mi$ht "e inferred from the len$th of time durin$ which the same nest is maintained in its place! 66 In #cythia there is found a "ird as lar$e as the $reat "ustard! The female lays two e$$s, "ut does not hatch them, "ut hides them in the skin of a hare or fo& and leaves them there, and, when it is not in *uest of prey, it keeps a watch on them on a hi$h tree if any man tries to clim" the tree, it fi$hts and strikes him with its win$, (ust as ea$les do! 67

The owl and the ni$ht+raven and all the "irds see poorly in the daytime seek their prey in the ni$ht, "ut not all the ni$ht throu$h, "ut at evenin$ and dawn! Their food consists of mice, li3ards, chafers and the like little creatures! The so+called phene, or lammer$eier, is fond of its youn$, provides its food with ease, fetches food to its nest, and is of a kindly disposition! It rears its own youn$ and those of the ea$le as well for when the ea$le e(ects its youn$ from the nest, this "ird catches them up as they fall and feeds them! For the ea$le, "y the way, e(ects the youn$ "irds prematurely, "efore they are a"le to feed themselves, or to fly! It appears to do so from (ealousy for it is "y nature (ealous, and is so ravenous as to $ra" furiously at its food and when it does $ra" at its food, it $ra"s it in lar$e morsels! It is accordin$ly (ealous of the youn$ "irds as they approach maturity, since they are $ettin$ $ood appetites, and so it scratches them with its talons! The youn$ "irds fi$ht also with one another, to secure a morsel of food or a comforta"le position, whereupon the mother+"ird "eats them and e(ects them from the nest the youn$ ones scream at this treatment, and the phene hearin$ them catches them as they fall! The phene has a film over its eyes and sees "adly, "ut the sea+ea$le is very keen+si$hted, and "efore its youn$ are fled$ed tries to make them stare at the sun, and "eats the one that refuses to do so, and twists him "ack in the sun%s direction and if one of them $ets watery eyes in the process, it kills him, and rears the other! It lives near the sea, and feeds, as has "een said, on sea+"irds when in pursuit of

them it catches them one "y one, watchin$ the moment when the "ird rises to the surface from its dive! )hen a sea+"ird, emer$in$ from the water, sees the sea+ea$le, he in terror dives under, intendin$ to rise a$ain elsewhere the ea$le, however, owin$ to its keenness of vision, keeps flyin$ after him until he either drowns the "ird or catches him on the surface! The ea$le never attacks these "irds when they are in a swarm, for they keep him off "y raisin$ a shower of water+drops with their win$s! 69 The cepphus is cau$ht "y means of sea+foam the "ird snaps at the foam, and conse*uently fishermen catch it "y sluicin$ with showers of sea+water! These "irds $row to "e plump and fat their flesh has a $ood odour, e&ceptin$ the hinder *uarters, which smell of shoreweed! 6: Of hawks, the stron$est is the "u33ard the ne&t in point of coura$e is the merlin and the circus ranks third other diverse kinds are the asterias, the pi$eon+hawk, and the pternis the "roaded+win$ed hawk is called the half+"u33ard others $o "y the name of ho""y+ hawk, or sparrow+hawk, or 'smooth+feathered%, or 'toad+catcher%! Birds of this latter species find their food with very little difficulty, and flutter alon$ the $round! #ome say that there are ten species of hawks, all differin$ from one another! One hawk, they say, will

strike and $ra" the pi$eon as it rests on the $round, "ut never touch it while it is in fli$ht another hawk attacks the pi$eon when it is perched upon a tree or any elevation, "ut never touches it when it is on the $round or on the win$ other hawks attack their prey only when it is on the win$! They say that pi$eons can distin$uish the various species: so that, when a hawk is an assailant, if it "e one that attacks its prey when the prey is on the win$, the pi$eon will sit still if it "e one that attacks sittin$ prey, the pi$eon will rise up and fly away! In Thrace, in the district sometimes called that of .edripolis, men hunt for little "irds in the marshes with the aid of hawks! The men with sticks in their hands $o "eatin$ at the reeds and "rushwood to fri$hten the "irds out, and the hawks show themselves overhead and fri$hten them down! The men then strike them with their sticks and capture them! They $ive a portion of their "ooty to the hawks that is, they throw some of the "irds up in the air, and the hawks catch them! In the nei$h"ourhood of Bake 0aeotis, it is said, wolves act in concert with the fishermen, and if the fishermen decline to share with them, they tear their nets in pieces as they lie dryin$ on the shore of the lake! 6< #o much for the ha"its of "irds!

In marine creatures, also, one In marine creatures, also, one may o"serve many in$enious devices adapted to the circumstances of their lives! For the accounts commonly $iven of the so+called fishin$+fro$ are *uite true as are also those $iven of the torpedo! The fishin$+fro$ has a set of filaments that pro(ect in front of its eyes they are lon$ and thin like hairs, and are round at the tips they lie on either side, and are used as "aits! Accordin$ly, when the animal stirs up a place full of sand and mud and conceals itself therein, it raises the filaments, and, when the little fish strike a$ainst them, it draws them in underneath into its mouth! The torpedo narcoti3es the creatures that it wants to catch, overpowerin$ them "y the power of shock that is resident in its "ody, and feeds upon them it also hides in the sand and mud, and catches all the creatures that swim in its way and come under its narcoti3in$ influence! This phenomenon has "een actually o"served in operation! The stin$+ray also conceals itself, "ut not e&actly in the same way! That the creatures $et their livin$ "y this means is o"vious from the fact that, whereas they are peculiarly inactive, they are often cau$ht with mullets in their interior, the swiftest of fishes! Furthermore, the fishin$+fro$ is unusually thin when he is cau$ht after losin$ the tips of his filaments, and the torpedo is known to cause a num"ness even in human "ein$s! A$ain, the hake, the ray, the flat+fish, and the an$elfish "urrow in the sand, and after concealin$ themselves an$le with the filaments on their mouths, that fishermen call their fishin$+rods, and the little

creatures on which they feed swim up to the filaments takin$ them for "its of sea+weed, such as they feed upon! )herever an anthias+fish is seen, there will "e no dan$erous creatures in the vicinity, and spon$e+divers will dive in security, and they call these si$nal+fishes 'holy+fish%! It is a sort of perpetual coincidence, like the fact that wherever snails are present you may "e sure there is neither pi$ nor partrid$e in the nei$h"ourhood for "oth pi$ and partrid$e eat up the snails! The sea+serpent resem"les the con$er in colour and shape, "ut is of lesser "ulk and more rapid in its movements! If it "e cau$ht and thrown away, it will "ore a hole with its snout and "urrow rapidly in the sand its snout, "y the way, is sharper than that of ordinary serpents! The so+called sea+scolopendra, after swallowin$ the hook, turns itself inside out until it e(ects it, and then it a$ain turns itself outside in! The sea+scolopendra, like the land+scolopendra, will come to a savoury "ait the creature does not "ite with its teeth, "ut stin$s "y contact with its entire "ody, like the so+called sea+nettle! The so+called fo&+shark, when it finds it has swallowed the hook, tries to $et rid of it as the scolopendra does, "ut not in the same way in other words, it runs up the fishin$+line, and "ites it off short it is cau$ht in some districts in deep and rapid waters, with ni$ht+lines! The "onitos swarm to$ether when they espy a dan$erous creature, and the lar$est of them swim round it, and if it touches one of the shoal they try to repel it they have stron$ teeth! Amon$st other

