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1 Introduction

Principle of Mobile Communication

In Telecom network conventionally each user is connected to the Telephone exchange individually. This dedicated pair starts from MDF, where it is connected to the appropriate E uipment point and ends at the customer premises Telephone. !"ith flexi#ility at ca#inet$pillar$ distri#ution points D%s&

The connectivity from exchange to customer premises is called '(ccess )etwork or *ocal *oop+, and mostly comprises of underground ca#le from exchange up to D%,s and insulated copper wires !Drop "ires&later on This type of (ccess )etwork does not re uire separate (uthentication of customer #efore extending services. "henever the ca#le capacity has reached the maximum additional ca#le is laid to augment the capacity. Even though there are advantages in introducing wireless connectivity in -u#scri#er,s loop, we have to tackle certain issues .i/, 0. Duplexing methodology. 1. Multiple (ccess methods. 2. cellular principle or reuse concept. 3. Techni ues to cope with 'mo#ile+ environment. Duplexing Methodology: Duplexing is the techni ue #y which the send and receive paths are separated over the medium, since transmission entities !modulator, amplifiers, demodulators& are involved. There are two types of duplexing. Fre uency Division Duplexing FDD Time Division Duplexing TDD Frequency Division Duplexing FDD Different Fre uencies are used for send and receive paths and hence there will #e a forward #and and reverse #and. Duplexer is needed if simultaneous
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transmission !send& and reception !receive& methodology is adopted .Fre uency separation #etween forward #and and reverse #and is constant Time Division Duplexing (TDD) TDD uses different time slots for transmission and reception paths. -ingle radio fre uency can #e used in #oth the directions instead of two as in FDD. )o duplexer is re uired. 4nly a fast switching synthesi/er, 5F filter path and fast antenna switch are needed. It increases the #attery life of mo#ile phones. 6-M and 7DM( systems use Fre uency Division Duplexing and corDE7T uses Time Division Duplexing. Multiple Access methodology: The techni ue of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum #y multiple users is called Multiple (ccess Techni ue. 8y adopting multiple access techni ues all users can not get the services simultaneously and some amount of #locking is introduced #y the system. This is known as 64- !6rade of -ervice&. 6enerally there are three different types of multiple access technologies. They are Fre uency Division Multiple (ccess !FDM(& Time Division Multiple (ccess !TDM(& 7ode Division multiple (ccess !7DM(& Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): FDM( is a familiar method of allocating #andwidth, where a #ase station is allowed to transmit on one or more num#er of preassigned carrier fre uencies and a mo#ile unit transmits on corresponding reverse channels. )o other #ase station within range of the mo#ile will #e transmitting on the same forward channel, and no other mo#ile within range of the #ase station should #e transmitting on the same reverse channel. 8oth the #ase and the mo#ile usually transmit continuously during a conversation, and fully occupy their assigned forward and reverse channels. )o other conversation can take place on these channels until the first conversation is completed.

FDMA Analogy
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It may #e easier to visuali/e FDM( #y imagining a cocktail party where two people wish to converse with each other. Then everyone in the room must #e silent except for the speaker. The speaker may talk as long as they wish, and when they finish someone else may start speaking, #ut again only one at a time. )ew speakers must wait !or find another party& for the current speaker to finish #efore starting. Everyone in the room can hear and understand the speaker, unless they are too far away or the speaker9s voice is too soft. If the intended listener is close enough, the speaker may decide to whisper. 7onversely, if the listener is too far away, the speaker may have to shout. -ince no one else should #e talking, this presents no pro#lem. If someone talks out of turn, the listener will pro#a#ly #e confused and not #e a#le to understand either speaker. Features 4f Fre uency Division Multiple (ccess !FDM(& )o %recise coordination in time domain is necessary in FDM( -ystem. It is well suited for narrow #and analog systems. 6uard spacing #etween channels causes wastage of fre uency resource. 4therwise good modulation techni ues are to #e employed to avoid such guard spacing. The transmission is simultaneous and continuous and hence duplexers are needed. 7ontinuous transmission leads to shortening of #attery life. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) TDM( is a more efficient, #ut more complicated way of using FDM( channels. In a TDM( system each channel is split up into time segments, and a transmitter is given exclusive use of one or more channels only during a particular time period. ( conversation, then, takes place during the time slots to which each transmitter !#ase and mo#ile& is assigned. TDM( re uires a master time reference to synchroni/e all transmitters and receivers.

