Vermeer Jim Hutchins 1

CONTINUOUS SURFACE MINING
THE CRUSHING ALTERNATIVE

Author: J im Hutchins, PhD
Applications Engineer, Vermeer
Track Group Specialty Excavation

1510 Vermeer Road East
Pella, IA 50219

Telephone: +1 641 780 7439
Facsimile: +1 641 621 7505

Email: jhutchins@vermeer.com

CONTINUOUS SURFACE MINING THE CRUSHING ALTERNATIVE
Page 2

2009 Vermeer Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

CONTINUOUS SURFACE MNING
THE CRUSHING ALTERNATIVE

ABSTRACT

Continuous surface mining has the potential to occupy a significant role in open pit mining.
A discussion on the merits of continuous surface mining over conventional drilling and
blasting are presented.

Improvements in technology now allows continuous surface mining of material well above
140MPa efficiently and cost effectively when compared to drilling and blasting / primary
crushing. These improvements include the ability to cut vertical highwalls with square
corners. Precision mining techniques result in high percentage recoveries. The paper
presents several of these techniques for the Vermeer T1255 Terrain Leveler
surface
excavation machine (SEM), and shows their impact.

A detailed parameter study has been conducted into the feasibility of incorporating a built-in
loader in the T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM to load the cut material directly onto haul trucks,

or to deposit the cut material on the floor behind the machine. The material would then be
picked up by a separate loader for hauling to the stockpile. Two different loading techniques
are presented in addition to the built-in loader.

A comprehensive computer program has been developed to investigate the impact of mine
size, production rate, truck size, haul distance, working hours and machine availability on the
costs per ton of product produced. In addition, the number, size and types of loaders and
haulers can be optimized. The paper presents results of a parameter study for limestone (40
80MPa). Mine sizes from two to 14 million tons per year are used in the study.

Page 3

INTRODUCTION

While it is growing in importance, the volume of continuous surface mining is insignificant
when compared to the total open-pit mining industry. Most of the tonnage in open-pit mining is
produced using conventional drill and blast methods, with continuous surface mining relegated
to those mines / quarries where environmental constraints make blasting undesirable or
uneconomical. Many continuous surface mining operations are currently in mines where the
material is quite soft and easy to cut, such as coal, soft limestone and gypsum.

The techniques of drilling and blasting are well known, having been formulated over decades of
trial and error and backed up by extensive analytical work carried out by universities and
engineering firms. To take advantage of economies of scale most of the equipment used is very
large and very expensive. Sufficient operating history has been accumulated to allow
maintenance personnel to schedule down time for repair and maintenance of the equipment on a
regular, timed basis. The drilling and blasting costs per ton are also well defined. But with
increasing regulations and control of explosives throughout the world, these costs can become
hostage to political climates especially in remote and possibly unstable, locations.

The product size obtained from drilling and blasting operations varies widely from huge rock
slabs down to powder. This large size differentiation creates the need for a primary crusher to
reduce the product obtained down to manageable size. The size distribution from different types
of crushers has been sufficiently documented so that curves of size distribution for various
crusher configurations and rock types are available to mine personnel.

Any alternative to drilling and blasting/primary crushing, such as continuous surface mining,
must be shown to be adaptable to current mines / quarries, and competitive in cost per ton of the
product. In some instances, it must also be able to produce a product within certain size-fraction
limitations and chemistries. It is also clear that continuous surface mining methodology needs to
be refined so that the cost per ton of the entire mining, loading, and hauling operation is
optimized.

The goal of this paper is to discuss how new and available technologies can make continuous
surface mining a strategically important component of the total open-pit mining scenario.

STRATEGIC USE OF CONTINUOUS SURFACE MINING

There are several fairly obvious ways to increase the role of continuous surface mining.

Increase mining production in existing mines

In many cases, the infrastructure in a mine / quarry is fully utilized, and any attempt to increase
production to take advantage of spiking spot market prices would take considerable amount of
capital and lead time to install a larger primary crusher. Primary crusher capital costs will often
be in the tens of millions of dollars, with purchase / commissioning times of 2 4 years. Since
continuous surface mining produces a uniform product size with a narrow size fraction, the
primary crusher can be by-passed. One iron ore mine in Western Australia was able to greatly
Page 4

Figure 1. Gypsum deposit interspersed with clay

increase its annual ore production by using two Vermeer T1255 Terrain Leveler
surface
excavation machines (SEM) and four portable crushers. Material from the crushers was
stockpiled using CAT 988 wheel loaders. This increase in mine production was all put in place
within months from the time the equipment order was placed.

