Basics of Regenerative Braking: * In Regenerative braking, the motor operates as a generator, while it is still connected to the supply, here

N>Ns. * Mechanical energy is converted into energy, part of which is returned to the supply & rest of the energy is last as heat in wdg & bearings. * Most of electrical m/c pass smoothing from motoring region to generating region, when over driven by the load.

* Here electric motor is drawing a trotley bus in the uphill & downhill direction. The gravity force can be resolved into 2 components in the uphill direction. One is perpendicular to load surface F & another one is parallel to the road surface Fl. The parallel force pulls the motor towards the bottom of the hill. * If we neglect the rotational losses, the motor must produce a force Fm opposite to Fl, to move the bus in the uphill direction. This operation is in I quadrant. Here motor torque is motor speed in same direction. But TL is opp to Tm. The power flow from motor to mech. Load.

* Now consider same bus to travelling downhill. The gravitational force does not change its torque direction, but load torque pushed the motor toward the bottom of the hill. The motor produces a torque in the reverse direction because of the direction of the motor torque always opposite to the direction of the load torque.

* Here rotation of the motor is still in the same direction on both sides of the hill. This operation in the second quadrant. This is known as regenerative braking. In this regenerative braking mode, motor torque & speed are in the opposite direction. TL is opposite to Tm. The energy is exchange under regenerative braking operation is power flows from mechanical load to source. Hence the load is driving the m/c and the m/c is generating electric power that is returned to the supply. Regenerative braking of Induction Motor:An induction motor is subjected to regenerative braking, if the rotor rotates in same directions as that of stator magnetic field, by N>NS. * Such a state occurs during any one of the following processes. i) Downward motion of a loaded hoisting mechanism. ii) If variable freq is available or if the motor is of pole change type. * Under regenerative braking mode , the m / c acts as an induction generator and this power fed back to the supply. The m/c taking only the reactive power for excitation. * If active load is present, motor speed > Ns and regenerative braking may be obtained. In this case, slip and torque developed become -ve. * Here Regenerative max torque > max motor torque. Regenerative braking of DC Motor : In regenerative braking , generated energy is supplied to the source, the condition is E>V and Ia ---(1) Fild flux increases not beyond rated because saturation. In series motor, as N increases Armature current , flux decreases so (1) not achieved. Thus braking possible.

Multiquadrant Operation * A motor operate in 2 modes Motoring and braking * Motoring - electrical energy to mechanical energy, support its motion. * (generator) braking mech energy to electrical energy, oppose the motion. * Motor can provide motoring & braking for both forward & reverse direction. * Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed & torque.

* Quadrant I Power +ve, m/c working as a motor, supplying mech energy. So called forward motoring * Quadrant II Power ve, m/c works under braking opposing the motion. So called forward braking * Quadrant III & IV reverse motoring and braking. Operation of hoist in four quadrants Operation of hoist in four quadrants

* Direction of motor & load torques and direction of speed are marked by arrows. * A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to a motor shaft. One end of a rope is tied to a cage which is used for transporting material. Other end of the rope has a counter weight. * Weight of the counter weight chosen higher than the weight of an empty case but lower than a fully loaded cage. * Load torque TL2 in quadrants I & IV represent speed torque charal of the loaded hoist. This torque is the diff. of torques due to loaded hoist & counter weight. * Load torque TL2 in quadrants II & III is the speed-torque charal of an empty hoist. This torque is due to the diff in torque of counter weight & empty hoist. This is ve because the counter weight is always higher than the empty cage. * The quadrant I operation hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which corresponds to the +ve motor speed which is in CCW (counter clockwise) direction. It will be obtained if motor produce +ve torque in CCW direction equal to TL. Since developed power is +ve, this is forward motoring operation. * Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of the loaded cage is > the counter weight. In order to limit the speed of the cage within a safe value, motor must produce a +ve torque T = TL2 in anti clockwise direction. Both power & speed are ve, drive is in reverse braking.

* Quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up since a counter weight is heavier than a empty cage, it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed to safety value, motor must produce braking torque = TL2 in clockwise direction. Since speed is +ve, developed power is, ve. It is forward breaking operation. Quadrant III empty cage is lowered since empty cage weight is < counter weight motor produce a torque in clockwise direction. Since speed is ve & developed power is +ve, this is reverse motoring operation.

