Many, if not most modern authors show a remarkable level of influence from ancient writings and ideas.

This may be evident in character development, plot line, or the underlying message of the story. C.S. Lewis is widely regarded as an influential writer of the 20th century, with 50 or so works published in more than 30 languages. It is generally acknowledged that he draws heavily from Christian motifs and theology when writing his books, for example, in his (arguably best-known) works, the Chronicles of Narnia (Como 1994). For example, in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe the deity-like figure, Aslan, acts on behalf of his father, the unseen Emperor-Beyond-the-Sea, and in addition gives his life to ransom an unworthy character, Edmund, from a certain death (Lewis 1970a). However, it is certain that New Testament inspirations were not the only ones to affect Lewis writings; in fact, a much older set of stories and ideas show influence. These are the Greek mythological stories, and their underlying themes. This paper seeks to further explore this possibility by investigating the Classical Traditions of Greek mythology, as found in C.S. Lewis The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe.

The Wardrobe and Narnia When the reader first enters the land of Narnia along with Lucy Pevensie, the first creature she meets is the faun Tumnus. Described as half goat and half man, he is recognizable as a satyr. However, since Lewis adheres to his own strict guidelines for childrens literature, the satyr is not revealed in the true Greek sense of uncontrolled, overtly sexual behaviour (Campbell and Jackson 2007). As the story progresses, other inhabitants of Narnia are introduced, including talking animals, and various creatures arising from Greek mythology: nymphs and tree-spirits, the Pegasus, centaurs, giants, dwarfs and minotaurs, and most interestingly the god Bacchus.

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In a specific example, Tumnus explains to Lucy the wonder of Narnia before the White Witch assumed power: ... summer when the woods were green and old Silenus on his fat donkey would come to visit them, and sometimes Bacchus himself, and then the streams would run with wine instead of water and the whole forest would give itself up to jollification for weeks on end. (Lewis 1970, 13). Bacchus, of course, is better known as Dionysus, the Greek god of wine (further identified by his friend Silenus the drunkard). Lewis presents him as a young river god, turning water into wine and followed by a dancing band of female tree-spirits: his Maenads. In Greek myths, the wildness and revelry of these Maenads is especially described by Euripides in his Bacchae (Woodruff 1998). Finally, in two sequels to the book considered here: Prince Caspian, and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, events mirror closely Homers Iliad and Odyssey, respectively. Was Lewis aware of the Greek influences on his books? Certainly. As a young boy he was keenly interested in reading Greek, Irish and Norse mythologies, and as an adult translated for himself a nearly complete rendition of the Aeneid (Nelson 2002). However, as will be revealed, the classical influences and parallels run much deeper than simply borrowing characters.

The White Witch and her Power The second Narnian encountered is the White Witch (Jadis), discovered by Lucys brother, Edmund. The Witch is the malevolent deity, contrasted with the good Aslan and, as observed by Jean Graham in her article, notably similar to the Greek goddess Circe. In fact, she reports that Lewis himself admits that the Jadis is of course Circe (2004).

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Like Circe, the Witch is beautiful and ageless, and in possession of considerable power. This manifests through the use of her wand and enchanted food by both. In The Odyssey, when his expedition brings the hero to the island of Aiaia in search of food, some of his men are drawn in by Circes beautiful singing and welcoming home. Navely trusting her, succumbing to the potion lacing their drinks, and under her power they forget their own country (Lattimore 1965, 10.220-36). Similarly, Edmund is invited to ride in the comfortable sledge of the White Witch, and offered delicious enchanted food. Through his desire for more of the Turkish delight, he forgets what he ought to do, and offers to betray his only link to home, his brother and sisters (Lewis 1970a). Circe is also in possession of a powerful golden wand, which she uses to put men completely under her control by turning them bodily into pigs (Lattimore 1965, 10.261-63). Jadis uses a wand, allowing her to turn living creatures into stone statures (Lewis 1970a, 111-113). Both women use their wand, to incapacitate potential threats, usually male. Another quality shared by the Witch and Circe is their employment of deception to attain what they want. Both keep a tidy and welcoming outer appearance. The Witch promises that Edmund will be made her prince (34), but in fact has no intention of sharing her power. Like Circe, the White Witch has no power over the hero of the story, unless he allows it. Odysseus, supplied by Hermes with the antidote for Circes potion is able to withstand her, while Mr. Beaver exclaims of the Witch, If she can stand on her two feet and look him in the face itl l be the most she can do... (74).