Increase available ore

The safety zone for mines which use drilling and blasting mining methods can vary from 100 to
300 meters. In addition, existing conveyors, mine buildings and crushing equipment all can limit
the available ore that can be mined. The shock and vibration from continuous surface mining is
negligible, and therefore the danger zone becomes a non-issue.

Blasting operations can cause a fracture zone on the mine floor that extends well below the
surface. In many mines, the amount of material that can be mined from the floor is limited by
the location of the surrounding water table. Because of the negative consequences of punching
through the mine floor to the water table, often times four to six meters of mineable material is
left at the end of the drilling and blasting operations. The T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM has been

successfully used to remove an additional four meters or more of the mine floor in a mine in
Western Australia that previously have been left behind.

Utilize precision mining

During conventional drilling and blasting operations, there is no control over how the material
fractures and the amount of mixing that occurs during the blast. In some mines / quarries this
mixing would result in unacceptable product quality, and increase the cost per ton of the mined
product to unacceptable levels. This is the case in a gypsum mine in Oklahoma (Figure 1), and
in a copper mine in Africa (Figure 2). As can be seen from Figure 1, the gypsum deposit is
interspersed with clay pockets throughout the mine face. The bands that can be seen in Figure 2
represent different copper content in the ore. Mixing up the ore in both cases would result in a
lower quality product. The ability to exactly control the cutting surface is what makes
continuous surface mining into precision mining.

Figure 2. Copper mine with bands of variable
quality ore
Page 5

Figure 3. Following a coal seam in Eastern
Australia
Figure 4. Vermeer T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM
operating in a limestone mine in Puerto Rico
Other applications of precision mining can be found in
coal mines where the coal is laid down in thin seams
separated by a parting layer. Using a continuous
surface miner, one can differentiate between different
qualities of coal and between coal and the parting.
The operator can adjust the cutting depth of the
surface miner to follow the coal seam along its length.
This prevents unwanted mixing of the different coal
layers or the coal and parting. Figure 3 shows the
T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM following a coal seam

in Eastern Australia.

Precision surface mining also produces a smooth floor
which can help minimize wear and tear on mine trucks
and loaders resulting in significant savings on rubber tires. This can also allow use of off-road
trucks in place of mine trucks in many cases. Figure 1 shows the type of floor that can be
achieved. Using a laser or GPS system to control the digging depth, a one- or two-degree slope
can be imposed on the mine floor to allow drainage towards a sump. This will help to keep the
maximum amount of product free of moisture a longer time than with a horizontal floor, and
alleviate moisture contamination of the fines.

Precision surface mining produces uniform material with a tight particle size distribution from
the start. As will be explained in a later section, top-down cutting allows some degree of control
of product fines and oversize generation (larger than 6 in or 15 cm). Having this small-sized
material produced in a uniform configuration allows the material to be handled much more
efficiently than the product achieved in drilling and blasting (including savings on truck bodies
and excavator buckets). The uniform product size achieved also allows more efficient settings
on secondary and tertiary crushing systems so that savings can continue well past the primary
crushing stage. In one six-month trial in limestone, a 20 percent improvement in throughput was
achieved in a J effries hammer mill, and resident time in a third stage ball mill was greatly
reduced according to the quarry manager. This trial was conducted during the second half of
2005.

NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN CONTINUOUS SURFACE MINING

Vermeer T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM

A photograph of the Vermeer T1255 Terrain
Leveler
SEM is shown in Figure 4. The view

shown is from the rear of the machine. The
following innovations in surface mining
continuous machine design become immediately
apparent.

Stability

The machine is designed to deposit the cut
Page 6

material on the floor behind. This allows the T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM to be built with a low

center of gravity. A low center of gravity helps make the machine more stable, and allows for
safe operation on a wide variety of sloping terrains by reducing the danger of tipping.

Maneuverability

A two track system allows the T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM to be extremely maneuverable.

With the ability to counter-rotate its tracks, the T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM can virtually turn

in its own footprint in less than 30 seconds. This maneuverability allows for cost-effective use
of the machine in small spaces and narrow benches if
necessary.

Rear-mounted drum

A rear-mounted drum minimizes the contact of the cut
material with the machine. The tracks do not pass
over the cut material, thereby keeping the original size
fractions intact. Access to the drum for changing of
picks is quick and easy helping to reduce down
time.

