SlaIiIil in Yi Bnasl Kovea EquiIiIviun Sslens and MavginaI Adjuslnenl

AulIov|s) Janes B. FaIais

Souvce OccasionaI Fapevs on Kovea, No. 3 |June 1975), pp. 1-18
FuIIisIed I Univevsil oJ WasIinglon Cenlev Jov Kovea Sludies
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SlaIiIil
in Yi
Bnasl
Kovea
EquiIiIviun Sslens
and
MavginaI Adjuslnenl
Janes B. FaIais
Fev scIoIavs vouId
dispule
lIe
inlevpvelalion
lIal Kovea
duving
lIe Iale
Yi
dnasl
suJJeved Jvon lIe eJJecls oJ decIine and naIJunclion adnin-
islvalion vas
ineJJicienl,
lIe
vuIing
eIile
appeaved covvupl
and seIJ-
cenleved,
lIe
govevnnenl
seened lo IacI IolI lIe
slvenglI
and viII lo
deJend lIe
counlv againsl Joveign aggvession,
and lIe
peasanlv
vas
on lIe
vevge
oJ veIeIIion. Bul Iecause oJ lIe
conlenpovav disappoinl-
nenl vilI Kovea' s
inaIiIil
lo
dupIicale
a
Meiji
Beslovalion in lIe Iale
nineleenlI
cenluv,
lIe unusuaI
slaIiIil
and
Iongevil
oJ lIe Yi
d-
nasl
as a seIJ-conlained
sslen
Ias Ieen ovevIooIed. TIe line Jov a
veappvaisaI
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl
and an
invesligalion
inlo lIe veasons Jov
ils
slaIiIil
is
Iong
ovevdue.
B pvoviding
a
IpolIelicaI expIanalion
oJ
poIilicaI slaIiIil
and
Iongevil,
I
Iope
lIal lIis
essa na
vedivecl
Juluve
scIoIavI
endeavovs lovavd a Iellev
appvecialion
oJ lIe accon-
pIisInenl
oJ Koveans in
IuiIding
a successJuI
poIilicaI sslen
in
pve-
nodevn lines.
OJ
couvse, pavl
oJ lIe
expIanalion
Jov
slaIiIil
is lo Ie Jound in lIe
inlevnalionaI silualion Jvon lIe JiJleenlI lo lIe Iale nineleenlI cenlu-
vies.
Excepl
Jov lIe
Japanese
invasions oJ lIe 1590s and lIe MancIu
invasions in 1627 and
1636,
Kovea vas
pvovided
a
pvoleclive
unIveIIa
I
Iev
venoleness,
Iev lvadilionaI secIusion
poIic,
lIe Jocus oJ Wesl-
evn inlevesl on CIina and
Japan,
and lIe cIecIs and IaIances oJ inlev-
nalionaI vivaIvies.
Foveign inJIuences, Iovevev,
ave nol suJJicienl lo
1
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2
Janes
B. FaIais
expIain
lIe cuvious
pavadox
oJ unusuaI
slaIiIil despile
considevaIIe
deIiIil.
In lIis
da
and
age
vIen nosl nodevn Koveans ave inlevesled
nove in
queslions
oJ nalionaI
slvenglI
and
povev,
scienliJic and econ-
onic
deveIopnenl,
and sociaI and econonic
juslice,
lIe nolion oJ a
slale IiIe lIe Yi
dnasl,
vIicI vas aIIe lo nainlain ils exislence Jov
a
Iong peviod
oJ line vilIoul
acIieving an
oJ lIe aIove
oIjeclives,
is
nol
IiIeI
lo sliv
up
nucI enlIusiasn. In
n viev, Iovevev,
one oJ lIe
nain
acconpIisInenls
oJ lvadilionaI Koveans vas lIe cvealion oJ a
slale, poIil,
and
sociel
lIal vas so seIJ-suJJicienl and slaIIe lIal il
couId conlinue lo IoId
logelIev
Jov Jive Iundved
eavs, despile
aII lIe
naIadies lIal Iesel il.
il is in lIe naluve oJ lIe Iislovian nol
onI
lo
idenliJ lvends,
deveI-
opnenls,
and
najov pallevns
in
Iislov,
Iul lo seeI lo
idenliJ
lIe vea-
sons Jov lIen. TIe
slaIiIil
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl
Ias
Iong
Ieen
noled,
Iul
nol
enougI
Ias Ieen said lo
idenliJ
il as a
pIenonenon vovlI
oJ
slud
in and oJ ilseIJ.
FuvlIevnove,
lIe
slud
oJ ils causes nusl Ie nove ex-
acl and
pvecise.
Il viII nol do
jusl
lo
sa
lIal lIe
counlv
vas
snaII,
lIal il Iad a
IigII
cenlvaIized
govevnnenl sslen,
lIal lIe
peopIe
veve
used lo aulIovilavian
vuIe,
veve cIosed oJJ
dipIonalicaII
Jvon oulside
conlacl,
and veve inJIuenced
I
consevvalive ConJucianisn. None oJ
lIese
lIings expIains JuII vI
lIeve veve so Jev
najov
veIeIIions
|Iel
aIone a
vevoIulion)
and
vI
lIe Yi
dnasl
Iasled so
Iong.
TIe scIoIav
nusl IooI
Ieond pevsonaIilies
lo inslilulions. He nusl aIso IooI Ie-
ond
lIe
slalulov descviplion
oJ lIose inslilulions lo a
InovIedge
oJ
Iov
lIe
Junclioned in acluaI
pvaclice.
And
JinaII,
Ie nusl
lv
lo ve-
Iale lIe
Junclioning
oJ inslilulions lo lIe
pvoIIen
oJ
slaIiIil.
Nalu-
vaII,
aII
lpes
oJ
inslilulions,
sociaI and econonic as veII as
poIili-
caI,
conlviIuled lo lIe
pIenonenon
oJ
slaIiIil
vilI vIicI ve ave Ieve
concevned. TIis
papev, Iovevev,
viII Ie Iiniled
nainI
lo lIe
queslion
oJ
govevnnenlaI
inslilulions.
Mosl
descviplions
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl govevnnenl
sIov il as
quile
slalic in naluve. In acluaI
pvaclice, Iovevev,
lIe Yi
dnasl govevnnenl
and lIal
govevnnenl
in veIalion lo lIe
peopIe
al
Iavge opevaled
as a
congIonevale
oJ a nunIev oJ Jovces and inlevesls in lension vilI and in
opposilion
lo one anolIev. TIese
equiIiIviun sslens
couId
conslanlI
Ie
sIiJling
and
cIanging
Jvon one sel oJ aIlevnalives lo
anolIev,
Iul lIe
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 3
nunIev oJ
possiIIe lpes
oJ conlvasls vas Iiniled
I
lIe
vev
naluve oJ
slale and
sociel. OvevIapping
lIe
pallevn
oJ
equiIiIviun sslens
is a
najov pIenonenon
lIal vas
pavliaII
a
pvoducl
oJ il
-
lIe
capacil
oJ
lIe Yi
dnasl
slale Jov conlinuaI and
vepealed navginaI adjuslnenl
and
veadjuslnenl.
Al lines vIen lIe
adjuslnenl pvocess
vas nol suJJicienl
lo
Ieep up
vilI lIe
cIanges
in lIe veaI
silualion,
lIen occasionaI ve-
Jovns oJ nove
inpvessive scope
veve undevlaIen. In olIev
vovds,
lIe
slaIiIil
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl
is nol lo Ie Jound in
conpIele vigidil
and
inpevviousness
lo
cIange,
Iul in ils
capacil
Jov
adapling
lo
cIanging
civcunslances. TIese lvo
concepls, equiIiIviun
lension and
navginaI
adaplaIiIil,
ave Iasic lo an
undevslanding
oJ lIe
slaIiIil
and
Iongev-
il
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl.
Fallevns
oJ EquiIiIviun
Tension
TIeve veve a nunIev oJ diJJevenl
lpes
and
pallevns
oJ lensions and
equiIiIviun sslens
in lIe Yi
dnasl.
