1.

INTRODUCTION Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two different learning methods but

have the word conditioning in common. What is conditioning? Conditioning is the acquisition of specific patterns of behaviour in the presence of well-defined stimuli (Tyson, 2005). Both classical and operant conditioning is basic forms of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another, previously neutral stimulus (Ibid,). Manipulating reflexes does this. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the likelihood of behaviour is increased or decreased by the use of reinforcement or punishment and it deals with more cognitive thought process (Ibid,). These two forms of learning have similarities and differences. Their similarities are that they both produce basic phenomena. One such phenomenon is acquisition. The essay will elaborate further 2.0 2.1 on both types of conditioning together with specific examples.

THE PROCESSES OF OPERANT AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Operant Conditioning Theory According to Tyson (2005) the key to operant conditioning is reinforcement.

Reinforcement is when a stimulus is presented that increases the probability that the preceding response will recur in the future. According to Skinner, organisms normally operate on the environment instead of reacting to the stimuli presented to them. He termed type of learning other than simple behaviour that could not be explained by classical theory as operant conditioning. Hence explained operant conditioning as a form of learning in which voluntary responses are influenced by their consequences. Behavior reinforced by pleasant consequence increases probability of behavior occurring in the future. If reinforcement is withheld, extinction will occur in operant conditioning (Ibid,).

Another factor that is involved in conditioning is spontaneous recovery. The

consequences are known by their function that is how they operate-active rather than passive in the classical theory. Therefore, the principle of this theory lies in the Reinforcement that are Positive and Negative and Punishment. 2.2 The Classical Conditioning Theory The Classical Conditioning Theory is also known as psyche reflexes (Pavlov 1906), transfer conditioning, stimulus response conditioning or S-R Theory. Learning through

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conditioning was the results of experiments by a Russian scientist, named Ivan P. Pavlov (Mok Soon Sang, 2003, p.142). The theory outlined six basic processes namely: 2.2.1 Acquisition: Forming New Response

Acquisition is the formation of a new conditioned response tendency. It depends on the time factor that linked between two events. Usually stimuli that are novel and special have more opportunity to produce classical conditioning. 2.2.2 Extinction: Weakening Conditioned Response

Extinction of learned responses is the result of gradual weakening disappearance of a conditioned response (CR). 2.2.3 Spontaneous Recovery: Resurrecting Responses

It is the reappearance of CR which was extinct after a long period of non-appearance of the conditioned stimulus (CS). 2.2.4 Stimulus Generalization

This refers to the CR which applies not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimulus. 2.2.5 Stimulus Discrimination

The phenomenon is in contrast with the stimulus generalization. It depends on the degree of similarity. 2.2.6 Higher Order Conditioning

It is referred to a new CR which is built on the foundation of learned response. The CR functions as an unconditioned stimulus. 2.3 BASIC DIFFERENCES OF THE THEORIES The Operant Conditioning Theory will describe the same processes as the Classical Theory which is acquisition, extinction, generalization and discrimination. The basic differences between both theories are as follows: 2.3.1 2.3.2 Acquisition in operant is a gradual process of shaping as reinforcements are designed with closer and closer approximation so as to form the desired response. Process of extinction refers to gradual weakening and finally disappearance of a response tendency as the result of positive reinforcements removal.

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2.3.3

Stimulus generalization process refers to responding increases in the presence of new stimulus that resembles the exact stimulus whereas stimulus discrimination is vice versa-no increase. In Operant Conditioning response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus. The response is

voluntary that is emitted by the organism. While In Classical Conditioning two stimuli, unconditioned stimulus, UCS and conditioned stimulus, CS is paired together. The response is involuntary that is elicited by the stimulus.

3.0

EXAMPLES OF OPERANT AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Both operant and classical conditioning theories have a pervasive impact to our daily

life. Many phenomenons could be explained through these theories. Lets take a few examples:

3.1

Daily Life 3.1.1 I had a bad experience two years ago when I was locked out of my house twice.