Drum, supported from the center, wider than the
tracks

This feature, together with a rear-mounted drum
allows cutting vertical high walls and square corners.
This can be seen in Figure 5 for a gypsum mine,
where the maximum amount of mineable gypsum was
obtained.

Top-down cutting

The T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM cuts down on the rock floor, as shown in Figure 6. . The

drum is cutting down on the rock face, with the material passing under the drum out the rear of
the machine. The most important benefit of this direct application of force, along with high
weight to engine power ratio of the machine, is that the T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM can cut

harder rock than those machines that cut from the bottom up. The machine is cost effective in
cutting rock in the 125MPa (18,000psi) range, and in some instances has been used to cut
limestone in the 200MPa (29,000psi) range. In these cases, drilling and blasting was not viable.

Top-down cutting minimizes contact of the cut material with the drum, which reduces wear on
the picks and pick holders. It also minimizes any problems with clogging/arching/bridging of
wet, sticky material in the drum while cutting.

Another important aspect of down-cutting that can be seen in Figure 6, is that the drum rotation
is in the same direction as the transport, resulting in little or no slipping of the tracks on wet or
soft surfaces. In bottom-up cutting, the machine has to pull the drum through the cut.

Figure 5. Vertical highwall with square
corners in gypsum quarry
Page 7

Figure 6. Top-down cutting
Top-down cutting allows some variation in the
size fractions obtained during cutting. Since
all of the material passes under the drum, and
the tooth penetration reduces with depth, the
deeper the cut, the smaller the material
achieved. Conversely, larger particles can be
achieved by reducing the digging depth, and
increasing the speed (increased tooth
penetration). This is not to say that we can
dial in a product size in large part the size
fractions obtained are a function of how the
rock is laid into the ground. This is especially
true for rock laid down in thin layers, where
digging depth has little relationship to product
size.

Top-down cutting improves the effect of the cutting force on the rock over that achieved from
bottom-up cutting. This was observed during the initial development phase of the T1255 Terrain
Leveler
SEM, which originally cut up (similar to the rock trenchers that Vermeer has been
manufacturing for over 40 years). Changing from bottom-up to top-down cutting improved the
production rate of the machine by up to 50%.

Realistic mining cost calculations

In order for precision mining to become a viable player
in the surface mining environment, precise calculations
of mining production and cost per ton must be available
for various types of rock with variable rock properties
and abrasiveness.

Vermeer rock mechanics lab

In an effort to obtain pertinent rock property
information, in early 2006 Vermeer established a state-
of-the-art rock mechanics laboratory at its factory in
Pella, Iowa, USA (Figure 7). Using computer
controlled equipment provided by Geotechnical
Consulting & Testing Services, Vermeer has tested rock
from all over the world to build up a database of rock
properties such as unconfined compressive strength
(UCS), indirect tension (Brazilian Test), abrasivity (Cerchar Abrasivity Index) and density. To
date, the lab has processed rock from over 700 different locations, and performed over 1500
UCS, 1600 Brazilian, and 3100 Cerchar abrasivity tests.

Field demonstrations of capability

Determining the rock properties is only part of the picture. Over the past three years, the T1255
Terrain Leveler
SEM has been tested on numerous sites where the instantaneous production
Figure 7. Rock mechanics laboratory
Page 8

rates and pick wear were exactly determined. This has enabled correlation of rock properties
with production rates and abrasivity costs.

Solutions calculator

A computer program has been developed called the Track solutions calculator. The calculator
section of the program (Figure 8) presents results in US and metric units, various world
currencies, and eight different languages.

Data from the rock lab and field demonstrations of capability have been built into this program
so that production rates and abrasivity can be estimated for various rock types. The program
recognizes six different rock hardness categories from <MOSTLY DIRT>to <VERY HARD
ROCK>and nine abrasivity categories from <NOT ABRASIVE>to <EXTREMELY
ABRASIVE>.