TDMA Analogy In TDM(, everyone in the room agrees to watch a clock on the wall, and speak only during a particular time. Each person wishing to talk is given a set period of time, and each person listening must know what that time period will #e. For example, everyone may agree on time slots with duration of ten seconds. -peaker num#er one may talk for ten seconds starting from the top of the minute. The listener who wishes to hear this speaker must also #e made aware of the schedule, and #e ready to listen at the top of the minute. -peaker num#er two may speak only from ten seconds after the minute until twenty seconds after. (s with FDM(, only one person at a time may speak, #ut each speaker9s time is now limited and many persons may take their turn. If someone in the room cannot see

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the clock, they will not #e a#le to speak and will have great difficulty understanding the speakers. Features of TDMA There can #e only one carrier in the medium at any time, if a simple TDM( scheme is followed.

Transmission is in #ursts and hence is well suited for digital communication. -ince the transmission is in #ursts, 8attery life is extended. Transmission rate is very high compared to analog FDM( systems. %recise synchroni/ation is necessary. 6uard time #etween slots is also necessary

Time and Frequency Division Multiple Access 8oth methods of FDM( and TDM( are com#ined to achieve higher capacity in practical systems. ( channel gets a certain fre uency #and for a certain amount of time. The 8est example for such system is 6-M.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 7DM( is fundamentally different than TDM( and FDM(. "here FDM( and TDM( transmit a strong signal in a narrow fre uency #and, 7DM( transmits a relatively weak signal across a wide fre uency #and. :sing a techni ue called direct se uence spread spectrum, the data to #e transmitted are com#ined with a pseudo;noise code !a pre;determined #inary se uence that appears random& and transmitted #road#and. 7DM( under Interim -tandard <= uses a #andwidth of 0.1= M>/. The pseudo;noise code !%) code& is a series of #inary ?chips? that are much shorter in duration than the data #its. -ince the chips appear to #e in a random pattern, and there are many chips per data #it !in I-;<= there are 01@ chips for each data #it&, the modulated result appears to normal !FDM(& receivers as #ackground noise. ( spread spectrum receiver with a different %) code will not #e a#le to recover that signal, and if the %) codes were chosen incorrectly, will hear nothing #ut noise. This relative immunity to interference, whether from outside sources or other spread spectrum transmitters, gives 7DM( systems the a#ility to pack many users into the same fre uency space at the same time. It also gives a measure of
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security to each signal, since each user will have a different %) code. 7DM( also does not re uire different #ase station radios for each user ; the same radio may serve multiple users with Aust a change in %) code. CDMA Analogy In 7DM(, the speaker and the listener have agreed #eforehand to use a language that no one else at the party understands. Many speakers may talk at a 7DM( party, each using a different language, and it is relatively easy for the listener to hear and understand the speaker as long as there aren9t too many speakers talking at the same time. (s more and more speakers start talking, the noise level in the room goes up and it #ecomes harder and harder for the listener to make out what their speaker is saying. If a speaker #egins to shout, in order for their listener to hear #etter, it raises the noise level even more Comparison of Multiple Access Techniques:

7overage 4ffered #y 7DM( -ystem is more compared to TDM( and FDM( systems. 7apacity of 7DM( -ystem is more compared to TDM( and FDM( systems. Duplexing and Multiple Access Techniques in use: )o )ame of -ystem 0 1 2 6-M 7DM( 7or;DE7T Multiple (ccess FDM(;TDM( 7DM( TDM(;multi carrier Duplexing FDD FDD TDD