SevevaI oJ lIese invoIved lIe
Iing
in levns oJ Iis
veIalionsIip
lo olIev eIenenls avound Iin. TIe
nonavcI
vas,
aJlev
aII,
lIe
soveveign
in lIe Yi
dnasl
slale. Since lIe
Iing
vas lIe Iocus oJ
supvene povev,
il is
onI
naluvaI lIal Ie sIouId
Iave Iecone lIe Jocus oJ vavious
poIilicaI
inlevesls in seavcI oJ
povev.
Il is aIso in lIe inslilulion oJ
IingsIip
lIal lIe nolion oJ
equiIiIviun
is
Iesl iIIuslvaled. TIe
povevs
oJ lIe
Iing
veve delevnined Iess
I
slal-
ule lIan
I
lIe
inlevpIa
oJ Jovce and
counlevJovce,
cIecI and IaIance.
Il is
vev
diJJicuIl lo laII oJ
IingsIip
ov lIe
Iing
in lIe Yi
d-
nasl
in aIslvacl levns Iecause lIeve veve
nan Iings
and lIeiv
pev-
sonaIilies,
lIeiv
IeIaviov,
and lIe lines in vIicI
lIe
Iived aII vavied.
Il is aIso
nisIeading
lo deJine lIe Yi
IingsIip
in levns oJ a slalic and
unvaving
conslvucl. TIe
IingsIip
sIouId Ie deJined in levns oJ a
spec-
lvun oJ
possiIiIilies
Jov aclion. On one side oJ lIe
speclvun
is lo Ie
Jound lIe aIsoIule nonavcI vilI
povev
oJ IiJe and dealI ovev
an
suI-
jecl.
On lIe olIev end is lo Ie Jound lIe
puppel, conpIeleI
undev lIe
conlvoI oJ olIev Jovces avound Iin. Mosl
Iings
ave lo Ie Jound in neilIev
oJ lIese lvo
exlvenes,
Iul sonevIeve in lIe niddIe.
TIeovelicaII
and
IegaII
lIe
Iing
vas
aIsoIule,
Iul lIe cIecIs and veslvainls on Iis av-
Iilvav
and
independenl
aclion veve
vev gveal.
To
pul
il in lIe
oppo-
sile
va,
al lines Y i
dnasl Iings
veve
vev
veaI and
indecisive,
and
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4
Janes
B. FaIais
el lIe aIvas
Iad lIe
vigIl
and
polenliaI
oJ JinaI decision.
EvevIod
vespecled
lIis
polenliaI
Jov uIlinale decision on lIe
pavl
oJ lIe
lIvone,
even lIe
conspivalovs
and assassins vIo vanled nol lo
vepIace Iings
Iul lo
vepIace
lIe
Iing.
Even lIe
povevJuI
consovl veIalives oJ lIe
nineleenlI
cenluv sougIl
conlvoI oJ lIe lIvone
lIvougI inlevnavviage
and doninance oJ Iuveaucvalic
posls
and nol
I usuvpalion
ov
I dnas-
lic ovevlIvov. Yel lIe Yi
dnasl Iing,
in Iis
najovil,
vas a Junclion-
ing soveveign
and nol
sinpI
a
snIoI
IiIe lIe
Japanese enpevov.
TIeve veve sevevaI cIecIs on lIe aIsoIule
povev
oJ lIe
nonavcI,
nol aII oJ vIicI veve
pvesenl
al lIe sane line. One oJ lIe
najov
Jaclovs
in lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
veve sevevaI
povevJuI Iineages
oJ veIalives oJ
queens.
TIeiv
povev
vas assuved in sevevaI
vas.
TIe JalIev oJ lIe
queen nigIl
soon Jind IinseIJ
gvandJalIev
lo a cvovn
pvince
and Juluve
Iing.
His
daugIlev nigIl
one
da
Iecone
vanIing dovagev queen
vilI
lIe
vigIl
lo seIecl lIe nexl
Iing
in case oJ lIe IacI oJ an
Ieiv,
ov lIe
vigIl
oJ
vegenc
ovev an
undevage
nonavcI. TIe veIalives oJ lIe
queens
veve
given
Javov in
appoinlnenl
lo oJJice and cane lo IoId
inpovlanl
posls
oul oJ
pvopovlion
lo lIeiv nunIevs. In olIev
vovds,
lIe consovl
cIans couId exevl inJIuence on a
Iing
as cIose veIalives and Iovev no-
IiIil
ov as nenIevs oJ lIe
veguIav Iuveaucvac.
AnolIev
najov
veslvainl on
voaI
aIsoIulisn vas
pvovided I
lIe
Iuveaucvac
ilseIJ. TIe
veIalionsIip
oJ
Iing
lo
Iuveaucvac, Iovevev,
is
one oJ lIe suIlIesl
pvoIIens
oJ
anaIsis
in aII oJ Yi
dnasl govevn-
nenl. TIeve veve sevevaI diJJevenl
possiIiIilies.
Inlevesls oJ
Iing
and
oJJiciaIdon
nigIl
coincide ov cIasI
diveclI.
Sone oJJiciaIs
nigIl
iden-
liJ
lIeiv inlevesls vilI lIe
Iing againsl
olIev
oJJiciaIs,
ov lIe
Iing
nigIl
sland aIooJ Jvon lIe
spIils
and dissensions vilIin lIe
Iod
oJ
oJJiciaIs. FuvlIevnove lIis
vange
oJ IeIaviovaI
pallevn nigIl
occuv
vilIin lIe
veign
oJ lIe sane
Iing.
TIe
veIalionsIip
oJ
Iing
lo
Iuveaucvac
vas nade nove
conpIex
Ie-
cause oJ lIe inJiIlvalion oJ
Iavge
nunIevs oJ lIe Yi
voaI
cIan and veIa-
lives oJ lIe
queens
inlo lIe
Iuveaucvac
ilseIJ. In
genevaI levns,
lIe
Iuveaucvac
vas inlevesled in
nainlaining
ilseIJ as an eIile and
pvivi-
Ieged Iod.
Il did nol vanl lo
cIeapen
lIe cvilevia Jov adnission and il
Iad a vesled inlevesl in
nainlaining
lIe
exisling
slvucluve oJ
govevn-
nenl in vIicI il
pIaed
sucI a
najov
voIe.
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 5
We
nigIl expecl
lIal lIe inlevesls oJ lIe
Iuveaucvac
as a
sepa-
vale and
speciaI gvoup
vouId Ie vioIaled iJ lIe
Iing
looI neasuves lo
advance lIe slalus and
pveslige
oJ
voaI
veIalives al lIe
expense
oJ
oJJiciaIs,
iJ Ie
cIeapened
lIe vaIue oJ Iuveaucvalic slalus
I seIIing
oJJices ov
I gvanling
lIen lo lIose vIo conlviIuled Junds lo lIe
gov-
evnnenl,
iJ Ie
Iegan
lo issue
avIilvav
edicls and connands vilIoul
consuIling lIen,
ov iJ Ie
punisIed
lIose vIo
pvolesled
Iis
aclions,
ov
JaiIed lo
punisI
lIose vIon lIe oJJiciaIs
vegavded
as
guiIl
oJ cvine.
TIe suIlIe naluve oJ
Iing-Iuveaucvalic
veIalions ave iIIuslvaled in
lIe
pvoceduves
Jov lIe
da-lo-da
conducl oJ oJJiciaI Iusiness and in lIe
decision-naIing pvocess.
TIe
Iing
vas lIe JinaI avIilev in lIe
pvocess
oJ
IegisIalion
and
decision-naIing.