Components of load torques: 1.Friction Torque (TF) The friction torque (TF) is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft. 2.Windage Torque (Tw) When a motor runs, the wind generates a torque opposing the motion . This is known as the winding torque. 3.Torque required to do useful mechanical work ( Tm) Nature of the torque depands of type of load. It may be constant and indeoendent of speed, Some function of speed, may be time invariant or time variant. The nature of the torque may change with the change in the loads mode of operation. Characteristics of different types of load: In electric drives the driving equipment is an electric motor. Selection of particular type of motor driving a m/c is the matching of speed-torque charal of the driven unit and that of the motor. Different types of loads exhibit different speed torque charal. Most of the industrial loads can be classified into the following 4 general categories:

1. Constant torque type load. 2. Torque proportional to speed (generator type load) 3. Torque proportional to square of the speed (fan type load) 4. Torque inversely proportional to speed (const power type load) 1.Constant Torque Characteristic :

The speed torque characteristic of this type of load is given by T=K. Working motor have each mechanical nature of work like shaping , cutting, grinding or sharing, require constant torque irrespective of speed. Similarly cranes during the hoisting. Similarly cranes during the hoisting and conveyors handling constant weight of material / unit, time also exhibit this type of characteristics. Torque proportional to speed:

Separately excuted dc generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy current brakes and calendaring m/cs have a speed torque characteristics m/cs have a speed torque characteristics given by T= Kw. Torque propositional to square of the speed :

Load Torque Square of speed Example : Fans , Rotary pumps , compressors , ship propellers. The speed torque characteristics of this type of load is given by Torque inversely propositional to speed:

In such types of loads , torque is inversely proportional to speed or load power remains constant. Eq: Lathes, boring m/cs, milling m/cs , steel mill colier and electric traction load. This type of characteristics is given by

 Most of the load require extra effort at the time of starting to overcome static friction. In power application it is known as brake away torque and load control engineers call it stiction . Because of slition , the speed torque characteristics of the load is modified near to zero speed.

Parts of Electric Drives: 1. Electrical motors and load 2. Power modulator 3. Source 4. Control unit 5. Sensing unit. Electric Motors: Most commonly used electric drives are DC motos Shunt , Series. Compound and permanent magnet. Induction Motors Squirel cage , wound rotor and linear Synchronous motor - Wound field and permanent magnet Brushless Dc motors , stepper motors, and switched reluctance motors can be used. Power Modulator It can classified as 1. Controlled rectifier (AC to DC converters) 2. Inverters (DC to AC converters) 3. AC voltage controllers (AC to AC converters) 4. DC choppers (DC to DC converters)

5. Cyclo converters (Frequency conversion) Electrical Source: Single Phase and Three Phase , 50Hz readily available in most locations. Very low power drives fed from single phase source. Rest of the drives from three phase source. Low and medium power motor are fet from 400v supply. Higher rating , motors are fed from 3.3kv , 6.6 kv , 11kv. Some drives are power from a battery , battery voltage may be 24v, 48v and 110v. Sensing unit : 1. Speed sensing is required for implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. 2. Speed sensing by tachometers , high speed accuracies required digital tachometers are used. 3. Current sensing methods are Use of current sensor employing hall effect. Involves the use of a non-inductive resistance shunt in conjunction with an isolation amplifier which has an arrangement for an amplification and isolation bet power and control units. Control Units : Control for power modulator is provided in the control unit. When semi conductor converts are used, the control unit will consist of firing circuits, which employ linear and digit integrated circuits and transistor and a up when sophisticated control is required.

Block Diagram of a simple electric drive:

System employed for motion control are called Drives. Drives employed electric motors are known as Electric Drives Load is usually a machinery designed to accomplish a given task eg: fans, pumps, robots, trains and drills.

Power Modulator: Modulates the flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that the motor will modulate the speed torque characteristics required by the load. During transient operation , such as starting , breaking and speed reversal , it restricts source and motor currents within permissible values. Converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to the motor. Select the mode of operation of the motor (i.e) Motoring or Braking.
Forward Reverse Forward Reverse regenerative regenerative motoring motoring braking braking + + + + + + -

Mode of operation Speed, r Torque, Te Electric power flow