Cellular Concepts:
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Even though multiple access techni ues allowed multiple users to share the medium simultaneously, due to constraints in providing resources, an amount of #locking will exist. The amount of #locking is called '6rade 4f -ervices+!64-&. 8ased on 64- and resource availa#ility !no. of carriers$no. of timeslots$#oth& the traffic handling capacity of the system is calculated. If this total traffic is divided #y traffic per su#scri#er, we get num#er of su#scri#ers supported #y the system. For these purposes Erlang 8 ta#le !8locking calls cleared& is useful particularly in FDM(;TDM(. hy Cellular! (ssuming 2BmE traffic per su#scri#er, su# density of 2B per s .km, and 64- 0C 5adius (rea !DM1& -u#s Total Traffic 5F 7hannels 0 2.03 0BB 2.BE @ 2 1@.B2 <BB 1EE 2@ 0B 2.03 0BBBB 2BBE 2FB %roviding 2FB 5F channels for 0B,BBB su#scri#ers in an area of 203 s .km on a single #ase station is not feasi#le and if still either the area of coverage or su# density increases, the system cannot function at all for want of #andwidth. >ence the solution is dividing the service area into small units, called cell, with #ase stations radiating with low power, and limited num#er of carriers re uired as per traffic. The same carriers are again reused at a different cell, which is geographically separated. !Fre uency 5euse& In case of 7DM( it appears that there is no limitation for simultaneous calls #ut practically there is a limit to 7DM( capacity. (nd it is essentially the amount of interference a 7DM( receiver can tolerate. (s more and more units transmit, the amount of noise a receiver sees goes up, since all signals not using the receiver9s specific %) code appear as noise. (t some point there is so much noise that the receiver can no longer hear the transmitter. 8oosting the transmitter power won9t help overall, since it increases the noise for all the other receivers, who would in turn tell their transmitters to #oost power, and the situation remains. In a nutshell, if a unit near a #ase station is transmitting with too much power, signals from units far from the #ase station will #e lost in the noise. >ence cellular concept is applica#le even in the case of 7DM( where code used for identification of cell$sector is reused. (dvantages of 7ellular %rinciple 8ase stations can transmit at low power compared to a single high power transmitter. It re uires less 5F #andwidth to cover a given area. Fre uency reuse gives good spectrum efficiency. !FDM(;TDM(& Disadvantage of cellular principle 5euse introduces interference.

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Esta#lished calls should #e handed over to next cell to avoid dropping of calls when the customer is in mo#ility. Mo"ile #nvironment: 8T- is connected to Mo#ile or Fixed "ireless Terminal #y air Interface. This connectivity differs from our earlier :>F$Microwave which is purely *ine of -ight !*4-& system. In mo#ile communication due to the mo#ility of the user from the 8T- *4- to 8T- may exist or may not exist. The radio wave is su#Aect to attenuation, reflection, Doppler shift and interference from other transmitter. These effects cause loss of signal strength and distortion which will impact the uality of voice or data. To cope with the harsh conditions, any mo#ile technology makes use of an efficient and protective signal processing. %roper cellular design must ensure that sufficient radio coverage is provided in the area. Types of signal strength variations The signal strength variation for mo#ile is due to different types of signal strength fading. There are two types of signal strength variations Macroscopic .ariations Due to the terrain contour #etween 8T- and MThe fading effect is caused #y shadowing and diffraction !#ending& of radio waves. Microscopic variations. Due to multipath, -hort;term or 5ayleigh fading. (s the M- moves, radio waves from many different paths will #e received.