lar$e fish, a lamia+shark, after fallin$ in amon$st a shoal, has "een seen to "e covered with wounds! Of river+fish, the male of the sheat+fish is remarka"ly attentive to the youn$! The female after parturition $oes away the male stays and keeps on $uard where the spawn is most a"undant, contentin$ himself with keepin$ off all other little fishes that mi$ht steal the spawn or fry, and this he does for forty or fifty days, until the youn$ are sufficiently $rown to make away from the other fishes for themselves! The fishermen can tell where he is on $uard: for, in wardin$ off the little fishes, he makes a rush in the water and $ives utterance to a kind of mutterin$ noise! He is so earnest in the performance of his parental duties that the fishermen at times, if the e$$s "e attached to the roots of water+plants deep in the water, dra$ them into as shallow a place as possi"le the male fish will still keep "y the youn$, and, if it so happen, will "e cau$ht "y the hook when snappin$ at the little fish that come "y if, however, he "e sensi"le "y e&perience of the dan$er of the hook, he will still keep "y his char$e, and with his e&tremely stron$ teeth will "ite the hook in pieces! All fishes, "oth those that wander a"out and those that are stationary, occupy the districts where they were "orn or very similar places, for their natural food is found there! .arnivorous fish wander most and all fish are carnivorous with the e&ception of a few, such as the mullet, the saupe, the red mullet, and the chalcis! The so+called pholis $ives out a mucous dischar$e, which

envelops the creature in a kind of nest! Of shell+fish, and fish that are finless, the scallop moves with $reatest force and to the $reatest distance, impelled alon$ "y some internal ener$y the mure& or purple+fish, and others that resem"le it, move hardly at all! Out of the la$oon of Ayrrha all the fishes swim in winter+time, e&cept the sea+$ud$eon they swim out owin$ to the cold, for the narrow waters are colder than the outer sea, and on the return of the early summer they all swim "ack a$ain! In the la$oon no scarus is found, nor thritta, nor any other species of the spiny fish, no spotted do$fish, no spiny do$fish, no sea+crawfish, no octopus either of the common or the musky kinds, and certain other fish are also a"sent "ut of fish that are found in the la$oon the white $ud$eon is not a marine fish! Of fishes the oviparous are in their prime in the early summer until the spawnin$ time the viviparous in the autumn, as is also the case with the mullet, the red mullet, and all such fish! In the nei$h"ourhood of Bes"os, the fishes of the outer sea, or of the la$oon, "rin$ forth their e$$s or youn$ in the la$oon se&ual union takes place in the autumn, and parturition in the sprin$! )ith fishes of the cartila$inous kind, the males and females swarm to$ether in the autumn for the sake of se&ual union in the early summer they come swimmin$ in, and keep apart until after parturition the two se&es are often taken linked to$ether in se&ual union! Of molluscs the sepia is the most cunnin$, and is the only species that employs its dark li*uid for the sake of concealment as well as from fear: the octopus and calamary make the dischar$e solely

from fear! These creatures never dischar$e the pi$ment in its entirety and after a dischar$e the pi$ment accumulates a$ain! The sepia, as has "een said, often uses its colourin$ pi$ment for concealment it shows itself in front of the pi$ment and then retreats "ack into it it also hunts with its lon$ tentacles not only little fishes, "ut oftentimes even mullets! The octopus is a stupid creature, for it will approach a man%s hand if it "e lowered in the water "ut it is neat and thrifty in its ha"its: that is, it lays up stores in its nest, and, after eatin$ up all that is eata"le, it e(ects the shells and sheaths of cra"s and shell+fish, and the skeletons of little fishes! It seeks its prey "y so chan$in$ its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones ad(acent to it it does so also when alarmed! By some the sepia is said to perform the same trick that is, they say it can chan$e its colour so as to make it resem"le the colour of its ha"itat! The only fish that can do this is the an$elfish, that is, it can chan$e its colour like the octopus! The octopus as a rule does not live the year out! It has a natural tendency to run off into li*uid for, if "eaten and s*uee3ed, it keeps losin$ su"stance and at last disappears! The female after parturition is peculiarly su"(ect to this colli*uefaction it "ecomes stupid if tossed a"out "y waves, it su"mits impassively a man, if he dived, could catch it with the hand it $ets covered over with slime, and makes no effort to catch its wonted prey! The male "ecomes leathery and clammy! As a proof that they do not live into a second year there is the fact that, after the "irth of the little octopuses in the late summer or

"e$innin$ of autumn, it is seldom that a lar$e+si3ed octopus is visi"le, whereas a little "efore this time of year the creature is at its lar$est! After the e$$s are laid, they say that "oth the male and the female $row so old and fee"le that they are preyed upon "y little fish, and with ease dra$$ed from their holes and that this could not have "een done previously they say also that this is not the case with the small and youn$ octopus, "ut that the youn$ creature is much stron$er than the $rown+up one! 5either does the sepia live into a second year! The octopus is the only mollusc that ventures on to dry land it walks "y preference on rou$h $round it is firm all over when you s*uee3e it, e&ceptin$ in the neck! #o much for the mollusca! It is also said that they make a thin rou$h shell a"out them like a hard sheath, and that this is made lar$er and lar$er as the animal $rows lar$er, and that it comes out of the sheath as thou$h out of a den or dwellin$ place! The nautilus ,or ar$onaut- is a poulpe or octopus, "ut one peculiar "oth in its nature and its ha"its! It rises up from deep water and swims on the surface it rises with its shell down+turned in order that it may rise the more easily and swim with it empty, "ut after reachin$ the surface it shifts the position of the shell! In "etween its feelers it has a certain amount of we"+$rowth, resem"lin$ the su"stance "etween the toes of we"+footed "irds only that with these latter the su"stance is thick, while with the nautilus it is thin and like a spider%s we"! It uses this structure, when a "ree3e is

"lowin$, for a sail, and lets down some of its feelers alon$side as rudder+oars! If it "e fri$htened it fills its shell with water and sinks! )ith re$ard to the mode of $eneration and the $rowth of the shell knowled$e from o"servation is not yet satisfactory the shell, however, does not appear to "e there from the "e$innin$, "ut to $row in their cases as in that of other shell+fish neither is it ascertained for certain whether the animal can live when stripped of the shell! 6= Of all insects, one may also say of all livin$ creatures, the most industrious are the ant, the "ee, the hornet, the wasp, and in point of fact all creatures akin to these of spiders some are more skilful and more resourceful than others! The way in which ants work is open to ordinary o"servation how they all march one after the other when they are en$a$ed in puttin$ away and storin$ up their food all this may "e seen, for they carry on their work even durin$ "ri$ht moonli$ht ni$hts! 6> Of spiders and phalan$ia there are many species! Of the venomous phalan$ia there are two one that resem"les the so+called wolf+ spider, small, speckled, and taperin$ to a point it moves with leaps, from which ha"it it is nicknamed 'the flea%: the other kind is lar$e, "lack in colour, with lon$ front le$s it is heavy in its