Mosl
pvoposaIs
Jov Iavs veve inili-
aled
I
oJJiciaIs vIo suInilled vvillen nenoviaIs eilIev lo lIeiv
supe-
viovs ov
diveclI
lo lIe lIvone. Wvillen
pvoposaIs
Jvon inJeviov
agencies
vilIin lIe
govevnnenlaI sslen
veve
usuaII vepovled
lo lIe Slale
CounciI
|ov
Bovdev BeJense
Connand, depending
on lIe
peviod),
vIicI
vepovled
lIeiv suIslance lo lIe
Iing
and added lIeiv ovn assessnenls
and veconnendalions. In olIev cases
pvivale
individuaIs vouId suInil
pevsonaI
nenoviaIs
diveclI
lo lIe lIvone. TIe
Iing
couId
appvove
ov
disappvove
a
veconnendalion,
Ie couId veJev il IacI lo lIe oJJiciaI
naIing
lIe
pvoposaI,
as in lIe case oJ a
pvovinciaI govevnov,
ov Ie couId
send il lo lIe Slale CounciI Jov considevalion. TIen vIen lIe vevised
pvoposaI
vas
suInilled,
Ie couId and
usuaII
did
appvove
il. TIe
Iing
aIso Iad vavious
oppovlunilies
Jov divecl audiences vilI oJJiciaIs. He
nel once ov lvice a nonlI vilI lIe incunIenl and velived laesin
|oJJi-
ciaIs oJ vanI
uppev
3A and
aIove)
al vIicI line veconnendalions veve
nade
diveclI I
lIe
Ieading
eIdev slalesnen oJ lIe veaIn
-
nen vIo
Iad IeId lIe
IigIesl
oJJices oJ slale and veve nov
possessovs
oJ sine-
cuves
-
oJJiciaIs oJ lIe
CIungcI'uIu |ninislevs
vilIoul
povlJoIio),
ov
lIe
ToIIngIu |Buveau
oJ
BoaI BeIalives).
He vouId aIso sunnon
lIese eIdev slalesnen Jov consuIlalion on diJJicuIl nallevs oJ
eliquelle
and viluaI ov al lines oJ nalionaI cvisis.
Inilialive Jov
IegisIalion
Jov lIe nosl
pavl
cane Jvon lIe Iuveauc-
vac.
TIe
Iing, Iovevev, aIvas
Iad lIe
vigIl
lo iniliale and concIude
IegisIalion
on Iis ovn vilIoul
an
JovnaI consuIlalion vilI
an
oJ lIe
consliluled
agencies
oJ lIe Iuveaucvalic slvucluve. Il vas
vev
vave lIal
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6
Janes
B. FaIais
Iavs veve Ianded dovn vilI no
pviov
discussion. TIis
lpe
oJ aclion
nigIl
ensue aJlev sevevaI
pvivale
individuaI nenoviaIs aIoul sone is-
sue Iad Ieen suInilled. TIe lIvone
nigIl
lIen issue an edicl vilIoul
Iaving
lIe Slale CounciI discuss ov
pvepave
lIe nallev IeJoveIand. Nal-
uvaII,
lIis
pvoceduve
inIiIiled innovalion.
TIus lIeve vas a
vange
oJ
possiIIe
aclion on lIe
pavl
oJ lIe non-
avcI. IJ Ie cIose lo
negIecl
oJJiciaI Iusiness ov
neveI pul
a vuIIev
slanp
on aII
pvoposaIs,
lIen lIe
govevnnenl
slvucluve vas
JuII capaIIe
oJ
opevaling
on ils ovn. In lIis exlvene
case,
lIe
IigIesl
slale counci-
Iovs and eIdev slalesnen vouId Iave vivluaI conlvoI oJ
govevnnenl I
lIeiv veconnendalions lo
pvoposed IegisIalion.
Al lIe olIev
exlvene,
lIe
Iing aIvas
Iad lIe
povev
lo
avIilvaviI accepl
ov
vejecl
vIal Ie sav
Jil,
and lo iniliale
an IegisIalion
Ie desived. In acluaI
pvaclice,
Iov-
evev,
il vas
usuaII
easiesl and nosl convenienl Jov lIe
Iing
lo
appvove
ov
suggesl
ninov nodiJicalions in vIal Iad Ieen veconnended
I
lIe
Iuveaucvac.
TIeve veve olIev veslvainls on lIe aIsoIulisn oJ lIe
nonavcI,
IolI
ideoIogicaI
and inslilulionaI. ConJucian doclvine
enpIasized
lIe ninis-
lev's
vigIl
oJ venonslvance vilI Iis
pvince.
AII oJJiciaIs Iad lIe novaI
dul
oJ
pvolesling
iJ
lIe
Jound lIeiv
Iing doing sonelIing
lIal
lIe
consideved lo Ie incovvecl ov innovaI. TIe
Iing
Iad lIe
vecipvocaI
oIIi-
galion
lo loIevale lIis venonslvance and laIe il lo Ieavl. Il vas one oJ
lIe
vas
in vIicI Ie vas lo nainlain a
IigI
IeveI oJ novaI IeIaviov so
lIal Ie couId acl as an
exanpIe
Jov aII lIe
peopIe
lo JoIIov. TIe
vigIl
oJ venonslvance vas inslilulionaIized in sevevaI
vas.
TIvee
sepavale
govevnnenl agencies,
lIe
Saganvn |OJJice
oJ lIe
Censov-OenevaI),
SaInIu
|OJJice
oJ lIe
Inspeclov
OenevaI),
and
Hongnungvan |OJJice
oJ
SpeciaI CounseIovs),
aII
opevaled
as
ovgans
oJ venonslvance. Il vas
lIeiv
vigIl
and
oIIigalion
lo
pvolesl
lIe aclions oJ lIe
Iing
vIeve
lIe
sav Jil. TIe
BoaI
Secvelavial
| Sungjongvn
) JvequenlI opevaled
in lIe
sane nannev eilIev
diveclI I issuing
nenoviaIs oJ
pvolesl
ov indi-
veclI I sIoving up
ov
laIIing
lIe
Iing's
connands in lIe
pvocess
oJ
lvansnission. In exlvene
cases,
lIe vIoIe
uppev IievavcI
oJ lIe cen-
lvaI
Iuveaucvac nigIl
Iecone a vasl
ovgan
oJ venonslvance. TIe
Iavge
assenIIage
oJ lIe incunIenl and Jovnev laesin
JvequenlI
did
join
lIe
censoving ovgans
in venonslvance.
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 1
TIe vIoIe
appavalus
oJ
pvolesl
couId
pul gveal pvessuve
lo Ieav on
lIe
Iing.
In acluaI
pvaclice,
lIe
Iing's vejeclion
oJ
pvolesl
did nol Iead
lo lIe cessalion oJ lIal
pvolesl.
Il
nigIl
conlinue Jov sevevaI veeIs.
His ovdevs Jov lIe execulion oJ a connand
nigIl
Ie
deIaed
and nol
cavvied oul. TIe conducl oJ
govevnnenl
Iusiness
nigIl gvind
lo a IaIl
as aII oJJiciaIs luvned lIeiv allenlion lo lIe issue oJ conlenlion. Il
vouId laIe
gveal
delevninalion on lIe
pavl
oJ lIe
Iing
lo vesisl sucI
pvessuves. NaluvaII
il
depended
on lIe
pevsonaIil
oJ lIe
Iing IinseIJ,
vIelIev Ie vas IoId and vesoIule ov veaI and conJused. Bul il aIso de-
pended
on lIe
degvee
lo vIicI lIe
Iing
Iad Ieen indoclvinaled in Con-
Jucian ideas. Sone
Iings lvuI
IeIieved lIal
lIe
sIouId loIevale venon-
slvance and
give
due considevalion lo lIe advice oJ
ninislevs,
vIiIe
olIev
Iings
vouId nol Iel lIis inlevJeve vilI lIeiv
voaI pvevogalives
Jov
aIsoIule and JinaI decision. In acluaI
pvaclice,
iJ a
Iing
veve IoId and
vesoIule,
lIe Iuveaucvals vouId veaIize lIal lIeiv
pvolesls
vouId Ie
JvuilIess.
TIe
vouId nol cease
pvolesling,
Iul lIe
IenglI
oJ line lIal
lIe
did so vouId Ie sIovlened
appveciaII,
iJ,
on lIe
conlvav,
lIe
Iing
veve
ovevI
loIevanl, vaciIIaling,
and
conJused, pvolesls
couId Iasl
Jov
Iong peviods
oJ line and lIe conducl oJ
govevnnenl
Iusiness
nigIl
IveaI dovn
aIlogelIev.
TIe cIecIs and veslvainls on lIe nonavcI veve counleved
I
necIa-
nisns oJ conlvoI and suvveiIIance ovev lIe
Iuveaucvac.
Il vouId Ie in-
accuvale lo
vegavd
lIese
sinpI
as lIe looIs oJ lIe
Iing againsl
lIe Iu-
veaucvac. TIe
veve
designed
lo eIininale
covvuplion
Jvon lIe conducl
oJ
govevnnenl
as veII as lo Jevvel oul lveason and
disIoaIl.