Macroscopic $ariations Macroscopic .ariations can #e modeled as the addition of two components that make up the path loss #etween mo#ile and #ase station. The first component is the deterministic component !*& that adds loss to the signal strength as the distance!5& increases #etween #ase and mo#ile. This component can #e written as
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*G0$5n "here n G typically 3. The other macroscopic component is a *og normal random varia#le which takes into account the effects of shadow fading caused #y variations in terrain and other o#structions in the radio path. *ocal mean value of path lossGdeterministic component Hlog normal random varia#le Microscopic $ariations Microscopic .ariations or 5ayleigh Fading occur as the mo#ile moves over short distances compared to the distance #etween mo#ile and #ase. These short term variations are caused #y signal scattering in the vicinity of the mo#ile unit e.g. #y hill, #uilding or traffic. The result is that not one #ut many different paths are followed #etween transmitter and receiver !Multipath %ropagation&. The reflected wave will #e altered in #oth phase and amplitude. The signal may effectively disappear if the reflected wave is 0@B degree out of phase with the direct path signal. The partial out of phase relationships among multiple received signal produce smaller reduction in received signal strength. %pecial features of mo"ile technologies (ll mo#ile techni ues incorporate some special features to overcome the ha/ards created #y mo#ile environment. The following are a few to nameI 0. 7oding. 1. Diversity techni ues. 2. (daptive e uali/ation! in case of 6-M& 3. 5ake 5eceiver !in case of 7DM(& &'Coding: 7oding includes -peech coding, 7onvolutional coding or Forward Error 7orrection coding Interleaving %peech Coding: >uman speech is #and limited #etween 2BB>/ to 23BB>/ and undergoes Fre uency Modulation in analog systems. In digital fixed %-T) systems #and limited speech is sampled at the rate of @ D>/ and each sampled is encoded into @ #its leading to F3D#ps !%7M (;*aw of encoding&.Digital cellular radio cannot handle the high #it rate used for %-T) systems. -mart techni ues for signal analysis and processing have #een developed for reduction of the #it rate Different mo#ile communication systems use different #it rates for voice encoding. The following ta#le gives a glimpse. )o. Technology 8it rate per voice chl .oice coding techni ue 0 6-M 02D#ps 5%E;*T% 1 7DM( I-<=( <.FD#ps$03.3 D#ps J7E*%$E.57 2 7or; 21D#ps (D%7M
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DE7T 5%E;*T%I 5egular %ulse Excited *ong Term %rediction J7E*%I Jualcomm 7ode Excited *inear %rediction E.57I Enhanced .aria#le 5ate 7oding (D%7MI (daptive Differential %ulse 7ode Modulation For(ard #rror Correction Coding: -ometimes this process is called 7onvolutional 7oding or 7hannel 7oding. The purpose of this process is to #uild redundancy in the signal so that even if error occurs, the receiver will #e a#le to recover the lost information. -everal methods are availa#le for this purpose and each mo#ile system uses its own choice. )nterleaving: Interleaving is a simple, #ut powerful, method of reducing the effects of #urst errors and recovering #its when #urst errors occur. The sym#ols !output of Forward Error 7orrection 7oder& from each group are interleaved in a pattern that the receiver knows. The interleaver is located at the 8T- and in the phone. *' Diversity Techniques: To cope up with the mo#ile environment Diversity techni ues are employed .This can #e -pace Diversity, %olarisation Diversity, Fre uency Diversity and Time Diversity. -pace and %olarisation DiversityI It is implemented in the 8T- #y deploying two antennas, one for Transmitting and receiving, the other for only receiving. 8oth antennas should #e kept with minimal separation !0B times wave length&. -pace Diversity can #e com#ined with %olarisation Diversity #y making the Diversity antenna in an opposite polari/ation. In modern times the same antenna with dual polari/ed elements are availa#le so that with single antenna, at least polarisation diversity can #e achieved. -pace Diversity can #e implemented only when sufficient space is availa#le in the tower for mounting the antennas. Frequency Diversity: -ignal degradation can #e averted #y changing the present fre uency to another in case of narrow #and systems. This avoids fre uency selective fading. In a narrow #and system like 6-M this is achieved #y slowly hopping the fre uency of transmission of 8T- in a predetermined manner. In case of a wide #and system like 7DM( signal occupies a large #andwidth and fre uency diversity is inherently achieved. Time DiversityI In all the mo#ile communication systems #y employing interleaving time diversity is automatically achieved.
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+' Adaptive #qualisation: The transmitter trains the receiver to adapt to the air environment #y sending a known se uence along with the data. 7orrections as applied to the known se uence are applied to the data to retrieve it error free. This is used in 6-M. ,' -a.e -eceiver: The rake receiver is multiple receivers in one. There is a rake receiver at #oth the mo#ile and 8T-. It turns what is a pro#lem in other technologies into an advantage for 7DM(. -ignals sent over the air can take multi;paths resulting in degradation of signal. The rake receiver identifies the three strongest multi;path signals and com#ines them to produce one very strong signal. The rake receiver therefore uses multipath to reduce the power the transmitter must send.

Conclusion: "ireless means convenience. >owever to achieve this certain precautionary measures are taken to overcome the #andwidth scarcity, multipath pro#lems, etc., There are multiple access techni ues to share the #andwidth amongst several users.

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