movements, walks slowly, is not very stron$, and never leaps! ,Of all the other species wherewith poison+vendors supply themselves, some $ive a weak "ite, and others never "ite at all! There is another kind, comprisin$ the so+called wolf+spiders!- Of these spiders the small one weaves no we", and the lar$e weaves a rude and poorly "uilt one on the $round or on dry stone walls! It always "uilds its we" over hollow places inside of which it keeps a watch on the end+threads, until some creature $ets into the we" and "e$ins to stru$$le, when out the spider pounces! The speckled kind makes a little sha""y we" under trees! There is a third species of this animal, preeminently clever and artistic! It first weaves a thread stretchin$ to all the e&terior ends of the future we" then from the centre, which it hits upon with $reat accuracy, it stretches the warp on the warp it puts what corresponds to the woof, and then weaves the whole to$ether! It sleeps and stores its food away from the centre, "ut it is at the centre that it keeps watch for its prey! Then, when any creature touches the we" and the centre is set in motion, it first ties and wraps the creature round with threads until it renders it helpless, then lifts it and carries it off, and, if it happens to "e hun$ry, sucks out the life+(uicesIfor that is the way it feeds "ut, if it "e not hun$ry, it first mends any dama$e done and then hastens a$ain to its *uest of prey! If somethin$ comes meanwhile into the net, the spider at first makes for the centre, and then $oes "ack to its entan$led prey as from a fi&ed startin$ point! If any one in(ures a

portion of the we", it recommences weavin$ at sunrise or at sunset, "ecause it is chiefly at these periods that creatures are cau$ht in the we"! It is the female that does the weavin$ and the huntin$, "ut the male takes a share of the "ooty captured! Of the skilful spiders, weavin$ a su"stantial we", there are two kinds, the lar$er and the smaller! The one has lon$ le$s and keeps watch while swin$in$ downwards from the we": from its lar$e si3e it cannot easily conceal itself, and so it keeps underneath, so that its prey may not "e fri$htened off, "ut may strike upon the we"%s upper surface the less awkwardly formed one lies in wait on the top, usin$ a little hole for a lurkin$+place! #piders can spin we"s from the time of their "irth, not from their interior as a superfluity or e&cretion, as /emocritus avers, "ut off their "ody as a kind of tree+"ark, like the creatures that shoot out with their hair, as for instance the porcupine! The creature can attack animals lar$er than itself, and enwrap them with its threads: in other words, it will attack a small li3ard, run round and draw threads a"out its mouth until it closes the mouth up then it comes up and "ites it! 7@ #o much for the spider! Of insects, there is a $enus that has no one name that comprehends all the species, thou$h all the species are akin to one another in form it consists of all the insects that construct a honeycom": to wit, the "ee, and all the insects that resem"le it in form!

There are nine varieties, of which si& are $re$arious+the "ee, the kin$+"ee, the drone "ee, the annual wasp, and, furthermore, the anthrene ,or hornet-, and the tenthredo ,or $round+wasp- three are solitary+the smaller siren, of a dun colour, the lar$er siren, "lack and speckled, and the third, the lar$est of all, that is called the hum"le+"ee! 5ow ants never $o a+huntin$, "ut $ather up what is ready to hand the spider makes nothin$, and lays up no store, "ut simply $oes a+huntin$ for its food while the "eeIfor we shall "y and "y treat of the nine varietiesIdoes not $o a+huntin$, "ut constructs its food out of $athered material and stores it away, for honey is the "ee%s food! This fact is shown "y the "eekeepers% attempt to remove the com"s for the "ees, when they are fumi$ated, and are sufferin$ $reat distress from the process, then devour the honey most ravenously, whereas at other times they are never o"served to "e so $reedy, "ut apparently are thrifty and disposed to lay "y for their future sustenance! They have also another food which is called "ee+"read this is scarcer than honey and has a sweet fi$like taste this they carry as they do the wa& on their le$s! ;ery remarka"le diversity is o"served in their methods of workin$ and their $eneral ha"its! )hen the hive has "een delivered to them clean and empty, they "uild their wa&en cells, "rin$in$ in the (uice of all kinds of flowers and the 'tears% or e&udin$ sap of trees, such as willows and elms and such others as are particularly $iven to the e&udation of $um! )ith this material they "esmear the

$roundwork, to provide a$ainst attacks of other creatures the "ee+ keepers call this stuff 'stop+wa&%! They also with the same material narrow "y side+"uildin$ the entrances to the hive if they are too wide! They first "uild cells for themselves then for the so+called kin$s and the drones for themselves they are always "uildin$, for the kin$s only when the "rood of youn$ is numerous, and cells for the drones they "uild if a supera"undance of honey should su$$est their doin$ so! They "uild the royal cells ne&t to their own, and they are of small "ulk the drones% cells they "uild near "y, and these latter are less in "ulk than the "ee%s cells! They "e$in "uildin$ the com"s downwards from the top of the hive, and $o down and down "uildin$ many com"s connected to$ether until they reach the "ottom! The cells, "oth those for the honey and those also for the $ru"s, are dou"le+doored for two cells are ran$ed a"out a sin$le "ase, one pointin$ one way and one the other, after the manner of a dou"le ,or hour+$lass+shaped$o"let! The cells that lie at the commencement of the com"s and are attached to the hives, to the e&tent of two or three concentric circular rows, are small and devoid of honey the cells that are well filled with honey are most thorou$hly luted with wa&! At the entry to the hive the aperture of the doorway is smeared with mitys this su"stance is a deep "lack, and is a sort of dross or residual "y+ product of wa& it has a pun$ent odour, and is a cure for "ruises and suppuratin$ sores! The $reasy stuff that comes ne&t is pitch+ wa& it has a less pun$ent odour and is less medicinal than the

mitys! #ome say that the drones construct com"s "y themselves in the same hive and in the same com" that they share with the "ees "ut that they make no honey, "ut su"sist, they and their $ru"s also, on the honey made "y the "ees! The drones, as a rule, keep inside the hive when they $o out of doors, they soar up in the air in a stream, whirlin$ round and round in a kind of $ymnastic e&ercise when this is over, they come inside the hive and feed to repletion ravenously! The kin$s never *uit the hive, e&cept in con(unction with the entire swarm, either for food or for any other reason! They say that, if a youn$ swarm $o astray, it will turn "ack upon its route and "y the aid of scent seek out its leader! It is said that if he is una"le to fly he is carried "y the swarm, and that if he dies the swarm perishes and that, if this swarm outlives the kin$ for a while and constructs com"s, no honey is produced and the "ees soon die out! Bees scram"le up the stalks of flowers and rapidly $ather the "ees+ wa& with their front le$s the front le$s wipe it off on to the middle le$s, and these pass it on to the hollow curves of the hind+le$s when thus laden, they fly away home, and one may see plainly that their load is a heavy one! On each e&pedition the "ee does not fly from a flower of one kind to a flower of another, "ut flies from one violet, say, to another violet, and never meddles with another flower until it has $ot "ack to the hive on reachin$ the hive they throw off their load, and each "ee on his return is accompanied "y three or four companions! One cannot well tell what is the

su"stance they $ather, nor the e&act process of their work! Their mode of $atherin$ wa& has "een o"served on olive+trees, as owin$ to the thickness of the leaves the "ees remain stationary for a considera"le while! After this work is over, they attend to the $ru"s! There is nothin$ to prevent $ru"s, honey, and drones "ein$ all found in one and the same com"! As lon$ as the leader is alive, the drones are said to "e produced apart "y themselves if he "e no lon$er livin$, they are said to "e reared "y the "ees in their own cells, and under these circumstances to "ecome more spirited: for this reason they are called 'stin$+drones%, not that they really have stin$s, "ut that they have the wish without the power, to use such weapons! The cells for the drones are lar$er than the others sometimes the "ees construct cells for the drones apart, "ut usually they put them in amon$st their own and when this is the case the "ee+keepers cut the drone+cells out of the com"s! There are several species of "ees, as has "een said two of 'kin$s%, the "etter kind red, the other "lack and varie$ated, and twice as "i$ as the workin$+"ee! The "est workin$"ee is small, round, and speckled: another kind is lon$ and like an anthrene wasp another kind is what is called the ro""er+"ee, "lack and flat+"ellied then there is the drone, the lar$est of all, "ut devoid of stin$, and la3y! There is a difference "etween the pro$eny of "ees that inha"it cultivated land and of those from the mountains: the forest+"ees are more sha$$y, smaller, more industrious and more fierce! )orkin$+ "ees make their com"s all even, with the superficial coverin$ *uite