The program allows calculation of the total fixed and variable costs per hour of all Vermeer track
machines. These costs include ownership, maintenance and operating costs. As can be seen in
Figure 9, ownership costs are amortized over 30,000 hours. Maintenance costs include engine
rebuilds every 10,000 hours, hydrostatic system rebuilds every 5,000 hours, and wear item costs
per hour (chain, sprockets, gussets). Operating costs include tooth (pick) costs, fuel costs,
machine operator wages, and oil and filter costs per hour. These costs are maintained by the
Vermeer track service department, and correspond as closely as possible to actual costs,
TierIII
ns_
TRUE
11/09/2009
DEPTH OF CUT WIDTH OF CUT TRACTOR SPEED
(cm) (meters) (mtr/min) meters3/hr
(metric
tons/hr)
($/meters3) ($/metric ton)
30 3.7 2.8 190.3 495 $2.58 $0.99
30 3.7 4.1 271.8 707 $1.80 $0.69
30 3.7 4.9 326.2 848 $1.50 $0.58
$ 1,870,015 20,000 $93.50 /hr
MAINTENANCE COSTS
$ 41,280 10,000 $4.13 /hr
$ 178,560 5,300 $33.69 /hr
$135.25 /hr $135.25 /hr
$173.06 /hr
$100.00 /hr $0.14 ($/metric ton) $100.00 /hr
$0.66 120.0 $79.26 /hr
$35.00 /hr $35.00 /hr
$9.45 /hr $9.45 /hr
$223.71 /hr
ONE (1) USD = 1.0000 ($) ENGLISH
LIMESTONE
MOSTLY MEDIUM ROCK
(40-80 MPa)
U
S
A
,

D
O
L
L
A
R
S
TOTAL MAINTENANCE COST
1.0 to 2.0 -ABRASIVE
OPERATING COST
HYDROSTATIC SYSTEM REBUILD REBUILD HOURS
PERCENT
AVAILABILITY
100.0%
2600
DENSITY (kg/m3)
2.60
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
WEAR ITEMS (NO TEETH)
TOOTH COSTS
< INPUT CUSTOMER NAME >
CURRENCY CONVERSION
TOTAL OPERATING COST
USA, DOLLARS
OIL & FILTERS
FUEL COST PER LITER
MACHINE OPERATOR
FUEL USAGE (liters/hr)
OWNERSHIP COST:
HOURS
TRACK SOLUTIONS CALCULATOR
VERSION: 06012009
T1255 TERRAIN LEVELER SEM
ENGINE REBUILD REBUILD HOURS
PRODUCTION
PURCHASE PRICE
$ 490
Note: The costs and
production rates as
calculated by this solutions
calculator are only
estimates. The actual
amounts will vary based
upon your conditions,
maintenance, operator
experience, site preparation
and many other factors.
This is onl y a tool for
estimati ng. The actual
production rates and costs
will vary.
METRIC UNITS
PURCHASE
EXPLANATION OF
TERMS
CURRENCY
MAINTENANCE
ROCK TYPE
MACHINES
RETURN
MATERIAL
ABRASIVITY
LANGUAGE SAVE SCREEN
PRODUCTION COST
COMPARISONS
FINANCING COSTS
START HERE
Figure 8. Calculator section of Track solutions calculator
Page 9

quantities, and replacement hours. All of the cells colored in yellow can be modified by the user
so that actual values currently in effect can be input. In this way the sensitivity of various
parameters on cost per ton can be investigated.

When a material type is chosen, the program calculates a range in possible production rates per
hour. Once this value is calculated, then cost per cubic meter or yard and cost per ton are
calculated using the total fixed and variable costs as described above. Because the range in rock
properties is quite broad, three different production rates are presented. The first and third values
bracket the low and high production rates, and the second value presents what can be expected
on average for that type of rock.

Choosing the abrasivity category will cause the tooth and abrasivity values to be calculated.

It is important to understand that the production and abrasivity values are estimates based upon
laboratory and field demonstrations of capability. The actual values will be different from those
predicted based upon site conditions, maintenance, operator efficiency and many other factors.
The program is only a tool for estimating.

If the cost per ton predictions as presented for one machine by the Solutions Calculator are
competitive with other mining methods, then multiple machines can produce desired production
rates at the same cost per ton.

Loading considerations

In order for continuous surface mining to be a viable mining alternative, the integration of the
new mining method into the total mining, loading, and hauling process also needs to be
investigated. Of particular interest is how the cut product should be loaded onto the hauling
trucks for transport to stockpile locations.