TIe cen-
soving ovgans pevJovned
lIese Junclions in lIe
capilaI.
In lIe
pvovinces,
lIe
pvovinciaI govevnovs
veve
vesponsiIIe
Jov
ovdinav
suvveiIIance ovev
aII
nagislvales
and oJJiciaIs in lIeiv
juvisdiclion.
TIe secvel censovs
| anIaeng
sa
)
veve nove in lIe naluve oJ divecl
agenls
oJ lIe lIvone.
TIe
veve senl oul
peviodicaII I
lIe
Iing
lo
vepovl
on
vvongdoing
and
naIJeasance on lIe
pavl
oJ IocaI
oJJiciaIs,
and
lIe
acled as a cIecI
againsl pvovinciaI govevnovs
vIo loIevaled
covvuplion
al Iovev IeveIs.
TIe vIoIe
Iuveaucvac
vas
suIjecl
lo lIe vouline
pvocess
oJ veviev
I
lIe
Minislv
oJ FevsonneI Jov civiI oJJiciaIs and lIe
Minislv
oJ Wav Jov
niIilav
oJJiciaIs.
TIis coevcive
aspecl
oJ
govevnnenl
adninislvalion oJ lIe Yi
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B Janes
B. FaIais
dnasl
is iIIuslvalive oJ anolIev oJ lIe
gveal
lensions ov
pavadoxes
oJ
lIe
sslen.
To a
gveal
neasuve lIis
pavadox
vas an
ideoIogicaI
and
inslilulionaI
pvoIIen
lIal vas aIso cIavaclevislic oJ
CIinese-slIe gov-
evnnenl in
genevaI.
TIis lension vas a
pvoducl
oJ lIe
lIovougI
indoclvi-
nalion in ConJucian novaI
pIiIosopI
oJ aII oJJiciaIs lIal
enpIasized
lIe
pvine
voIe oJ vivlue and
novaIil
in lIe acIievenenl oJ
good
and
Iavnonious
govevnnenl.
TIe veIiance on coevcive Iavs and
punisInenls
as advocaled
I
lIe
LegaIisl
scIooI oJ
lIougIl
vas
lIeovelicaII
de-
spised I
aII
good
ConJucians. Since lIe Han
dnasl
in
CIina,
Iov-
evev,
lIe veIicIe Jov lIe
pvopagalion
oJ ConJucian ideas Iad Iecone lIe
cenlvaIized aulIovilavian
LegaIisl
slale. Slvicl Iavs and IavsI
punisI-
nenls Iad
aIvas
Ieen
vegavded
as essenliaI lo
nainlaining
ovdev. In
lIe
nineleenlI-cenluv
Yi
dnasl,
ConJucian-educaled oJJiciaIs valion-
aIized lIeiv use oJ
LegaIislic punisInenls
on lIe
gvounds
lIal lIe
snaII nan
-
lIe anovaI ov innovaI
nan,
lIe connon uneducaled nan
-
nigIl
Ie
inpevvious
lo lIe
leacIings
oJ
novaIil.
SucI eviI
lpes
veve
Ieond
lIe
connunil
oJ civiIized
nen,
and
punisInenls
couId Ie
used on lIen vilIoul Jeav oJ lIe vioIalion oJ novaI slandavds.
In lIe Yi
dnasl
seveve
punisInenl
vas aInosl
aIvas vegavded
as
a delevvenl lo
vvongdoing
and as one oJ lIe Iesl neans oJ
eIininaling
covvuplion.
TIeve vas IillIe loIevance Jov nislaIes ov
vvongdoing I
one's JeIIov Iuveaucvals. OJJiciaIs luvned
againsl
lIeiv ovn
coIIeagues
vilI
vengeance
and
cvueIl.
Sone oJ lIis can Ie
expIained
in levns oJ
JaclionaI
vivaIv,
Iul cevlain
pscIoIogicaI
considevalions veve aIso in-
voIved. ConJucian
novaIil
cvealed a
pevpeluaI alnospIeve
oJ
puvilan-
icaI se IJ
-vigIleousness
in
poIilics. Bespile
lIe
injunclions
oJ ConJu-
cianisn lo loIevance and
pevsuasion,
nove oJlen lIan nol Iive ConJu-
cians
pveJevved
lo eIininale eviI
I IiIIing
lIe
pevpelvalov,
and lo
slanp
oul JaIse doclvines
I Iuvning
IooIs and
decapilaling
lIeiv
pvoponenls.
In
nan
sucI
cases,
lIe
onI
vecouvse a JaIIen oJJiciaI Iad vas lo lIe
IenevoIence and loIevance oJ a ConJucian-indoclvinaled
Iing.
Tine and
line
again
il vas lIe
Iing's
decision
aIone, despile
lIe Juvious
pvolesl
oJ
oJJiciaIdon,
lIal saved an exiIed oJJiciaI Jvon
decapilalion
ov a
pav-
doned one Jvon
veinposilion
oJ senlence. Fov lIis veason il vouId Ie
diJJicuIl lo
sa
lIal
suvveiIIance, conlvoI,
and
punisInenl
veve excIu-
siveI agencies
oJ an aIsoIule
nonavcI
uliIized
againsl
lIe Iuveauc-
vac.
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 9
TIe sun oJ Jovces
Jocusing
on and in lension vilI lIe lIvone veve
nunevous, ovevIapping,
and
conpIex.
TIe
lendenc
lo
voaI
aIsoIulisn
vas cIecIed
I
nenIevs oJ lIe
voaI cIan,
veIalives oJ lIe
queens,
lIe
Iuveaucvac
in
genevaI,
and lIe
ovgans
oJ venonslvance in
pavlicuIav.
Independenl
aclion on lIe
pavl
oJ lIe
Iuveaucvac
vas cIecIed
I
lIeiv
ovn IuiIl-in
ovgans
oJ
suvveiIIance, I
lIeiv
pvocIivil
lo
punisI
lIeiv
ovn nenIevs
seveveI, I
lIe nonavcI's
agencies
oJ inJovnalion and
conlvoI,
and
JinaII I
lIe exevcise oJ uIlinale
aulIovil I
lIe
Iing
IinseIJ.
Nol aII oJ lIe
sslens
oJ
equiIiIviun
lension can Ie
JuII
iIIuslvaled
I Jocusing
on lIe
Iing
aIone. WilIin lIe
Iuveaucvac
lIeve veve
sepa-
vale souvces oJ lension. OJJiciaIs
nigIl
Ie
spIil
inlo vevlicaI
IoaIl
gvoups
eacI
conpeling
vilI lIe
olIev,
sucI as lIe
poIilicaI
Jaclions.
Sonelines JaclionaI division vas lied in vilI succession
dispules
in-
voIving
lIe
voaI
cIan and lIe
queen's veIalives,
as in lIe
sip'a-poIp'a
spIil
in lIe
eigIleenlI cenluv.
OlIev Iinds oJ vevlicaI
IoaIl gvoups
couId Ie Jovned avound cIan aJJiIialion ov naslev
-discipIe veIalionsIips
invoIving
one's
leacIev,
one's exaninalion
oJJiciaI,
ov one's
palvon
in
lIe
Iuveaucvac.
TIe conJIicl Ielveen
sepavale
vevlicaI
gvoups
vouId Ie nodiJied
and
ovevIapped I
IovizonlaI lensions. TIe
Iuveaucvac
vas a
IigII
IievavcIic
slvucluve,
and lIeve veve
sIavp
denavcalions in levns oJ
pveslige
and
slalus, especiaII
al lIe lIivd and sixlI vanIs oJ lIe oJJi-
ciaI Iaddev. Al
lines, oungev
oJJiciaIs
nigIl
sIov nove ideaIislic zeaI
lIan oIdev
ones,
and
lIe nigIl
vesenl lIe
nonopoI
oJ
oppovlunilies I
oIdev oJJiciaIs.
FuvlIevnove, lIe JvequenlI
Iad lIe
oppovlunil
lo
voice lIeiv vesenlnenl as Iovev oJJiciaIs in lIe
censoving ovgans.
AnolIev
signiJicanl
lension
pallevn
vas lIal Ielveen lIe cenlvaI and
lIe IocaI
govevnnenl.