This is due to my carelessness and it pushed me into real trouble. Therefore I will never leave my home before ensuring that I am holding the house key set. This example is operant conditioning as holding the key set is a voluntary response and a positive reinforcement. The consequence given. Therefore the behaviour of holding a key set before going outside my home is a real necessity over time. 3.1.2 I had a terrified experience when I was nearly drowned in a rough sea during my

school day. Due to that, I will never go to swim during rough season. This is Classical conditioning scenario. The unconditioned response to the fear was produced by the incident and preceded by the sight of rough sea which acts as the CS for the CR of cringing.

3.2

The Workplace 3.2.1 Two and a half months salary bonuses given to particular employees in my

organisation last year as an appreciation to their excellent performance in year 2005. The bonuses act as a positive reinforcement in Operant conditioning as more staffs will strive to improve their performance in order to be in the group of lucky employees. 3.2.2 Avon marketing agencies would motivate their marketing executives with several

treat for an achieved target sale. The reward could vary from dinner, holiday package, car incentive or even bonus. For example an Avon dealer would get a car incentive
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after successfully obtained more than RM25,000 sale value and 35 downline dealers below her. The car is a positive reinforcement in Operant conditioning.

3.3

Child Rearing Practices 3.3.1 A woman who has a problem with her 6 years old boy who can never stop

addicted to his milk bottle would put something bitter in his bottle along with his usual milk. The boy would dislike his milk bottle and will prefer drinking with glass instead. This is an example of operant conditioning as the drinking milk from glass is a voluntary response. The bitter taste is the positive reinforcement. 3.3.2 Azizah bought a piano for her daughter Lina, age 12, who used to go out

enjoying piano at Ai Lin house, her classmate. Azizah is using a positive reinforcement by letting her girl to engage in a favourite activity without having to go out of her own home.

3.4

The Classroom 3.4.1 Operant conditioning could be applied in various ways and activities in class.

Pupils are offered with praises when they could solve problems in Physics or Mathematics and participated in classroom activities in every single lesson. Phrases lsuch as Well done, Excellent, Very Good and Great act as a positive reinforcement to encourage pupils to participate in their learning activities. 3.4.2 Students are also motivated to finish a specific task which is not only boring but

also quite uninteresting by rewarding them. Several kinds of reinforces help in retaining the effectiveness. One example is to reward those who had read certain amount of books within a month. The reward might be as cheap as a ball point pen or a breakfast at the canteen. This is also an example of a positive reinforcement in Operant conditioning. 3.4.3 As a teacher you would pay no attention to pupils for their third offences of not

bringing books to the class. This is extinction where the pupils will no longer left their books at home as they feel neglected in the actively fun learning activities their friends have enjoyed. 3.4.4 Cikgu Lee makes her pupils stand on the chair when his pupils make noise in

class. This is an Operant conditioning as the behaviour of talking is decrease when the

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punishment, the act of standing on the chair, is imposed to the pupils who done the offence. 3.4.5 A teacher ridicules a students opinion and after that no one will dare answer the

questions given by him in class. The behaviour of answering question is decreased when the consequence, ridicules is presented. This is also an example of Operant conditioning in classroom environment.

4.0

PHOBIAS THE USE OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING TO REDUCE IT The main symptom of this disorder is the excessive, unreasonable desire to avoid the

feared subject (Wikipedia, March13, 2006). Most phobias are probable the result of chance associations in which the feared object was associated (classically conditioned) with an unpleasant stimulus (health at health.com: Social phobia, March 15, 2006). A phobia (from the Greek !"#$% "fear"), is a strong, persistent fear of situations, objects, activities, or persons. In this context, behavioural treatments work well. treatments: 4.1 Systematic Desensitization: This technique is based on Classical conditioning in which clients are gradually exposed to a hierarchy of anxiety-producing stimuli and taught to relax at each level until they have overcome their fear of the object or situation. It is the most common treatment for phobia. 4.2 Flooding: Client is totally immersed in the sensation of anxiety (e.g., Imagine a man was thrown to a tsunami: fear of water and falls into a gigantic wave: extinction principle) 4.3 Implosion: Similar to flooding except you use you imagination (i.e., you imagine being in a sea of fire. How do you feel?). It is a common understanding that phobia is an impact of bitter experience in our early life. As memories are stored in ones subconscious, whatever emotions they were laid down with the memory of falling down from a highrising building for example, will be stored with painfulness. In order to reduce the fear, a pleasant relaxed state is associated with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli that is counter conditioning. Some phobias may require specific medications in addition to behavioural treatment (i.e., social phobia: need to reduce extreme anxiety levels to facilitate new learning). Here is another example: James is a five years old boy who is phobia to dog. His mother tries to associate cat with his favourite toy, a
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There are three types of behavioural