In Lewis Narnia, the idea of a grown-up woman with power is presented as dangerous and even unnatural. Although, in contrast, the younger girls are innocent and tom-boyish and have

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adventures, Graham notes that following transition to womanhood, their nature is assumed to change (2004). Women in general are presented as deceptive in Greek mythology: summarizing the mindset of his era, Hesiod in his Works and Days recounts the creation of the first woman, Pandora. As punishment to mankind for stealing back fire, she is fashioned under Zeus orders. Although she is as beautiful as an immortal goddess, ... the quicksilver messenger [Hermes] put in her breast Lies and wheedling words and a cheating heart, Just like rumbling Zeus wanted. (Lombardo 1993, 96-99) Pandora, and her descendents (mortal women) only bring trouble, and therefore the suppression of the role of the female in religion and society is a theme heavily underlined in greek myths. In many cases, hypothetical situations are described, where a woman was given power and it led to some great calamity. Their conclusion was that absolute authority is a distinctly male characteristic and property. It is not coincidence, therefore that the female Witch uses the phallic symbol of the wand to assert her authority (Graham 2004). She is not the rightful ruler, in fact she is an usurper, intruding from a different world, as is recounted in The Magicians Nephew (Lewis 1970b). She may only be Queen of Narnia up until the time when the male ruler returns.

The Lion and his Return The Lion, in contrast to the Witch, is the rightful King of Narnia, as son of the Emperor. However, the White Witch, seizing opportunity in his extended, unexplained absence, holds all the land in the grips of winter. Here she is reminiscent of the Titan Uranus (Lombardo Theogony 1993, 158), holding the world back from progressing toward happiness and spring. As Mr.

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Beaver remarks, it is always winter and never Christmas (Lewis 1970a, 102). Thus, one of the first signs of her diminishing power is the return of Father Christmas, followed by real spring (115). Also congruent with the portrayal of the Witch as Uranus, this conflict can only be resolved by further violent struggle which ironically includes breaking her wand, her symbol of masculinity. In both Aslans situation and nature, we see reflections of ancient Greek heroes, such as Odysseus. Like Odysseus, he is returning home after a long absence, and must resolve the conflicts he finds there. Aslan is an hero of intelligence as well as strength outwitting the Witch through the use of his more extensive knowledge about the Deep Magic (Campbell and Jackson 2007), also deceiving her by pretending he knows nothing (Holbrook 1991). Both Odysseus and Aslan prove their heroic nature by embarking on journeys to the land of the dead, and returning safely in a way which no one has done before. Odysseus does so by sailing down the Styx (Lattimore 1965, 11.1-640), in order to gain information, while Aslan does so by submitting to be killed on a behalf of a guilty one, and so overthrows death itself.

Back to the Wardrobe: Good, Evil, and the Fates In examining the creatures of Narnia, one finds shallowness in the tendency to relate outward appearance to their inward natures. The noble beasts are beautiful and good, and side with Aslan: eagles, lions, leopards, stags, centaurs, fauns and satyrs, dogs, beavers, unicorns and treenymphs (Lewis 1970a, 166). In contrast, the White Witch is surrounded by the deformed, the primitive, and the ugly: ogres, wolves, apes, giants, spectres, hags, were-wolves, incubuses, vultures, efreets, dwarfs, minotaurs and the spirits of poisonous plants (148-54). Her army is