Oovevnnenl
poIic
vas JovnuIaled al lIe cenlev
and
voaI
decvees veve
passed
on lo lIe
pvovinces,
Iul lIeve vas no
JuII assuvance oJ lIeiv execulion. Oulside oJ lIe
peviodic
and inlevnil-
lenl
dispalcI
oJ a secvel
censov,
lIe cIieJ
agenl
oJ suvveiIIance and
conlvoI in lIe
pvovinces
vas lIe
pvovinciaI govevnov.
TIe
pvovince,
Iovevev,
vas loo
Iavge
a unil Jov Iin lo Iave JuII
InovIedge
oJ
evev-
lIing
lIal
Iappened.
WIen Ie did discovev naIJeasance in lIe execulion
oJ
voaI Iav,
Ie van lIe visI oJ disnissaI and
punisInenl I
lIe cvovn
Jov
Iaving
JaiIed lo
invesligale
and slen unIavJuI
aclivil.
TIe
govev-
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10
Janes
B. FaIais
nov as IolI
invesligalov
and adninislvalov vilI cIieJ
vesponsiIiIil
vas
pIaced
in a diJJicuIl
posilion.
FuvlIevnove,
lIe IocaI
nagislvale
vas aIso Iiniled
seveveI
in Iis
povev.
TIe avea and
popuIalion
undev lIe
nagislvale's juvisdiclion
vas
loo
Iavge
Jov Iin lo exevcise JuII conlvoI. His levn oJ oJJice vas loo
sIovl,
and Ie IacIed
JaniIiavil
vilI lIe avea oJ Iis
appoinlnenl.
TIis
neanl lIal Ie Iad lo
veI IeaviI
on cIevIs and
pell
oJJiciaIs vecvuiled
Jvon lIe IocaI scene and Ie couId nol aJJovd lo
oppose
lIe inlevesls oJ
povevJuI
and inJIuenliaI IocaI
JaniIies, nan
oJ vIon
na
Iave Iad
JaniI
lies vilI oJJiciaIs in lIe
capilaI.
TIe
nagislvale,
and secondav-
iI
lIe
pvovinciaI govevnov,
couId
allenpl
lo
cavv
oul lIe Iellev oJ aII
Iavs even
lIougI lIe
conJIicled vilI IocaI
pvopevl, econonic,
and
olIev
inlevesls,
Iul
I doing
so
lIe nigIl
vun lIe visI oJ
jeopavdizing
lIeiv Juluve caveevs and lIeiv
aIiIil
lo nainlain ovdev in lIeiv
juivsdic-
lion. Ov
lIe nigIl
cIoose lo loIevale and
ignove
IocaI
pvaclices.
Al
1
lIeiv
vovsl, lIe
nol
onI
loIevaled
covvuplion,
Iul looI
pavl
in il.
TIe cenlvaI
govevnnenl
did ils Iesl lo slen lIe evasion oJ Iavs and
lo enJovce lIe decvees lIal Iad Ieen issued
I
lIe lIvone. TIe
Iing
couId denand
vepealed vepovls
and
invesligalions
Jvon IocaI
oJJiciaIs,
send oul secvel
censovs,
disniss and
punisI covvupl nagislvales,
and
issue and veissue decvees. Yel il vas sIeev deIusion lo assune lIal
ovdevs once issued veve
JuII inpIenenled.
Conslanl
vigiIance
vas lIe
pvice
oJ even nodevale
eJJicienc.
AnolIev oJ lIe
najov pallevns
oJ lension vas lIal Ielveen
govevn-
nenl and lIe
angIan avislocvac.
Measuves veve laIen lo ensuve
op-
povlunilies
Jov lax
exenplion
Jov lIe
angIan,
Iul lIeve vas a Iinil lo
lIe
aIiIil
oJ lIe slale lo
gvanl
lax
exenplions.
WIen lIal Iinil vas
veacIed,
lIen lax
pviviIeges
neanl a cuvlaiInenl oJ vevenues avaiIaIIe
lo lIe slale. Al sucI
lines,
lIe
govevnnenl
vouId acl lo vedvess lIe
IaIance
I invesligaling
and
oulIaving iIIegaI
lax evasion and
I
in-
posing IigIev
and nevev laxes. TIis lension Ielveen
govevnnenl
and
angIan
ovev vevenue and laxalion vas
conpIicaled I
lIe
slaJJing
oJ
lIe
Iuveaucvac
aInosl
excIusiveI I
nenIevs oJ lIe
angIan
cIass.
TIeiv desive lo exlend
pviviIeges
lo lIeiv ovn
cIass, Iovevev,
vas Iin-
iled
I
a nunIev oJ Jaclovs. As
pavl
oJ lIe slale
appavalus lIe
veve
avave lIal lIe
govevnnenl
needed Junds even Jov novnaI
da-lo-da
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 11
opevalions.
TIeiv ovn saIavies Iad lo Ie
paid,
conslvuclion
pvojecls
Ji-
nanced,
lIe
avn
and
nav
oulJilled and
equipped,
lIe
voaI paIaces
Junded,
and Janine veIieJ
pvovided.
TIe oJJiciaIs aIso Inev Jvon lIeiv ovn
expevience
and Jvon lIe
leacIings
oJ ConJucian
poIilicaI
science lIal lIeve vas a Iinil lo lIe
enduvance oJ lIe
peasanlv: lIe
Iad Ieen
laugIl
lIal lIe
peopIe
Iad lo
Ie ensuved lIeiv IiveIiIoods. Sone oJJiciaIs veve Iess disluvIed
I
peasanl suJJeving
and unJaiv lax dislviIulion lIan olIevs. Bul in lIe
end,
lIe
poIilicaI sslen
vas slvucluved lo nainlain IaIance and nuluaI len-
sion Ielveen oJJiciaI and
pvivale
inlevesls.
TIe Ivoadesl
IipoIav pallevn
oJ
equiIiIviun
lension vas lIal Ie-
lveen lIe slale and lIe
peopIe
as a vIoIe. TIe connonev Iad Iess
aIiIil
lo vesisl lIe noIiIized
povev
oJ lIe
govevnnenl
lIan lIe
angIan
avislocvac, vIicI,
aJlev
aII,
Iad divecl access lo lIe
Iuveaucvac
il-
seIJ. Bul lIe
peopIe
did Iave neans al lIeiv
disposaI
lo avoid
oppves-
sion.
TIe
couId Ieave lIe Iand lo avoid venl and lIe Iand
lax,
connend
lIeiv Iands lo
povevJuI angIan
Iandovnevs ov eslales lo
escape
Iand
and IaIov sevvice
laxalion,
luvn lo
Iandilv,
ov Iecone
JuII-JIedged
veI-
eIs. TIese veve aII exlvene and
despevale neasuves,
and lIe slale Iad
an inlevesl in
pvevenling
aII oJ lIen.
Oppvessive
laxalion vouId Iead lo
a
dvop
in lIe lolaI Iand undev cuIlivalion
suIjecl
lo
laxalion,
and con-
nendalion vouId
usuaII
vesuIl in once laxaIIe Iand
veceiving IegaI
ov
iIIegaI
lax
exenplions.
In eilIev
case, govevnnenl
vevenues suJJeved.
Bandilv
and veIeIIion veve
oIviousI disvuplive
and
coslI.
TIe
govevnnenl,
in olIev
vovds,
vas nol inlevesled in lIe lolaI ex-
pIoilalion
oJ lIe
popuIalion
Jov lIis vas
counlevpvoduclive.
Il vas in lIe
inlevesl oJ lIe slale lo nainlain
equilaIIe pvoceduves
oJ laxalion and
lax
dislviIulion,
lo
pul
Iinils on lIe
IasicaII vegvessive
lax
slvucluve,
and lo ensuve lIe conlenlnenl and
secuvil
oJ lIe
peasanl popuIalion
even al lIe
expense
oJ
sIigIlI gvealev
vevenues. TIis
slvaleg
vas ve-
inJovced
I
ConJucian econonic
lIeov,
vIicI
enjoined
lIe
Iing
lo sel
an
exanpIe
oJ
JvugaIil
and lo nainlain lIe IiveIiIood oJ lIe
peopIe
even al Iis ovn
expense. TIeveJove,
vIen lIe IeveIs oJ
laxalion,
Iicil
and
iIIicil,
veacIed lIe Iinil oJ
loIevance,
lIe
govevnnenl
vas
uvgenlI
avave oJ lIe need lo
IigIlen
lax Iuvdens.