ball to reduce the fear. The diagram below will explain the application of Classical conditioning to reduce the phobia:

BEFORE CONDITIONING

Happiness and Braveness UCS UCR

Pain and fear

Neutral Stimulus

DURING CONDITIONING

Happiness and braveness UCS UCR

UCS is paired with Neutral Stimulus. UCS automatically produces UCR

AFTER CONDITIONING

CS
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CR

Neutral Stimulus has become the CS. It produces CR, happiness and braveness which is similar to the ball, UCR. INDEX 1 - IVAN PAVLOVS EXPERIMENT WITH DOG Dog with tube inserted to its cheek. When the dog salivate, the saliva is collected in the test tube and its quantity is recorded on the rotating drum.

Steps in the experiment.

Pavlov gave a hungry dog a bowl of food. The dog sees the food and salivates. UCS and unconditioned This is a UCR neutral event where unconditioned stimulus, response, naturally connected.

Pavlov presented the hungry dog with food and simultaneously rang a bell. The dog salivated. This action was done at several meals. Pavlov

was trying to associate something new (bell) to elicit the same response.

Pavlov rang only the bell without presenting the food. The dog salivates. The bell elicited the same response as the sight of the food gets. The dog has been conditioned to salivate when hearing the bell.

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INDEX 2- BF SKINNERS EXPERIMENT-SKINNER BOX

Skinner Box Skinner box is a chamber in which Skinner placed animals such as rats and pigeons to study. The chamber contains either a lever or key that can be pressed in order to receive reinforcements such as food and water. The Skinner box created Free Operant Procedure where responses can be made and recorded continuously without the need to stop the experiment for the experimenter to record the responses made by the animal. Shaping is an operant conditioning method for creating an entirely new behavior by using rewards to guide an organism toward a desired behavior (called Successive Approximations). In doing so, the organism is rewarded with each small advancement in the right direction. Once one appropriate behavior is made and rewarded, the organism is not reinforced again until they make a further advancement, then another and another until the organism is only rewarded once the entire behavior is performed. For example, to get a rat to learn how to press a lever, the experimenter will use small rewards after each behavior that brings the rat toward pressing the lever. So, the rat is placed in the box. When it takes a step toward the lever, the experimenter will reinforce the behavior by presenting food or water in the dish (located next to or under the lever). Then, when the rat makes any additional behavior toward the lever, like standing in front of the lever, it is given reinforcement (note that the rat will no longer get a reward for just taking a single step in the direction of the lever). This continues until the rat reliably goes to the lever and presses it to receive reward.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Mok Soon Sang. (2003). An Education Course for K.P.L.I. Theme 2: Student Development, Teaching Learning Process & Evaluation. Subang Jaya: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn Bhd Shahabudin Hashim, Mahani Razali, dan Ramlah Jantan. (2003). Psikologi Pendidikan. Bentong: PTS Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd. Learning Theories: Behaviorisme. Retrieved November 6, 2004, from http://www.ucalgary.ca/~gnjantzi/learning_theories.htm Conditioning Examples. Retrieved Feb 23, 2005 from http://www.ar.cc.mn.us/biederman/courses/p1110/conditioning.htm Green River Community College. Operant Conditioning Examples. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.ivygreen.ctc.edu/marshall/classexamples/oceexamples.htm Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. Phobia. Retrieved March 15, 2006 from http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia Conditioning Examples. Retrieved March 15, 2006 from http://www.ar.cc.mn.us/biederman/courses/p1110/conditioning.htm http://www.phobialist.com/

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