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described as a crowd of horrible creatures ... in the daylight, they looked even stranger and more evil and more deformed (173, emphasis mine). This theme is very greek in origin. For example, the Olympian gods are stunningly beautiful, but the Cyclopes with their deformity are seen as primitive and slow-witted. In addition, many of the greek heroes must face beings monstrous in appearance and behaviour, such as the Medusa, the Cyclopes, Scylla and Charybdis, the Sphinx, Typhaon and the Minotaur. The only fate for these monsters is to be killed, and so prove the heroic nature of the champion (Lombardo Theogony 1993). Narnia is ultimately governed by a force greater than both Aslan and the Witch, namely Fate. These are reminiscent of Greek mythology: the Fates are children of Zeus (Lombardo Theogony 1993), but their decisions are unchangeable and unavoidable even by the gods. The Fates are revealed by the gods in the form of prophesies and oracles, for example the famed Pythia of Apollo (Bushnell 1988). A great contrast of human response to prophesy is found in Homers Iliad, shown through two characters who receive a the same message. First, in an exchange, Achilles horse Xanthus speaks and prophesies of Achilles impending death, at the hand of a great god and your powerful destiny. To this the hero responds: Xanthus, why do you prophesy my death? There is no need I know very well myself that it is my destiny to die here, far from my dear father and mother; but for all that I shall not hold back until I have driven the Trojans to eat their fill of war. (Verity 2011, 19.420-423) Here, we see a calm acceptance of fate and the resolve to make the best of it. However, this is unusual, as a general theme of greek tragedies involves futile struggling of humans to escape the

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fate they have discovered. Another hero of the Iliad, Hector, also receives warnings that he will soon die (6.487-89). However, he purposefully misinterprets them to himself, unwilling to accept the idea of his own death, until he is confronted with it at Achilles hands (Bushnell 1988, 2728). In Narnia, there are two separate prophesies mentioned. Both speak of the beginning of an end to the Witchs reign, following (a) the return of Aslan, and (b) the crowning of two kings and two queens (sons of Adam and daughters of Eve, respectively) at Cair Paraval. At first, the second prophesy seems impossible, as Edmunds betrayal seems to lead to certain death. However, the followers of Aslan hold steadfastly to the prophesies of his return, expecting that they will come true. The White Witch, like Hector, denies her approaching ruin and fights to the end to avoid her fate, until she is confronted with the risen Aslan. In that last moment, her face turns towards him for one second with an expression of terror and amazement, and it is all over (Lewis 1970a, 174).

The second manifestation of fate is in the Deep Magic, laws set in place at the beginning of time by the Emperor-Beyond-the-Sea. When Edmund betrays his brother and sisters to the Witch, his deception means that he becomes lawful property of the Witch. She comes into Aslans camp, triumphantly stating: ...every traitor belongs to me ... his life is forfeit... Through this she means to prevent the four thrones from being filled. When Aslans people protest, she argues that unless she has blood as the Law says all Narnia will be overturned and perish in fire and water (Lewis 1970a, 139-41). However, the deep magic states that an someone one can die in the guilty ones place, which Aslan ultimately does. Unknown to the witch, there is even deeper magic (from before the dawn

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of time) that when an innocent one dies willingly in these circumstances, death cannot hold them and will begin to work backwards. This leads to the demise of the Witch, when she is surprised by the return of the living Aslan (174).

In conclusion, we note that Lewis work, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, although a childrens novel, contain many literary themes adapted from Greek and Christian stories. Although in most studies of the book reference is usually attributed (quite appropriately) to the Christian aspects of Aslan and Narnia, the essayist believes that the picture is not understood in maximum possible depth unless the Greek influences are also accounted for. Indeed, C.S. Lewis works joins the ranks of the many influential western literature inspired deeply by the classical tradition.

...what do they teach them at these schools? (Lewis 1970a, 186)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Bushnell, Rebecca. Prophesying Tragedy: Signs and Voice in Sophocles Theban Plays. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. Campbell, Ethan, and Robert Jackson. Good, not safe: Structure vs. Chaos in Narnia and the Writing Workshop. Mythlore 26, no. 99-100 (2007): 41-62. Como, James. Mere Lewis. The Wilson Quarterly 18, no. 2 (1994): 109-117. Euripides, Bacchae. Translated by Paul Woodruff. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1998. Graham, Jean. Women, Sex, and Power: Circe and Lilith in Narnia." Childrens Literature Association Quarterly 29, no. 1-2 (2004): 32-44. Hesiod, Works and Days and Theogony. Translated by Stanley Lombardo. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1993. Holbrook, David. The Skeleton in the Wardrobe. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1991. Homer, The Iliad. Translated by Anthony Verity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Homer, The Odyssey. Translated by Richmond Lattimore. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Lewis, C.S. The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. New York: Macmillian Publishing, 1970a. Lewis, C.S. The Magicians Nephew. New York: Macmillian Publishing, 1970b. Nelson, Michael. The Gospel according to Lewis. The American Prospect 14, no. 4 (2002): 29-32.

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