Because of the number of variables involved, a loading comparisons computer program was
developed. The program uses surface miner production and cost information from the track
solutions calculator program, and computes the number of surface miners, loaders and haulers
needed, the total annual costs, and cost per ton for each operation. Input variables include annual
production requirements, surface miner production rate, truck size, loader size and type, haul
distance, shifts, hours, days and weeks of operation, operator labor rate and machine availability
percentages. The total fixed and variable costs for each of the loading and hauling machines
include the cost of ownership, maintenance, and operation in the same manner as for the surface
miner. Idle time and costs are taken into account.

This section uses input from the calculator section of the program for the mining production rates
and costs per ton. The program has an optimization feature which varies the mining hours to
minimize the idle time of the surface miner, and the loading and hauling hours to reduce the
loading and hauling costs to the minimum combined values.

Four different loading techniques are investigated for the Vermeer Terrain Leveler
SEM: 1)
Surface miner with a built-in loader; 2) Surface miner with a separate wheel loader; 3) Surface
Page 10

miner with a separate scraper loader; and 4) Surface miner with a separate Vermeer concept
loader. The output summary screen is shown in Figure 9.

An important fact to realize is that the mining/loading/hauling times are equal for the surface
miner with a built-in loader. When you are not mining, you are not loading or hauling, and vice
versa. An immediately apparent effect of this coupling is that the mining efficiency of a miner
with a built-in loader is dependent upon the amount of time necessary to change trucks. The
miner has to stop mining when a truck is fully loaded. The fully loaded truck needs to be
replaced with an empty truck, and then the miner has to start mining again. This time delay can
be anywhere from 30 seconds to several minutes depending upon the availability of an empty
truck. The overall consequence of this coupling over the course of a day is to reduce the
effective mining production rate of the miner by a factor of the time delay times the number of
truck loads per day.

In addition to the truck-changing delay, mining with a built-in loader limits the loading rate to
that of the effective mining rate. In mostly medium rock, the wheel loader can load a truck much
faster than the miner with a built-in loader can mine and load. This means that a truck is tied up
longer getting loaded with a built-in loader than in the case for a separate loader. A longer
loading time will either cause an increase in the number of trucks necessary, or an increase in the
mining/loading time. This results in an increase in the loading/hauling costs per ton.

Figure 9. Loading comparisons computer program
Loader 2500
TRUE
/hr
13-METER
(CAT 992)
LOADER
2500
16 METER
17 2 $1.68 $ 8,382,102 14 2 $1.25 $ 6,260,154 14 2 $1.25 $ 6,260,154 14 2 $1.25 $ 6,260,154
COSTS INCLUDED WITH MINING 20 1 $0.22 $ 1,123,656 19 1 $0.19 $ 952,520 COSTS INCLUDED WITH HAULING
17 6 $1.09 $ 5,425,863 20 3 $0.76 $ 3,785,038 19 3 $0.75 $ 3,737,245 17 6 $1.44 $ 7,224,682
8 $2.76 $ 13,807,965 6 $2.23 $ 11,168,847 6 $2.19 $ 10,949,919 8 $2.70 $ 13,484,835
$0.53 $ 2,639,117 $0.57 $ 2,858,046 $0.06 $ 323,129
24% 24% 26% 26% 2% 2%
Note: The costs and production rates, as calculated by this solutions calculator, are only estimates. The actual amounts will vary based upon your
conditions, maintenance, operator experience, site preparation and many other factors. This is only a tool for estimating. The actual production rates and
costs will vary.
T1255 TERRAIN
LEVELER SEM with
BUILT-IN LOADER
YEARLY
COSTS
HRS/
DAY
#
MACH
COST
PER TON
#
MACH
HRS/
DAY
VERMEER LOADER
YEARLY
PRODUCTION
(metric
tons/hr)
(metric
tons)
5,000,000
690
(2) COMPARISON
TOTALS
YEARLY
COSTS
COST
PER TON
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.6
COST
PER TON
HRS/
DAY
YEARLY
COSTS
COST
PER TON
WHEEL LOADER
#
MACH
REGULAR HOURS
LABOR RATE
(2)
1.0 to 2.0 -ABRASIVE MOSTLY MEDIUM ROCK (40-80 MPa)
SCRAPER
YEARLY
COSTS
HRS/
DAY
#
MACH
NUMBER SHIFTS
LIMESTONE MINE
100 TON
10
DAYS/WEEK
WEEKS/YEAR
7
52
$35.00
OPERATORS
WORKING
INSTANTANEOUS
PRODUCTION RATE
LOADING COMPARISONS - MINING
HAUL
DISTANCE
(km)
2
4.00
AUSTRALIA, DOLLARS - METRIC UNITS
LABOR
DISTRIBUTION
ADJUSTMENTS
MINING
LOADING
HAULING
SAVE SCREEN
EXPLANATION OF
TERMS
RETURN
OPTIMIZE ON
OPERATORS
CHOOSE
LOAD DIRECT TO TRUCK
CHOOSE CHOOSE
TRUCK SIZE
WHOLE SHIFT
MACHINE
AVAILABILITY
BREAKEVEN DISTANCE
MINING PLAN
Page 11

With a separate loader, the mining time is independent of the loading and hauling time, so both
can be optimized separately.