smooth! 8ach com" is of one kind only: that is, it contains either "ees only, or $ru"s only, or drones only if it happen, however, that they make in one and the same com" all these kinds of cells, each separate kind will "e "uilt in a continuous row ri$ht throu$h! The lon$ "ees "uild uneven com"s, with the lids of the cells protu"erant, like those of the anthrene $ru"s and everythin$ else have no fi&ed places, "ut are put anywhere from these "ees come inferior kin$s, a lar$e *uantity of drones, and the so+called ro""er+ "ee they produce either no honey at all, or honey in very small *uantities! Bees "rood over the com"s and so mature them if they fail to do so, the com"s are said to $o "ad and to $et covered with a sort of spider%s we"! If they can keep "roodin$ over the part undama$ed, the dama$ed part simply eats itself away if they cannot so "rood, the entire com" perishes in the dama$ed com"s small worms are en$endered, which take on win$s and fly away! )hen the com"s keep settlin$ down, the "ees restore the level surface, and put props underneath the com"s to $ive themselves free passa$e+room for if such free passa$e "e lackin$ they cannot "rood, and the co"we"s come on! )hen the ro""er+"ee and the drone appear, not only do they do no work themselves, "ut they actually dama$e the work of the other "ees if they are cau$ht in the act, they are killed "y the workin$+"ees! These "ees also kill without mercy most of their kin$s, and especially kin$s of the inferior sort and this they do for fear a multiplicity of kin$s should lead to a dismem"erment of the hive! They kill them especially

when the hive is deficient in $ru"s, and a swarm is not intended to take place under these circumstances they destroy the cells of the kin$s if they have "een prepared, on the $round that these kin$s are always ready to lead out swarms! They destroy also the com"s of the drones if a failure in the supply "e threatenin$ and the hive runs short of provisions under such circumstances they fi$ht desperately with all who try to take their honey, and e(ect from the hive all the resident drones and oftentimes the drones are to "e seen sittin$ apart in the hive! The little "ees fi$ht vi$orously with the lon$ kind, and try to "anish them from the hives if they succeed, the hive will "e unusually productive, "ut if the "i$$er "ees $et left mistresses of the field they pass the time in idleness, and no $ood at all "ut die out "efore the autumn! )henever the workin$+"ees kill an enemy they try to do so out of doors and whenever one of their own "ody dies, they carry the dead "ee out of doors also! The so+called ro""er+"ees spoil their own com"s, and, if they can do so unnoticed, enter and spoil the com"s of other "ees if they are cau$ht in the act they are put to death! It is no easy task for them to escape detection, for there are sentinels on $uard at every entry and, even if they do escape detection on enterin$, afterwards from a surfeit of food they cannot fly, "ut $o rollin$ a"out in front of the hive, so that their chances of escape are small indeed! The kin$s are never themselves seen outside the hive e&cept with a swarm in fli$ht: durin$ which time all the other "ees cluster around them! )hen the fli$ht of a swarm is imminent, a

monotonous and *uite peculiar sound made "y all the "ees is heard for several days, and for two or three days in advance a few "ees are seen flyin$ round the hive it has never as yet "een ascertained, owin$ to the difficulty of the o"servation, whether or no the kin$ is amon$ these! )hen they have swarmed, they fly away and separate off to each of the kin$s if a small swarm happens to settle near to a lar$e one, it will shift to (oin this lar$e one, and if the kin$ whom they have a"andoned follows them, they put him to death! #o much for the *uittin$ of the hive and the swarmfli$ht! #eparate detachments of "ees are told off for diverse operations that is, some carry flower+produce, others carry water, others smooth and arran$e the com"s! A "ee carries water when it is rearin$ $ru"s! 5o "ee ever settles on the flesh of any creature, or ever eats animal food! They have no fi&ed date for commencin$ work "ut when their provender is forthcomin$ and they are in comforta"le trim, and "y preference in summer, they set to work, and when the weather is fine they work incessantly! The "ee, when *uite youn$ and in fact only three days old, after sheddin$ its chrysalis+case, "e$ins to work if it "e well fed! )hen a swarm is settlin$, some "ees detach themselves in search of food and return "ack to the swarm! In hives that are in $ood condition the production of youn$ "ees is discontinued only for the forty days that follow the winter solstice! )hen the $ru"s are $rown, the "ees put food "eside them and cover them with a coatin$ of wa& and, as soon as the $ru" is stron$ enou$h, he of his own accord

"reaks the lid and comes out! .reatures that make their appearance in hives and spoil the com"s the workin$+"ees clear out, "ut the other "ees from sheer la3iness look with indifference on dama$e done to their produce! )hen the "ee+masters take out the com"s, they leave enou$h food "ehind for winter use if it "e sufficient in *uantity, the occupants of the hive will survive if it "e insufficient, then, if the weather "e rou$h, they die on the spot, "ut if it "e fair, they fly away and desert the hive! They feed on honey summer and winter "ut they store up another article of food resem"lin$ wa& in hardness, which "y some is called sandarace, or "ee+"read! Their worst enemies are wasps and the "irds named titmice, and furthermore the swallow and the "ee+eater! The fro$s in the marsh also catch them if they come in their way "y the water+side, and for this reason "ee+keepers chase the fro$s from the ponds from which the "ees take water they destroy also wasps% nests, and the nests of swallows, in the nei$h"ourhood of the hives, and also the nests of "ee+eaters! Bees have fear only of one another! They fi$ht with one another and with wasps! Away from the hive they attack neither their own species nor any other creature, "ut in the close pro&imity of the hive they kill whatever they $et hold of! Bees that stin$ die from their ina"ility to e&tract the stin$ without at the same time e&tractin$ their intestines! True, they often recover, if the person stun$ takes the trou"le to press the stin$ out "ut once it loses its stin$ the "ee must die! They can kill with their stin$s even lar$e animals in fact, a horse has "een known to have "een stun$ to

death "y them! The kin$s are the least disposed to show an$er or to inflict a stin$! Bees that die are removed from the hive, and in every way the creature is remarka"le for its cleanly ha"its in point of fact, they often fly away to a distance to void their e&crement "ecause it is malodorous and, as has "een said, they are annoyed "y all "ad smells and "y the scent of perfumes, so much so that they stin$ people that use perfumes! They perish from a num"er of accidental causes, and when their kin$s "ecome too numerous and try each to carry away a portion of the swarm! The toad also feeds on "ees he comes to the doorway of the hive, puffs himself out as he sits on the watch, and devours the creatures as they come flyin$ out the "ees can in no way retaliate, "ut the "ee+keeper makes a point of killin$ him! As for the class of "ee that has "een spoken of as inferior or $ood+ for+nothin$, and as constructin$ its com"s so rou$hly, some "ee+ keepers say that it is the youn$ "ees that act so from ine&perience and the "ees of the current year are termed youn$! The youn$ "ees do not stin$ as the others do and it is for this reason that swarms may "e safely carried, as it is of youn$ "ees that they are composed! )hen honey runs short they e&pel the drones, and the "ee+keepers supply the "ees with fi$s and sweet+tastin$ articles of food! The elder "ees do the indoor work, and are rou$h and hairy from stayin$ indoors the youn$ "ees do the outer carryin$, and are comparatively smooth! They kill the drones also when in their