IJ
govevnnenl
in lIe Y i
dnasl
is
lIougIl
oJ in levns oJ vavious
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12
J
anes B. FaIais
gvoups, Jovces,
and ideas in conJIicl and lension vilI one
anolIev,
il
Iecones cIeav lIal
slaIiIil
Iecones a
pvoducl
oJ lIe
equiIiIviun pvo-
duced
I
lIe neulvaIizalion oJ lIese vavious Jovces
I
eacI olIev. IJ
lIai
equiIiIviun
veve unIaIanced al
an
line in
an diveclion,
il vouId
lIen
depend upon
lIe necIanisns descviIed aIove lo
vecliJ
ov
vigIl
lIal IaIance IeJove lIe
equiIiIviun
vas
deslvoed
and lIe
poIilicaI
sslen
lvansJovned.
BeJovn
as
MavginaI Adjuslnenl,
CIvonic and Feviodic
TIe
descviplion
oJ Y i
dnasl govevnnenl
and
sociel
in levns oJ
an
equiIiIviun
nodeI sIouId
IeIp
lo
expIain
lIe second
IpolIesis
oJ
lIis
papev
-
lIal one oJ lIe nosl
inpovlanl
and vilaI Jealuves oJ lIe Yi
dnasl
vas ils
capacil
Jov
navginaI veadjuslnenl
and veJovn.
TIvougI-
oul lIe Yi
dnasl
lIe
govevnnenl deveIoped
sevevaI
lpes
oJ inslilu-
lions Jov
coIIecling
vevenue and
dislviIuling
lax Iuvdens
anong
lIe
pop-
uIalion. TIe
oIjeclives
oJ lIese
sslens
veve sevevaI lo naxinize lIe
vevenues oJ lIe
slale,
lo nainlain lIe
pviviIeged posilion
oJ lIe
ang-
Ian
avislocvac,
and
given
lIe aIove
condilions,
lo nainlain as Jaiv a
sslen
oJ lax dislviIulion as
possiIIe
and ensuve lIal lIe suIsislence
oJ lIe connon
peasanl
vouId Ie
guavanleed againsl
exlvenes oJ
Iungev
and
depvivalion.
TIese
oIjeclives
veve
conlvadiclov
and couId nol aI-
vas
Ie nainlained.
Maxinizing
slale vevenues neanl
incveasing
lIe
Iuvdens on lIe
laxpaevs. Mainlaining
lIe
pviviIeged
lax
posilion
oJ lIe
angIan
neanl a navvov lax Iase and
incveasing
Iuvdens on lIe
peas-
anlv. Ensuving
Jaiv dislviIulion oJ laxalion neanl
veIieving
laxalion on
lIe
peasanl
al lIe
expense
oJ eilIev lIe
angIan
cIass ov slale veve-
nues.
Oiven lIe
ovevvIeIning povev
and inJIuence oJ lIe slale and lIe
angIan cIass,
lIe
genevaI lendenc
oJ
cIange
in lIe aIove inslilulions
vas lovavd an incvease in lIe lax
exenplions
Jov lIe
pviviIeged,
a nav-
voving
oJ lIe lax
Iase,
and a vise in lIe Iuvden on lIe connonev and
peasanl.
TIe slale in lIe neanvIiIe Iad lo
slvuggIe
lo nainlain ils in-
cone. TIis
pvocess
vas nol
sinpI
one oJ
slvaigIl-Iine
deleviovalion.
TIe
Iislov
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl
is one oJ conslanl
slvuggIe
on lIe
pavl
oJ
lIe
govevnnenl,
oJJiciaIs,
and scIoIavs lo conIal
sIvinIing vevenues,
a
navvoving
lax Iase
|via iIIegaI exenplions),
and incveased Iuvdens
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 13
on lIe
peasanlv |lIvougI covvuplion I
oJJiciaIs and
pell
Junclion-
avies),
Iul lIe eJJovls lo cIecI lIese lendencies veve nol navIed
I
oulslanding
success. Il vas
vivluaII inpossiIIe
Jov lIe slale lo
acIieve lIe
oplinun
in
an
oJ lIese cvilevia. TIe naxinizalion oJ slale
vevenue vas Iindeved
I
lIe
supevJiciaIil
oJ
govevnnenl
conlvoI al lIe
IocaI IeveI and lIe lension Ielveen
vepvesenlalives
oJ lIe cenlvaI
gov-
evnnenl and lIose on lIe IocaI scene
-
lIe
cIevIs,
lIe
angIan,
and lIe
povevJuI
Iouses. TIe IallIe
againsl
excessive and
iIIegaI
lax
exenp-
lions Jov lIe
pviviIeged
cIasses Iad lo Ie
vaged I nagislvales
vilI
sIovl lenuve on lIe IocaI scene
againsl
lIe
pell
Junclionavies and Io-
caI
angIan.
TIe
pell
Junclionavies veve sIiIIed in adninislvalive
suIlevJuge.
Because
lIe
veve nol
pvovided
vilI saIavies
lIe sougIl
IviIes Jvon lIe
veaIlI
and
inJIuenliaI,
in veluvn Jov vIicI
lIe
JaIsi-
Jied Iand
vegislevs
and lax voslevs.
B
lIe sane loIen
lIe
veve aIIe lo
sIiJl lIe lax Iuvdens onlo lIe
peasanlv
sonelines vilI lIe aid and
suppovl
oJ lIe
nagislvale
IinseIJ. TIe Iesl lIe slale vas aIIe lo do
vas lo nainlain IeveIs oJ
govevnnenl
conlvoI and lax dislviIulion on lIe
Iave
navgins
oJ
slaIiIil
and
secuvil. CevlainI
in lIe Iasl IaIJ oJ lIe
dnasl,
lIe
govevnnenl
vas
conlinuaII pevcIed
on lIe
edge
oJ insoI-
venc
and lIe
peasanlv
on lIe
edge
oJ
povevl,
slavvalion,
and even
veIeIIion.
TIeve ave sevevaI veasons
vI
lIe slale vas aIIe lo nainlain ilseIJ
on lIe
navgin
oJ
viaIiIil.
TIe
sslen
oJ cIecIs and counlevcIecIs
I
vIicI
govevnnenl
and
sociel
vas consliluled aIso
IeIped
lo
Ieep
lIe
deleviovalion oJ
govevnnenl
inslilulions vilIin Iinils. TIe
govevnnenl
Iad cevlain
pevnanenl
and
ongoing lecIniques
Jov
slenning covvuplion.
Move
inpovlanlI,
il vas aIIe lo naIe
peviodic
inslilulionaI veJovns lo
aIIeviale
pavlicuIavI
Iad silualions and
pvevenl
lIe dovnJaII oJ lIe
dnasl.
TIeve veve slandavd
vas
in vIicI lIe
govevnnenl
and ils oJJiciaIs
slvuggIed
lo acIieve Iasic
oIjeclives
and eIininale
covvuplion.
TIese
slandavd neans veve nol
enougI
lo
pvevenl slead decIine,
Iul
lIe
veve suJJicienl lo sIov lIal decIine
considevaII
unliI nove dvaslic
inslilulionaI veJovn vouId Ie
vequived.
TIe Jivsl oJ lIese
lecIniques
vas Iased on lIe ConJucian nolion lIal nan is
uIlinaleI vesponsiIIe
Jov eilIev
good
ov Iad
govevnnenl
iJ nen ave
novaI, govevnnenl
viII Ie
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14
Janes
B. FaIais
good,
and iJ
govevnnenl
is
Iad,
lIen il is Iecause nen ave Iad. ConJu-
cian
lIeov, Iovevev,
IoIds oul lIe
pvonise
oJ
convevling
Iad nen lo
good sinpI
Iecause
lIe
ave Iovn
good.
Man is lIus
novaII pevJecl-
iIIe,
and lIeve is
aIvas
lIe
possiIiIil
oJ
vesloving good govevnnenl
no nallev Iov
depvessing
lIe silualion. ConJucian
lIeov
aIso
pve-
scviIed
lecIniques
and nelIods Jov
acconpIisIing
lIis.