Finally, it takes a certain amount of the available horsepower to gather and load the cut material
for a miner with a built-in loader. For purposes of the parameter study below, this was set to 40
percent.

Efficient material handling procedures

A parameter study capability was built into the loading comparisons program so that the effect of
variables such as haul distances and miner production rates could be studied. Of particular
interest to Vermeer was to determine the most cost effective method of loading and hauling the
cut material to the final processing location.

Haul distance

The effect of varying hauling distance from the mine face to the stockpile of a limestone mine
Figure 10. Haul distance parameter study results
TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
SHIFTS
HOURS/
DAY
DAYS/
WEEK
WEEKS/
YEAR
2 10 7 50
MINER TRUCK
WHEEL
LOADER
SCRAPER
80% 90% 85% 80%
10.00%
1.0000 America,
WHEEL LOADER
LOADING POWER
One (1) USD =
SCRAPER
LABOR RATE ?35.00
9-METER (CAT 988)
MACHINE AVAILABILITY
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
100 TON
2.4 LIMESTONE
VARIABLE
24 METER
MOSTLY MEDIUM ROCK (40-80 MPa)
PLOT PARAMETERS
ANNUAL MINE
PRODUCTION (tons)
4,000,000
TRUCK SIZE
PRODUCTION RATE (tph)
HAUL DISTANCE (km)
800
EFFECT OF HAUL DISTANCE ON TOTAL COST PER TON
$0.00
$1.00
$2.00
$3.00
0 1 1 2 3 4 5
HAULDISTANCE(km)
C
O
S
T

P
E
R

T
O
N
MINER WITH BUILT-IN
LOADER
MINER WITH WHEEL
LOADER
MINER WITH
SCRAPER LOADER
Page 12

from 0.25 to 5km is shown in Figure 10. The set of bar graphs shows the cost per ton variation
for the different loader types.

From the bar graphs, it can be seen that the cost per ton for all loading/hauling methods increases
with increasing haul distance. In addition, it can be seen that the cost per ton for both of the
miners with separate loaders is well below that of the miner with a built-in loader for all haul
distances shown.

In comparing the performance of the wheel loader vs. the scraper loader, it can be seen that the
scraper loader becomes less efficient as the haul distance increases. This relationship is the
result of the increasing number of scrapers necessary for loading and hauling as haul distance is
increased much beyond a kilometer. When this increase in cost per ton is combined with the
necessity of the scraper to run over the cut material during the loading process, it would appear
as though loading with a scraper loader is only viable for a limited number of cases. For this
reason only the miner with a built-in loader and the miner with a wheel loader are studied further
in this paper.

The parameter study has been carried out for all sizes of trucks, wheel loaders, scrapers, and haul
distances with similar conclusions.

Size of mine

Figure 11 shows the results of increasing mine production from 2 to 14 million tons per year.
Since the total cost of all equipment (ownership, maintenance, and operating costs) is used to
determine the cost per ton, increasing mine production does not result in a dramatic change in
the cost per ton.

The top graph shows a slight increase in cost per ton of the miner with a built-in loader as the
mine production increases. This is caused by the coupling effect between mining, hauling and
loading which prevents individual optimization of the process. This coupling effect is more
dramatically revealed when looking at the bottom set of graphs. For each case, the number of
continuous miners with built-in loaders is considerably greater than that when a separate loader
is used, or the loading hours per day is considerably greater or both.

The trend in cost per ton for a miner using a wheel loader decreases slightly as the mine size
increases. The reason for this is included in the bottom set of bar graphs and curves showing the
effect of mine production on number of miners. The loading hours per day (right hand scale) is
shown to be fairly independent of mine production, even though the number of miners is
increasing.