work they are confined for room the drones, "y the way, live in the innermost recess of the hive! On one occasion, when a hive was in a poor condition, some of the occupants assailed a forei$n hive provin$ victorious in a com"at they took to carryin$ off the honey when the "ee+keeper tried to kill them, the other "ees came out and tried to "eat off the enemy "ut made no attempt to stin$ the man! The diseases that chiefly attack prosperous hives are first of all the clerus+this consists in a $rowth of little worms on the floor, from which, as they develop, a kind of co"we" $rows over the entire hive, and the com"s decay another diseased condition is indicated in a lassitude on the part of the "ees and in malodorousness of the hive! Bees feed on thyme and the white thyme is "etter than the red! In summer the place for the hive should "e cool, and in winter warm! They are very apt to fall sick if the plant they are at work on "e mildewed! In a hi$h wind they carry a stone "y way of "allast to steady them! If a stream "e near at hand, they drink from it and from it only, "ut "efore they drink they first deposit their load if there "e no water near at hand, they dis$or$e their honey as they drink elsewhere, and at once make off to work! There are two seasons for makin$ honey, sprin$ and autumn the sprin$ honey is sweeter, whiter, and in every way "etter than the autumn honey! #uperior honey comes from fresh com", and from youn$ shoots the red honey is inferior, and owes its inferiority to the com" in which it is deposited, (ust as wine is apt to "e spoiled "y its cask conse*uently, one should have it looked to and dried! )hen the

thyme is in flower and the com" is full, the honey does not harden! The honey that is $olden in hue is e&cellent! )hite honey does not come from thyme pure and simple it is $ood as a salve for sore eyes and wounds! Aoor honey always floats on the surface and should "e skimmed off the fine clear honey rests "elow! )hen the floral world is in full "loom, then they make wa& conse*uently you must then take the wa& out of the hive, for they $o to work on new wa& at once! The flowers from which they $ather honey are as follows: the spindle+tree, the melilot+clover, kin$%s+spear, myrtle, flowerin$+reed, withy, and "room! )hen they work at thyme, they mi& in water "efore sealin$ up the com"! As has "een already stated, they all either fly to a distance to dischar$e their e&crement or make the dischar$e into one sin$le com"! The little "ees, as has "een said, are more industrious than the "i$ ones their win$s are "attered their colour is "lack, and they have a "urnt+up aspect! 2audy and showy "ees, like $audy and showy women, are $ood+ for+nothin$s! Bees seem to take a pleasure in listenin$ to a rattlin$ noise and conse*uently men say that they can muster them into a hive "y rattlin$ with crockery or stones it is uncertain, however, whether or no they can hear the noise at all and also whether their procedure is due to pleasure or alarm! They e&pel from the hive all idlers and unthrifts! As has "een said, they differentiate their work some make wa&, some make honey, some make "ee+"read, some shape and mould com"s, some "rin$ water to the cells and min$le

it with the honey, some en$a$e in out+of+door work! At early dawn they make no noise, until some one particular "ee makes a "u33in$ noise two or three times and there"y awakes the rest hereupon they all fly in a "ody to work! By and "y they return and at first are noisy then the noise $radually decreases, until at last some one "ee flies round a"out, makin$ a "u33in$ noise, and apparently callin$ on the others to $o to sleep then all of a sudden there is a dead silence! The hive is known to "e in $ood condition if the noise heard within it is loud, and if the "ees make a flutter as they $o out and in for at this time they are constructin$ "rood+cells! They suffer most from hun$er when they recommence work after winter! They "ecome somewhat la3y if the "ee+keeper, in ro""in$ the hive, leave "ehind too much honey still one should leave cells numerous in proportion to the population, for the "ees work in a spiritless way if too few com"s are left! They "ecome idle also, as "ein$ dispirited, if the hive "e too "i$! A hive yields to the "ee+keeper si& or nine pints of honey a prosperous hive will yield twelve or fifteen pints, e&ceptionally $ood hives ei$hteen! #heep and, as has "een said, wasps are enemies to the "ees! Bee+keepers entrap the latter, "y puttin$ a flat dish on the $round with pieces of meat on it when a num"er of the wasps settle on it, they cover them with a lid and put the dish and its contents on the fire! It is a $ood thin$ to have a few drones in a hive, as their presence increases the industry of the workers! Bees can tell the approach of rou$h

weather or of rain and the proof is that they will not fly away, "ut even while it is as yet fine they $o flutterin$ a"out within a restricted space, and the "ee+keeper knows from this that they are e&pectin$ "ad weather! )hen the "ees inside the hive han$ clusterin$ to one another, it is a si$n that the swarm is intendin$ to *uit conse*uently, occasion, when a "ee+keepers, on seein$ this, "esprinkle the hive with sweet wine! It is advisa"le to plant a"out the hives pear+trees, "eans, 0edian+$rass, #yrian+$rass, yellow pulse, myrtle, poppies, creepin$+thyme, and almond+trees! #ome "ee+keepers sprinkle their "ees with flour, and can distin$uish them from others when they are at work out of doors! If the sprin$ "e late, or if there "e drou$ht or "li$ht, then $ru"s are all the fewer in the hives! #o much for the ha"its of "ees! 71 Of wasps, there are two kinds! Of these kinds one is wild and scarce, lives on the mountains, en$enders $ru"s not under$round "ut on oak+trees, is lar$er, lon$er, and "lacker than the other kind, is invaria"ly speckled and furnished with a stin$, and is remarka"ly coura$eous! The pain from its stin$ is more severe than that caused "y the others, for the instrument that causes the pain is lar$er, in proportion to its own lar$er si3e! These wild live over into a second year, and in winter time, when oaks have "een in course of fellin$, they may "e seen comin$ out and flyin$ away! They lie concealed durin$ the winter, and live in the interior of

lo$s of wood! #ome of them are mother+wasps and some are workers, as with the tamer kind "ut it is "y o"servation of the tame wasps that one may learn the varied characteristics of the mothers and the workers! For in the case of the tame wasps also there are two kinds one consists of leaders, who are called mothers, and the other of workers! The leaders are far lar$er and milder+tempered than the others! The workers do not live over into a second year, "ut all die when winter comes on and this can "e proved, for at the commencement of winter the workers "ecome drowsy, and a"out the time of the winter solstice they are never seen at all! The leaders, the so+called mothers, are seen all throu$h the winter, and live in holes under$round for men when plou$hin$ or di$$in$ in winter have often come upon mother+wasps, "ut never upon workers! The mode of reproduction of wasps is as follows! At the approach of summer, when the leaders have found a sheltered spot, they take to mouldin$ their com"s, and construct the so+called sphecons,+little nests containin$ four cells or therea"outs, and in these are produced workin$+wasps "ut not mothers! )hen these are $rown up, then they construct other lar$er com"s upon the first, and then a$ain in like manner others so that "y the close of autumn there are numerous lar$e com"s in which the leader, the so+called mother, en$enders no lon$er workin$+ wasps "ut mothers! These develop hi$h up in the nest as lar$e $ru"s, in cells that occur in $roups of four or rather more, pretty much in the same way as we have seen the $ru"s of the kin$+"ees

to "e produced in their cells! After the "irth of the workin$+$ru"s in the cells, the leaders do nothin$ and the workers have to supply them with nourishment and this is inferred from the fact that the leaders ,of the workin$+wasps- no lon$er fly out at this time, "ut rest *uietly indoors! )hether the leaders of last year after en$enderin$ new leaders are killed "y the new "rood, and whether this occurs invaria"ly or whether they can live for a lon$er time, has not "een ascertained "y actual o"servation neither can we speak with certainty, as from o"servation, as to the a$e attained "y the mother+wasp or "y the wild wasps, or as to any other similar phenomenon! The mother+wasp is "road and heavy, fatter and lar$er than the ordinary wasp, and from its wei$ht not very stron$ on the win$ these wasps cannot fly far, and for this reason they always rest inside the nest, "uildin$ and mana$in$ its indoor arran$ements! The so+called mother+wasps are found in most of the nests it is a matter of dou"t whether or no they are provided with stin$s in all pro"a"ility, like the kin$+"ees, they have stin$s, "ut never protrude them for offence! Of the ordinary wasps some are destitute of stin$s, like the drone+"ees, and some are provided with them! Those unprovided therewith are smaller and less spirited and never fi$ht, while the others are "i$ and coura$eous and these latter, "y some, are called males, and the stin$less, females! At the approach of winter many of the wasps that have stin$s appear to lose them "ut we have never met an eyewitness of this phenomenon! )asps are more a"undant in times of drou$ht and in

wild localities! They live under$round their com"s they mould out of chips and earth, each com" from a sin$le ori$in, like a kind of root! They feed on certain flowers and fruits, "ut for the most part on animal food! #ome of the tame wasps have "een o"served when se&ually united, "ut it was not determined whether "oth, or neither, had stin$s, or whether one had a stin$ and the other had not wild wasps have "een seen under similar circumstances, when one was seen to have a stin$ "ut the case of the other was left undetermined! The wasp+$ru" does not appear to come into e&istence "y parturition, for at the outset the $ru" is too "i$ to "e the offsprin$ of a wasp! If you take a wasp "y the feet and let him "u33 with the vi"ration of his win$s, wasps that have no stin$s will fly toward it, and wasps that have stin$s will not from which fact it is inferred "y some that one set are males and the other females! In holes in the $round in winter+time wasps are found, some with stin$s, and some without! #ome "uild cells, small and few in num"er others "uild many and lar$e ones! The so+called mothers are cau$ht at the chan$e of season, mostly on elm+trees, while $atherin$ a su"stance sticky and $umlike! A lar$e num"er of mother+wasps are found when in the previous year wasps have "een numerous and the weather rainy they are captured in precipitous places, or in vertical clefts in the $round, and they all appear to "e furnished with stin$s! 74

#o much for the ha"its of wasps! Anthrenae do not su"sist "y cullin$ from flowers as "ees do, "ut for the most part on animal food: for this reason they hover a"out dun$ for they chase the lar$e flies, and after catchin$ them lop off their heads and fly away with the rest of the carcases they are furthermore fond of sweet fruits! #uch is their food! They have also kin$s or leaders like "ees and wasps and their leaders are lar$er in proportion to themselves than are wasp+kin$s to wasps or "ee+ kin$s to "ees! The anthrena+kin$, like the wasp+kin$, lives indoors! Anthrenae "uild their nests under$round, scrapin$ out the soil like ants for neither anthrenae nor wasps $o off in swarms as "ees do, "ut successive layers of youn$ anthrenae keep to the same ha"itat, and $o on enlar$in$ their nest "y scrapin$ out more and more of soil! The nest accordin$ly attains a $reat si3e in fact, from a particularly prosperous nest have "een removed three and even four "askets full of com"s! They do not, like "ees, store up food, "ut pass the winter in a torpid condition the $reater part of them die in the winter, "ut it is uncertain whether that can "e said of them all, In the hives of "ees several kin$s are found and they lead off detachments in swarms, "ut in the anthrena%s nest only one kin$ is found! )hen individual anthrenae have strayed from their nest, they cluster on a tree and construct com"s, as may "e often seen a"ove+$round, and in this nest they produce a kin$ when the kin$ is full+$rown, he leads them away and settles them alon$ with himself in a hive or nest! )ith re$ard to their se&ual unions, and

the method of their reproduction, nothin$ is known from actual o"servation! Amon$ "ees "oth the drones and the kin$s are stin$less, and so are certain wasps, as has "een said "ut anthrenae appear to "e all furnished with stin$s: thou$h, "y the way, it would well "e worth while to carry out investi$ation as to whether the anthrena+kin$ has a stin$ or not! 76 Hum"le+"ees produce their youn$ under a stone, ri$ht on the $round, in a couple of cells or little more in these cells is found an attempt at honey, of a poor description! The tenthredon is like the anthrena, "ut speckled, and a"out as "road as a "ee! Bein$ epicures as to their food, they fly, one at a time, into kitchens and on to slices of fish and the like dainties! The tenthredon "rin$s forth, like the wasp, under$round, and is very prolific its nest is much "i$$er and lon$er than that of the wasp! #o much for the methods of workin$ and the ha"its of life of the "ee, the wasp, and all the other similar insects! 77 As re$ards the disposition or temper of animals, as has "een previously o"served, one may detect $reat differences in respect to coura$e and timidity, as also, even amon$ wild animals, in re$ard to tameness and wildness! The lion, while he is eatin$, is most ferocious "ut when he is not hun$ry and has had a $ood meal, he

is *uite $entle! He is totally devoid of suspicion or nervous fear, is fond of rompin$ with animals that have "een reared alon$ with him and to whom he is accustomed, and manifests $reat affection towards them! In the chase, as lon$ as he is in view, he makes no attempt to run and shows no fear, "ut even if he "e compelled "y the multitude of the hunters to retreat, he withdraws deli"erately, step "y step, every now and then turnin$ his head to re$ard his pursuers! If, however, he reach wooded cover, then he runs at full speed, until he comes to open $round, when he resumes his leisurely retreat! )hen, in the open, he is forced "y the num"er of the hunters to run while in full view, he does run at the top of his speed, "ut without leapin$ and "oundin$! This runnin$ of his is evenly and continuously kept up like the runnin$ of a do$ "ut when he is in pursuit of his prey and is close "ehind, he makes a sudden pounce upon it! The two statements made re$ardin$ him are *uite true the one that he is especially afraid of fire, as Homer pictures him in the line+%and $lowin$ torches, which, thou$h fierce he dreads,%+and the other, that he keeps a steady eye upon the hunter who hits him, and flin$s himself upon him! If a hunter hit him, without hurtin$ him, then if with a "ound he $ets hold of him, he will do him no harm, not even with his claws, "ut after shakin$ him and $ivin$ him a fri$ht will let him $o a$ain! They invade the cattle+folds and attack human "ein$s when they are $rown old and so "y reason of old a$e and the diseased condition of their teeth are una"le to pursue their wonted prey! They live to a $ood old a$e!

The lion who was captured when lame, had a num"er of his teeth "roken which fact was re$arded "y some as a proof of the lon$evity of lions, as he could hardly have "een reduced to this condition e&cept at an advanced a$e! There are two species of lions, the plump, curly+maned, and the lon$+"odied, strai$ht maned the latter kind is coura$eous, and the former comparatively timid sometimes they run away with their tail "etween their le$s, like a do$! A lion was once seen to "e on the point of attackin$ a "oar, "ut to run away when the "oar stiffened his "ristles in defence! It is suscepti"le of hurt from a wound in the flank, "ut on any other part of its frame will endure any num"er of "lows, and its head is especially hard! )henever it inflicts a wound, either "y its teeth or its claws, there flows from the wounded parts suppuratin$ matter, *uite yellow, and not to "e stanched "y "anda$e or spon$e the treatment for such a wound is the same as that for the "ite of a do$! The thos, or civet, is fond of man%s company it does him no harm and is not much afraid of him, "ut it is an enemy to the do$ and the lion, and conse*uently is not found in the same ha"itat with them! The little ones are the "est! #ome say that there are two species of the animal, and some say, three there are pro"a"ly not more than three, "ut, as is the case with certain of the fishes, "irds, and *uadrupeds, this animal chan$es in appearance with the chan$e of season! His colour in winter is not the same as it is in summer in summer the animal is smooth+haired, in winter he is clothed in fur!

79 The "ison is found in Aaeonia on 0ount 0essapium, which separates Aaeonia from 0aedica and the Aaeonians call it the monapos! It is the si3e of a "ull, "ut stouter in "uild, and not lon$ in the "ody its skin, stretched ti$ht on a frame, would $ive sittin$ room for seven people! In $eneral it resem"les the o& in appearance, e&cept that it has a mane that reaches down to the point of the shoulder, as that of the horse reaches down to its withers "ut the hair in its mane is softer than the hair in the horse%s mane, and clin$s more closely! The colour of the hair is "rown+ yellow the mane reaches down to the eyes, and is deep and thick! The colour of the "ody is half red, half ashen+$rey, like that of the so+called chestnut horse, "ut rou$her! It has an undercoat of woolly hair! The animal is not found either very "lack or very red! It has the "ellow of a "ull! Its horns are crooked, turned inwards towards each other and useless for purposes of self+defence they are a span "road, or a little more, and in volume each horn would hold a"out three pints of li*uid the "lack colour of the horn is "eautiful and "ri$ht! The tuft of hair on the forehead reaches down to the eyes, so that the animal sees o"(ects on either flank "etter than o"(ects ri$ht in front! It has no upper teeth, as is the case also with kine and all other horned animals! Its le$s are hairy it is cloven+footed, and the tail, which resem"les that of the o&, seems not "i$ enou$h for the si3e of its "ody! It tosses up dust and scoops out the $round with its hooves, like the "ull! Its skin is impervious to "lows!

Owin$ to the savour of its flesh it is sou$ht for in the chase! )hen it is wounded it runs away, and stops only when thorou$hly e&hausted! It defends itself a$ainst an assailant "y kickin$ and pro(ectin$ its e&crement to a distance of ei$ht yards this device it can easily adopt over and over a$ain, and the e&crement is so pun$ent that the hair of huntin$+do$s is "urnt off "y it! It is only when the animal is distur"ed or alarmed that the dun$ has this property when the animal is undistur"ed it has no "listerin$ effect! #o much for the shape and ha"its of the animal! )hen the season comes for parturition the mothers $ive "irth to their youn$ in troops upon the mountains! Before droppin$ their youn$ they scatter their dun$ in all directions, makin$ a kind of circular rampart around them for the animal has the faculty of e(ectin$ e&crement in most e&traordinary *uantities! 7: Of all wild animals the most easily tamed and the $entlest is the elephant! It can "e tau$ht a num"er of tricks, the drift and meanin$ of which it understands as, for instance, it can tau$ht to kneel in presence of the kin$! It is very sensitive, and possessed of an intelli$ence superior to that of other animals! )hen the male has had se&ual union with the female, and the female has conceived, the male has no further intercourse with her! #ome say that the elephant lives for two hundred years others, for one hundred and twenty that the female lives nearly as lon$ as the

male that they reach their prime a"out the a$e of si&ty, and that they are sensitive to inclement weather and frost! The elephant is found "y the "anks of rivers, "ut he is not a river animal he can make his way throu$h water, as lon$ as the tip of his trunk can "e a"ove the surface, for he "lows with his trunk and "reathes throu$h it! The animal is a poor swimmer owin$ to the heavy wei$ht of his "ody! 7< The male camel declines intercourse with its mother if his keeper tries compulsion, he evinces disinclination! On one occasion, when intercourse was "ein$ declined "y the youn$ male, the keeper covered over the mother and put the youn$ male to her "ut, when after the intercourse the wrappin$ had "een removed, thou$h the operation was completed and could not "e revoked, still "y and "y he "it his keeper to death! A story $oes that the kin$ of #cythia had a hi$hly+"red mare, and that all her foals were splendid that wishin$ to mate the "est of the youn$ males with the mother, he had him "rou$ht to the stall for the purpose that the youn$ horse declined that, after the mother%s head had "een concealed in a wrapper he, in i$norance, had intercourse and that, when immediately afterwards the wrapper was removed and the head of the mare was rendered visi"le, the youn$ horse ran way and hurled himself down a precipice! 7=

Amon$ the sea+fishes many stories are told a"out the dolphin, indicative of his $entle and kindly nature, and of manifestations of passionate attachment to "oys, in and a"out Tarentum, .aria, and other places! The story $oes that, after a dolphin had "een cau$ht and wounded off the coast of .aria, a shoal of dolphins came into the har"our and stopped there until the fisherman let his captive $o free whereupon the shoal departed! A shoal of youn$ dolphins is always, "y way of protection, followed "y a lar$e one! On one occasion a shoal of dolphins, lar$e and small, was seen, and two dolphins at a little distance appeared swimmin$ in underneath a little dead dolphin when it was sinkin$, and supportin$ it on their "acks, tryin$ out of compassion to prevent its "ein$ devoured "y some predaceous fish! Incredi"le stories are told re$ardin$ the rapidity of movement of this creature! It appears to "e the fleetest of all animals, marine and terrestrial, and it can leap over the masts of lar$e vessels! This speed is chiefly manifested when they are pursuin$ a fish for food then, if the fish endeavours to escape, they pursue him in their ravenous hun$er down to deep waters "ut, when the necessary return swim is $ettin$ too lon$, they hold in their "reath, as thou$h calculatin$ the len$th of it, and then draw themselves to$ether for an effort and shoot up like arrows, tryin$ to make the lon$ ascent rapidly in order to "reathe, and in the effort they sprin$ ri$ht over the a ship%s masts if a ship "e in the vicinity! This same phenomenon is o"served in divers, when they have plun$ed into deep water that is, they pull themselves to$ether

and rise with a speed proportional to their stren$th! /olphins live to$ether in pairs, male and female! It is not known for what reason they run themselves a$round on dry land at all events, it is said that they do so at times, and for no o"vious reason! 7> Fust as with all animals a chan$e of action follows a chan$e of circumstance, so also a chan$e of character follows a chan$e of action, and often some portions of the physical frame under$o a chan$e, occurs in the case of "irds! Hens, for instance, when they have "eaten the cock in a fi$ht, will crow like the cock and endeavour to tread him the crest rises up on their head and the tail+ feathers on the rump, so that it "ecomes difficult to reco$ni3e that they are hens in some cases there is a $rowth of small spurs! On the death of a hen a cock has "een seen to undertake the maternal duties, leadin$ the chickens a"out and providin$ them with food, and so intent upon these duties as to cease crowin$ and indul$in$ his se&ual propensities! #ome cock+"irds are con$enitally so feminine that they will su"mit patiently to other males who attempt to tread them! 9@ #ome animals chan$e their form and character, not only at certain a$es and at certain seasons, "ut in conse*uence of "ein$ castrated and all animals possessed of testicles may "e su"mitted to this

operation! Birds have their testicles inside, and oviparous *uadrupeds close to the loins and of viviparous animals that walk some have them inside, and most have them outside, "ut all have them at the lower end of the "elly! Birds are castrated at the rump at the part where the two se&es unite in copulation! If you "urn this twice or thrice with hot irons, then, if the "ird "e full+$rown, his crest $rows sallow, he ceases to crow, and fore$oes se&ual passion "ut if you cauteri3e the "ird when youn$, none of these male attri"utes propensities will come to him as he $rows up! The case is the same with men: if you mutilate them in "oyhood, the later+ $rowin$ hair never comes, and the voice never chan$es "ut remains hi$h+pitched if they "e mutilated in early manhood, the late $rowths of hair *uit them e&cept the $rowth on the $roin, and that diminishes "ut does not entirely depart! The con$enital $rowths of hair never fall out, for a eunuch never $rows "ald! In the case of all castrated or mutilated male *uadrupeds the voice chan$es to the feminine voice! All other *uadrupeds when castrated, unless the operation "e performed when they are youn$, invaria"ly die "ut in the case of "oars, and in their case only, the a$e at which the operation is performed produces no difference! All animals, if operated on when they are youn$, "ecome "i$$er and "etter lookin$ than their unmutilated fellows if they "e mutilated when full+$rown, they do not take on any increase of si3e! If sta$s "e mutilated, when, "y reason of their a$e, they have as yet no horns, they never $row horns at all if they "e mutilated

when they have horns, the horns remain unchan$ed in si3e, and the animal does not lose them! .alves are mutilated when a year old otherwise, they turn out u$lier and smaller! #teers are mutilated in the followin$ way: they turn the animal over on its "ack, cut a little off the scrotum at the lower end, and s*uee3e out the testicles, then push "ack the roots of them as far as they can, and stop up the incision with hair to $ive an outlet to suppuratin$ matter if inflammation ensues, they cauteri3e the scrotum and put on a plaster! If a full+$rown "ull "e mutilated, he can still to all appearance unite se&ually with the cow! The ovaries of sows are e&cised with the view of *uenchin$ in them se&ual appetites and of stimulatin$ $rowth in si3e and fatness! The sow has first to "e kept two days without food, and, after "ein$ hun$ up "y the hind le$s, it is operated on they cut the lower "elly, a"out the place where the "oars have their testicles, for it is there that the ovary $rows, adherin$ to the two divisions ,or horns- of the wom" they cut off a little piece and stitch up the incision! Female camels are mutilated when they are wanted for war purposes, and are mutilated to prevent their "ein$ $ot with youn$! #ome of the inha"itants of ?pper Asia have as many as three thousand camels: when they run, they run, in conse*uence of the len$th of their stride, much *uicker than the horses of 5isaea! As a $eneral rule, mutilated animals $row to a $reater len$th than the unmutilated! All animals that ruminate derive profit and pleasure from the process of rumination, as they do from the process of eatin$! It is

the animals that lack the upper teeth that ruminate, such as kine, sheep, and $oats! In the case of wild animals no o"servation has "een possi"le save in the case of animals that are occasionally domesticated, such as the sta$, and it, we know, chews the cud! All animals that ruminate $enerally do so when lyin$ down on the $round! They carry on the process to the $reatest e&tent in winter, and stall+fed ruminants carry it on for a"out seven months in the year "easts that $o in herds, as they $et their food out of doors, ruminate to a lesser de$ree and over a lesser period! #ome, also, of the animals that have teeth in "oth (aws ruminate as, for instance, the Aontic mice, and the fish which from the ha"it is "y some called 'the Euminant%, ,as well as other fish-! Bon$+lim"ed animals have loose faeces, and "road+chested animals vomit with comparative facility, and these remarks are, in a $eneral way, applica"le to *uadrupeds, "irds, and men! 7>B A considera"le num"er of "irds chan$e accordin$ to season the colour of their pluma$e and their note as, for instance, the owsel "ecomes yellow instead of "lack, and its note $ets altered, for in summer it has a musical note and in winter a discordant chatter! The thrush also chan$es its colour a"out the throat it is marked in winter with speckles like a starlin$, in summer distinctly spotted: however, it never alters its note! The ni$htin$ale, when the hills are takin$ on verdure, sin$s continually for fifteen days and fifteen

ni$hts afterwards it sin$s, "ut not continuously! As summer advances it has a different son$, not so varied as "efore, nor so deep, nor so intricately modulated, "ut simple it also chan$es its colour, and in Italy a"out this season it $oes "y a different name! It $oes into hidin$, and is conse*uently visi"le only for a "rief period! The erithacus ,or red"reast- and the so+called redstart chan$e into one another the former is a winter "ird, the latter a summer one, and the difference "etween them is practically limited to the coloration of their pluma$e! In the same way with the "eccafico and the "lackcap these chan$e into one another! The "eccafico appears a"out autumn, and the "lackcap as soon as autumn has ended! These "irds, also, differ from one another only in colour and note that these "irds, two in name, are one in reality is proved "y the fact that at the period when the chan$e is in pro$ress each one has "een seen with the chan$e as yet incomplete! It is not so very stran$e that in these cases there is a chan$e in note and in pluma$e, for even the rin$+dove ceases to coo in winter, and recommences cooin$ when sprin$ comes in in winter, however, when fine weather has succeeded to very stormy weather, this "ird has "een known to $ive its cooin$ note, to the astonishment of such as were ac*uainted with its usual winter silence! As a $eneral rule, "irds sin$ most loudly and most diversely in the pairin$ season! The cuckoo chan$es its colour, and its note is not clearly heard for a short time previous to its departure! It departs a"out the risin$ of the /o$+star, and it reappears from sprin$time to the

risin$ of the /o$+star! At the rise of this star the "ird called "y some oenanthe disappears, and reappears when it is settin$: thus keepin$ clear at one time of e&treme cold, and at another time of e&treme heat! The hoopoe also chan$es its colour and appearance, as Aeschylus has represented in the followin$ lines:I The Is 5ow 5ow For, He Thus In The The And A$ain But when his Hoopoe, clad a in timely $reets twofold youth and ar$ent the fields span$led $ay the "y white chan$in$, the form a$e, raiment his are in particoloured witness Leus mountain+"ird, hawk%s on and upon marks the apparition to in with silver of colour the his maturity yellow plumes sullen with are his own varia"le kni$htly pluma$e white the are selfsame youthful ripe distress, dress:+ crest, drest, win$ #prin$! conferred, "ird! days, displays corn worn! discontent,

hawk%s

evermore,

He seeks the lonely hills, in self+sou$ht "anishment! Of "irds, some take a dust+"ath "y rollin$ in dust, some take a water+"ath, and some take neither the one "ath nor the other! Birds that do not fly "ut keep on the $round take the dust+"ath, as for instance the hen, the partrid$e, the francolin, the crested lark, the pheasant some of the strai$ht+taloned "irds, and such as live on the "anks of a river, in marshes, or "y the sea, take a water+"ath

some "irds take "oth the dust+"ath and the water"ath, as for instance the pi$eon and the sparrow of the crooked+taloned "irds the $reater part take neither the one "ath nor the other! #o much for the ways of the a"ove+mentioned, "ut some "irds have a peculiar ha"it of makin$ a noise at their hinder *uarters, as, for instance, the turtle+dove and they make a violent movement of their tails at the same time that they produce this peculiar sound! +TH8 85/+ C Ta"le of .ontents C Bast updated on #at 0ar 4< 1<:1=:79 4@@7 for eBooksDAdelaide!