TIe
peopIe
ave IiIe cIiIdven vIo can Ie
suIjecled
lo
pavenlaI
in-
JIuence and novaI
guidance.
IJ lIe
Iing
sels IinseIJ
up
as a nodeI oJ
vivluous
IeIaviov,
lIe
peopIe
viII enuIale lIal IeIaviov and veluvn lo
vivlue. TIe
Iing
is aIso
oIIiged
lo seeI oul nen oJ
vepulalion
Jov novaI-
il
lo assisl Iin in
govevnnenl.
IJ Ie Jinds vivluous nen lo
appoinl
lo
oJJice as
nagislvales
and as advisevs lo lIe
lIvone, lIe
viII
vepIace
lIe eviI and
covvupl
individuaIs
vesponsiIIe
Jov
oppvession
and luvnoiI.
TIe
Iing
sIouId aIso sel Iis nind lo lIe
slud
oJ lIe ConJucian canon
and lIe incuIcalion oJ ConJucian
pvincipIes
oJ
novaIil
lIal Ie
nigIl
Iellev Ie aIIe lo acl as a nodeI Jov lIe
peopIe.
TIvougIoul
lIe
Iislov
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl,
lIese
avgunenls
Jovned
lIe Iasis Jov Iundveds oJ nenoviaIs Jov veJovn oJ
univevsaII
acInov-
Iedged
Iad silualions. OJJiciaIs
conslanlI
IeseecIed lIe
Iing
lo allend
lIe
voaI
Iecluves nove
JvequenlI,
and lo sunnon scIoIavs oJ
vepule
Jvon lIeiv velivenenl in lIe
counlvside
lo Iecone
daiI
Iecluvevs and
veguIav
oJJiciaIs. BeJovn-ninded oJJiciaIs
uvged
lIe
Iing
lo ensuve lIe
Jaiv adninislvalion oJ lIe exaninalion
sslen
and nainlain lIe vecon-
nendalion
pvocess
Jov oJJiciaIs al lIe Minislvies oJ FevsonneI and Wav.
TIe
denanded lIe disnissaI oJ
covvupl
oJJiciaIs and lIe
pvonolion
oJ
educalion
lIvougIoul
lIe veaIn lo counlevacl Ielevodox and innovaI
doclvines.
TIe
asIed lIe
Iing
lo
guide
lIe
peopIe
lo covvecl IeIaviov
I selling
an
exanpIe
oJ JiIiaI
piel, JvugaIil,
and olIev vivlues and
I
exIovling
lIe
peopIe
lo JoIIov lIe
palI
oJ
vigIleousness.
Buving an pe-
viod oJ
cvisis,
aII oJ lIese veconnendalions
vouId Ie
pvessed
on lIe
Iing,
and Ie vouId
usuaII
adIeve lo aII oJ lIen.
TIe
veve nol
lolaII
vilIoul eJJecl. TIe educalionaI and exaninalion
sslens
nainlained a
conslanl IeveI oJ novaI indoclvinalion, pvovided
a
slead
JIov oJ educa-
led nen
|nan
vilI
aIiIil
and novaI slandavds),
and
pvevenled
lIe con-
pIele
deleviovalion oJ lIe
Iuveaucvac.
ConJucian novaI
injunclions
aIso
pvovided
sone Iunanilavian
nodiJicalion oJ lIe
sevevil
oJ slale Iav.
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea 15
NevevlIeIess, onI
lIe nosl ideaIislic oJ
ideoIogues veaII
JeIl lIal
lIese neasuves aIone vouId Ie suJJicienl lo cIecI lIe eviIs lIal IeJeII
lIe
slale,
Iul lIe
lendenc
lo
enpIasize
lIe voIe oJ nan as lIe uIlinale
delevninanl oJ success ov JaiIuve
IeIped
lo inIiIil lIe
polenliaI
Jov in-
slilulionaI
cIange.
Coevcion, Jovce,
and
punisInenl
veve aIso oJl-used
lecIniques
Jov
lIe nainlenance oJ ovdev and
good govevnnenl.
TIe se IJ
-vigIleous
con-
nilnenl lo vivlue and
novaIil ivonicaII
seened lo
pvovide inpelus
Jov
lIe
angv
delevninalion lo eIininale and exlevninale eviI.
Bespile
lIe
gveal
vevIaI veIiance on novaI
suasion,
lIe ConJucian-educaled oJJiciaI
JvequenlI
sav
punisInenl
and execulion as lIe neans oJ
eIininaling
covvuplion,
Iul lIis allilude aIso inIiIiled eJJovls Jov inslilulionaI ve-
Jovn. As
Iong
as nen
lIougIl
lIal seveve
punisInenls
couId
vecliJ
lIe
IveaIdovn oJ Iavs and
sslens lIe
vouId see IillIe need Jov
cIanging
lIose
sslens.
TIe use oJ
punisInenl
vas aIso
conpIenenlav
lo lIe
ConJucian seavcI Jov laIenled
nen:
lIe
covvupl nagislvale
vouId Ie dis-
nissed, exiIed,
ov
execuled,
and in Iis
pIace
lIe Ionesl and vivluous
vouId Ie
appoinled.
TIus,
anolIev
inpovlanl lecInique
Jov lIe nain-
lenance oJ inslilulions vas lIe
vigovous
use oJ conlvoI
lIvougI
invesli-
galion
and
punisInenl.
TIe
Ieav
veIiance on novaI exIovlalion and seveve
punisInenl
neanl lIal oId Iavs
usuaII
vouId Ie IeJl on lIe slalule IooIs
Iong
aJ-
lev
lIe
Iad
gone
oul oJ
pvaclice.
Accounl
IooIs, Iedgevs,
and oJJiciaI
vepovls
vouId Ie JaIsiJied ov
adjusled
lo
disguise
lIe veaI silualion and
naIe il
acceplaIIe
lo lIe aulIovilies in levns oJ
slalulov vequivenenls.
IJ discoveved in lIe acl oJ JaIsiJicalion,
oJJiciaIs vouId sliII Ie
pun-
isIed,
and edicls vouId Ie issued
I
lIe lIvone
conslanlI
veilevaling
oId connands and
denanding conpIiance.
TIis vas nol lIe
onI vesponse,
Iovevev. In
nan
cases,
ovev a
pe-
viod oJ line lIe
govevnnenl
vouId cone lo
gvanl
de Jaclo
vecognilion
oJ
nev silualions even
lIougI
lIe Iavs vouId venain
uncIanged.
TIis
poinl
is cvuciaI Jov
undevslanding
lIe
aIiIil
oJ lIe Yi
dnasl
Jov ninov
and
navginaI veadjuslnenl
and veJovn. TIis vovIed in lvo
vas.
In
one,
lIe
Iing
vouId exevcise Iis
pvevogalive
lo
gvanl exenplions
ov
pavdons
Jvon lIe exacl
inpIenenlalion
oJ
pasl decvees,
as in lIe case oJ lIe
Iand lax
sslen
vIeve lax
exenplions
veve
conslanlI gvanled
Jov ve-
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16
Janes
B. FaIais
povledI
uncuIlivaled Iand ov Jov
dvougIls
and JIoods. Il is seen aIso in
lIe
gvain-Ioan sslen
vilI lIe
Jvequenl gvanling
oJ
voaI pevnission
lo
vvile oJJ oId deIls lIal couId no
Iongev
Ie
coIIecled,
ov Jov lIe veJund-
ing
oJ Ioan Junds lIal veve sliII cavvied on
gvanav Iedgevs
Iul no
Iongev
sloved in lIe vaveIouses lIenseIves. Il vas lIis use oJ lIe
voaI pav-
don lIal veduced lIe
sevevil
oJ
punisInenl
and
JvequenlI niligaled
lIe
oppvessiveness
oJ
govevnnenl.
In lIe second
va,
lIe
Iing
and
govevn-
nenl vouId
sinpI jusl
cease lo condenn
pvaclices
lIal veve
cIeavI
conlvav
lo Iav. Inslead de Jaclo
vecognilion
vouId Ie
gvanled
and nev
pvaclices
vouId Iecone
pavl
oJ lIe
IegaI sslen.