One important conclusion that can be reached from this parameter study is that the solution to
increasing mine production is increasing the number of surface miners. When the mining is
decoupled from the loading, the cost per ton actually decreases with larger mines. Using
multiple numbers of smaller continuous surface miners provides great flexibility in mine
planning, and also improves overall mine output through increased redundancy of equipment.
Page 13


Production rate

One of the coupling
factors for a miner
with a built-in
loader is that the
loading rate is the
same as the
production rate. It
would seem as
though there would
be a point where
increasing
continuous surface
miner production
rates could
overcome the
coupling effect. If
so, this point could
be where the surface
miner production
capacity reached or
exceeded that of a
wheel loader. In
practice, this could
be the case from
mining in soft
material such as
coal compared to
mining in harder
and harder
limestone. The
results of a
parameter study
where the
continuous surface
miner production rate varies from 800 to 1800 tons per hour is shown in Figure 12.

The total cost per ton for both loading cases generally decreases with increasing mine
production. In addition, the difference between the cost per ton for each loading configuration
decreases as the miner production increases. But it can be seen that the cost per ton for a miner
with a built in loader is always greater than that for a miner using a separate wheel loader for all
practical mining production rates.

Figure 11. Mine size parameter study results
Parameter FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
SHIFTS
HOURS/
DAY
DAYS/
WEEK
WEEKS/
YEAR
2 10 7 50
MINER TRUCK
WHEEL
LOADER
SCRAPER
85% 95% 90% 85%
40.00%
1.0000
WHEEL LOADER
LOADING POWER
One (1) USD =
SCRAPER
LABOR RATE $35.00
9-METER (CAT 988)
MACHINE AVAILABILITY
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
100 TON
2.4 LIMESTONE
America, Dollars
2.00
24 METER
MOSTLY MEDIUM ROCK (40-80 MPa)
PLOT PARAMETERS
ANNUAL MINE
PRODUCTION (tons)
VARIABLE
TRUCK SIZE
PRODUCTION RATE (tph)
HAUL DISTANCE (km)
800
EFFECT OF MINE PRODUCTION ON TOTAL COST PER TON
$0.00
$1.00
$2.00
$3.00
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
ANNUALPRODUCTION(millionsoftone)
C
O
S
T

P
E
R

T
O
N
MINER WITH BUILT-IN
LOADER
MINER WITH WHEEL
LOADER
EFFECT OF MINE PRODUCTION ON NUMBER OF MINERS
0
2
4
6
8
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
ANNUAL PRODUCTION (millions of tons)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

M
I
N
E
R
S
0
5
10
15
20
25
L
O
A
D
I
N
G

H
O
U
R
S

P
E
R

D
A
Y
MINER WITH BUILT-IN LOADER MINER WITH WHEEL LOADER
MINER WITH BUILT-IN LOADER MINER WITH WHEEL LOADER
Page 14

The reason for this is the second coupling effect of mining with a built-in loader - which is the
time delay between changing trucks. This has made the cost per ton of a miner with a built-in
loader greater than that of a similar miner using a separate wheel loader in all of the cases
investigated.

Efficient mining methodology

This paper has addressed the concept of decoupling the mining from the loading and hauling
processes. The next step is to address how the mining, loading, and hauling should be interfaced.
Two different configurations are presented below:

Mining, loading, and hauling in three sections

This scenario would set up three different sections, one for mining, one for loading and hauling,
and one for sampling. The area of each section would be defined as that area able to be mined in
one shift or work day by the surface miner. This configuration would minimize interference of
the mining and loading/hauling processes. The methodology can use one or more surface miners
per pit depending upon the area available. The copper mine in Africa shown in Figure 2 utilizes
this configuration. Figure 13 shows a possible layout of three section mining with one wheel
loader servicing two continuous miners.

Mining, loading and hauling in two sections

Where sampling of the cut material is not required, then only mining and loading/hauling
sections need to be established. The area of each section is defined above as that area able to be
mined in one shift or work day by the surface miner. This mine setup is one used in an iron ore
mine in Western Australia. Figure 14 shows a possible two-section mining configuration with
one loader servicing one continuous miner.
Figure 12. Production rate parameter study results
EFFECT OF PRODUCTION RATE ON TOTAL COST PER TON
$0.00
$1.00
$2.00
$3.00
800 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
MINERPRODUCTIONRATE(tph)
C
O
S
T

P
E
R

T
O
N
MINER WITH BUILT-IN
LOADER
MINER WITH WHEEL
LOADER
Page 15


Mining, loading and hauling in the same section

This configuration shown in Figure 15 can be used in situations where the cut material would
permanently coalesce in the presence of moisture. The continuous surface miner would always
be two rows ahead of the loading and hauling operations. So in the event of a downpour, the
amount of cut ore adversely effected by the moisture would be limited to acceptable quantities.
This method would allow decoupling of the mining and loading/hauling operations in that the
Figure 13. Two miners and one loader in three sections in same pit
Figure 14. One miner and one loader in two sections in same pit
Page 16

mining could continue without the loading and hauling operations, but stoppage of the mining
operations would eventually stop loading and hauling in the long run. The gypsum mine shown
in Figure 1 uses this configuration.

Laser/GPS control

The T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM can be outfitted with one or two laser/GPS receivers. The

system is pre-wired to accept either type of system to control digging depth. These systems can
be used to obtain a smooth, flat floor angled horizontally, in a single plane if using one
laser/GPS or in two angled
planes if two guidance
instruments are used. Tilting the
mine floor toward a sump will
allow rain water to drain off the
cut face, preventing moisture
contamination of the cut
product. This is especially
important while mining those
materials which produce sticky
messes in combination with
water or where a dry product is
necessary for down-stream
processing. Tilt/two directional
leveling is shown in Figure 16.

Cutting depth optimization

There is a relationship between cutting depth and product size, as mentioned in the section on
top-down cutting. There is also a relationship between cutting depth and the production rate of
the Vermeer T1255 Terrain Leveler
SEM. This relationship was determined in trials conducted

in coal parting material in a coal mine in Eastern Australia. The relationship between cutting
Figure 16. Tilt / Two directional leveling
Figure 15. One miner and one loader in same section
Page 17

depth and production rate has been input into the calculator section of the Track solutions
calculator. This relationship between decreasing the cutting depth and total mine cost per ton is
shown in Figure 17. The only change in input parameters for the graphs is the cutting depth was
decreased in increments from the maximum of 68cm down to 15cm.

Figure 17 shows that the production rate for the material being mined increased from 710 tons
per hour up to about 830 ton per hour over the range in cutting depth. It shows a slight increase
in loading cost per ton caused by the longer travel time of the loader to achieve a full bucket as
the cutting depth decreased. The hauling cost per ton remained unchanged, while there was a
significant decrease in the mining cost per ton. This decrease over-shadowed the increase in
loading cost per ton so that the overall total cost per ton was decreased with a decrease in cutting
depth.

There is a point where a decrease in cutting depth may make the product size distribution
unacceptable, or where the loading becomes inefficient. This point can best be determined
through trials conducted onsite in actual mining conditions.

Figure 17. Cutting depth parameter study results
EFFECT OF DECREASING CUTTING DEPTH
$0.00
$0.40
$0.80
$1.20
$1.60
$2.00
15 20 25 30 41 51 61 69
CUTTING DEPTH (cm)
C
O
S
T

P
E
R

T
O
N
700
750
800
850
P
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N

R
A
T
E

(
T
P
H
)
TOTAL COST/TON MINING HAULING LOADING PRODUCTION RATE
Page 18

CONCLUSIONS

Continuous surface mining can be cost effective for a much broader range of mines than
suggested earlier in this paper. Those mines/quarries which currently use conventional drill
and blast methods, but whose primary crusher is approaching its useful life may benefit from
continuous surface mining strategies.

Improvements in continuous surface mining methods now allows cost effective mining in
much harder rock and mine geometries than heretofore.

The most cost-effective method of loading cut material onto haul trucks is with a separate
loader. Miners with built-in loaders require more trucks, increased mining/loading/ hauling
hours, or both.

Tools are now available to help mine planners determine the total cost per ton, and cost
effective equipment configurations for a wide variety of mines/quarries.

Bigger machines are not necessarily better in terms of overall costs and reliability.

Vermeer Jim Hutchins 1

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CONTINUOUS SURFACE MINING

THE CRUSHING ALTERNATIVE

SEM to load the cut material directly onto haul trucks,

SEM has been

SEM following a coal seam

SEM is shown in Figure 4. The view

SEM to be built with a low

SEM to be extremely maneuverable.

SEM can virtually turn

SEM cuts down on the rock floor, as shown in Figure 6. . The

SEM can cut

SEM can be outfitted with one or two laser/GPS receivers. The

SEM. This relationship was determined in trials conducted

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