Inslead oJ
seeIing
lolaI soIulions lo
pvoIIens,
lIe Yi
dnasl gov-
evnnenl
pveJevved
lo deaI vilI
pvoIIens
on an ad Ioc Iasis. TIis
pvoce-
duve vas easiev lIan vIoIe-scaIe veJovn Iecause il
pvoduced
Iess con-
lvovevs. AIlIougI
lension ov lvouIIe vas veIieved
I
lIis neans il
vas
puvcIased
al a
pvice.
TIe Juluve vas sacviJiced lo lIe
pvesenl,
and
caveJuII pvepaved
and
pIanned
nalionaI
pvogvans
veve sacviJiced in
Javov oJ a
palcIvovI
oJ soIulions and
pvaclices.
TIe conJusion and IacI
oJ
uniJovnil
nade il
vev
diJJicuIl lo Jvane veJovn neasuves al lIe
capi-
laI al lIose Jev lines in lIe
dnasl's Iislov
vIen
najov
veJovns veve
Jound unavoidaIIe.
TIese vavious
lecIniques
-
lIe
enpIasis
on educalion and lIe se-
Ieclion oJ
good oJJiciaIs,
lIe veIiance on
conlvoI, suvveiIIance,
and
pun-
isInenl,
and lIe
vecognilion
and loIevalion oJ de Jaclo dislovlions ov
pvescviIed pvoceduves
-
veve nol
enougI I
lIenseIves lo
guavanlee
lIe
slaIiIil
oJ lIe slale. Il Ias
aIvead
Ieen
poinled
oul lIal lIeiv nel eJ-
Jecl vas lo inIiIil
najov veJovn,
lo
poslpone
aclion and lo acIieve len-
povav
veIieJ al lIe
pvice
oJ
gvealev
diJJicuIlies in lIe Juluve. Al sevevaI
poinls lIvougIoul
lIe Yi
dnasl
lIese neasuves JaiIed lo
pvovide
suJJi-
cienl ansvevs. Al sucI
lines, Iing
and oJJiciaIs aIiIe veve nove
pvone
lo seeI soIulions in levns oJ inslilulionaI
cIange
and veJovn. Bul even
vIen sucI veJovns veve
acconpIisIed lIe
veve nol vadicaI in naluve.
OJlen
lIe, loo,
veve
pavliaI
ov
pieceneaI
in lIeiv
appIicalion,
and lIe
soIulions
lIe pvovided
veve nol lolaI.
TIe
did nol
pvoduce oplinun
silualions,
Iul
navginaI
ones.
TIe
sIiJled lIe IaIance Jvon
appvoacI-
ing
disaslev lo neve
viaIiIil
ov lIe
pvesevvalion
oJ
navginaI eJJicienc
and
juslice.
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SlaIiIil
in Y i
Bnasl
Kovea
17
TIeve ave sevevaI iIIuslvalions oJ lIis. TIe
laedong
veJovn oJ lIe
lviIule lax
sslen
in lIe sevenleenlI
cenluv
looI one Iundved
eavs
IeJove il vas
JuII appIied lIvougIoul
lIe
counlv.
Il vas
Iegun
on an
expevinenlaI
and
pieceneaI
Iasis and lIen
appIied
Jvon one
pvovince
lo
anolIev. TIe
IunI
ov
equaI
IaIov sevvice veJovn oJ 1750 vas a
conpvonise
neasuve
invoIving
lIe veduclion oJ lIe
niIilav
lax vale and
lIe inilialion oJ
speciaI
nev laxes valIev lIan a vIoIesaIe veJovn neas-
uve. TIe
viIIage
cIolI and IouseIoId cIolI lax veJovns oJ 1864 and
1871 indicale lIal vavious Iinds oJ
pvoceduves
veve lvied in diJJevenl
pIaces*
OId
vas
veve loIevaled al lIe sane line lIal nev
sslens
veve insliluled. TIe veJovn oJ lIe
gvain-Ioan sslen
in lIe 1860s and
1870s veveaIs lIe sane
pallevn.
ConcIusion
TIe concIusion lo Ie dvavn Jvon lIe
descviplion
oJ
equiIiIviun
len-
sion and
navginaI adjuslnenl
is lIal
I
lIese devices lIe Yi
dnasl
govevnnenl
vas aIIe lo nainlain
slaIiIil
and
Iongevil,
and in levns oJ
ils ovn
oIjeclives,
il vas
JaivI
successJuI. Il desived lo
pvesevve
Iav-
non, ovdev,
sociaI
pviviIege,
vevenues Jov lIe
slale,
and suIsislence
Jov lIe
peopIe.
Il vas nol inlevesled in sociaI
equaIil,
Jveedon oJ lIe
individuaI,
lolaI dedicalion lo slale veaIlI and
povev,
econonic aJJIu-
ence, IeigIlened consunplion,
and vaised
Iiving
slandavds.
TIeve Ias Ieen a
lendenc
in vecenl
eavs
lo issue IIanIel conden-
nalions oJ Yi
dnasl
Ieadevs and oJJiciaIs oJ lIe Iale nineleenlI cen-
luv. TIe
Iave Ieen
vegavded
vilI
conlenpl
Jov
covvuplion,
IacI oJ
palviolisn,
and JaiIuve lo laIe neasuves lo
pvesevve
lIe
counlv
Jvon
suIjugalion.
TIis seens
ovevI
IavsI.
Bespile
lIe nodiJicalions in
govevnnenl
slvucluve and nev inJIuen-
ces Jvon lIe Wesl lIal
inpinged upon
Kovea aJlev
1876,
Kovean oJJiciaIs
veve sliII
caplives
oJ lIe
lvadilions,
nelIods oJ
pvoceduve,
and nodes
oJ
lIougIl
lIal Iad Ieen
deveIoped
al Ieasl Jov Jive Iundved
eavs.
TIe
pvine
vivlue oJ Yi
dnasl govevnnenl
vas ils
aIiIil
lo naIe snaII ad-
juslnenls.
Il Iad nol Ieen aIIe lo naIe
vapid adaplalions.
TIe
lvaged
oJ lIe silualion vas lIal
onI vapid cIange
and lvansJovnalion vouId
Iave
pvovided an
cIance Jov lIe
pvesevvalion
oJ lIe Kovean slale in lIe
Jace oJ nev civcunslances aJlev 1876.
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18
Janes
B. FaIais
One JinaI vovd is in ovdev aIoul lIe
appIicaIiIil
oJ lIese
IpolIe-
ses lo
posl-1945
Kovea, Il vouId Ie oIvious lIal lIe
pIenonena
oJ
equiIiIviun sslens
and
navginaI adjuslnenl
veve
IavgeI pvoducls
oJ
sociaI
slvucluve, ideoIog,
and inslilulions. AII oJ lIese Iave
cIanged
vadicaII
since 1910. TIeve
na
Ie
pviviIeged
eIiles
loda
in IolI NovlI
and SoulI
Kovea,
Iul
lIe
ave nol a
angIan
eIile. ConJucian ideas ve-
nain as
vesliges
in a nodevn vovId oJ nev ideas and nev educalionaI
slandavds. Buveaucvals ave vecvuiled
diJJevenlI
and
opevale accovding
lo diJJevenl slandavds. TIe
conJiguvalions
Jovned
I
individuaIs and
gvoups
in seavcI oJ
poIilicaI povev
ave diJJevenl. IJ lIeve ave cIecIs
and IaIances in lIe nev
sslens,
iJ lIeve is a
pvocIivil
lo
navginaI
adjuslnenl
conducive lo
Iong-levn slaIiIil,
il is due lo a nev
conpIex
oJ Jovces lIal nusl Ie descviIed in lIeiv ovn levns.
TIis
papev
is a vevised vevsion oJ lIe one
pvesenled
al lIe conJevence on
Tvadilion and
CIange
in Kovea
|SeouI, SeplenIev 1, 1969),
and
puIIisIed
in
Kovean in
Kov laeIaIIo,
Asea
nunje n'guso, Han'guI n'gusiI, ed.,
H
an'guI
i
cInl'ong
Iva
pncI'n |SeouI, 1973), pp.
283-300. Fov sone
slviIingI pavaIIeI
vievs on lIe
CI'ing dnasl,
see TIonas A.
Melzgev,
TIe
inlevnaI
Ovganizalion oJ CI'ing Buveaucvac |CanIvidge
Havvavd
Univevsil
Fvess, 1973), pp.
53-61,
81-88.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions