Diego Luis Avila Semantics

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE ASUNCIN FACULTAD DE FILOSOFA INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE LEN UAS

SE!ANTICS

PROF" !A " #UAN CARLOS CA!PS

PRESUPPOSITIONS, ENTAILMENTS AND IMPLICATURES

DIE O LUIS AVILA T$IRD COURSE %&'(

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Diego Luis Avila Semantics

Presuppositions and entailments a)e t*o +i,,e)ent as-ects o, t.e /in+ o, in,o)mation communicate+ 0ut not sai+" A presupposition is somet.ing t.e s-ea/e) assumes to 0e t.e case -)io) to ma/ing an utte)ance" S-ea/e)s1 not sentences1 .ave -)esu--ositions" An entailment is somet.ing t.at logicall2 ,ollo*s ,)om *.at is asse)te+ in t.e utte)ance" Sentences1 not s-ea/e)s1 .ave entailments"

In -)o+ucing t.e utte)ance Mary's brother bought three horses, t.e s-ea/e) *ill no)mall2 0e e3-ecte+ to .ave t.e -)esu--ositions t.at a -e)son calle+ !a))2 e3ists an+ t.at s.e .as a 0)ot.e)" T.e s-ea/e) ma2 also .ol+ t.e mo)e s-eci,ic -)esu--ositions t.at !a)2 .as onl2 one 0)ot.e) an+ t.at .e .as got a lot o, mone2" All o, t.ese -)esu--ositions a)e t.e s-ea/e)4s an+ all o, t.em can 0e *)ong" T.e sentence *ill 0e t)eate+ as .aving t.e entailments t.at !a)24s 0)ot.e) 0oug.t somet.ing1 0oug.t t.)ee animals1 an+ man2 ot.e) simila) logical conse5uences" T.ese entailments ,ollo* ,)om t.e sentence1 )ega)+less o, *.et.e) t.e s-ea/e)4s 0elie,s a)e )ig.t o) *)ong" T.e2 a)e communicate+ *it.out 0eing sai+" e3" 6ou) 0)ot.e) is *aiting outsi+e ,o) 2ou 77 2ou .ave a 0)ot.e) II8 someone is outsi+e1 some is *aiting"

Presupposition
A -)esu--osition is t)eate+ as a )elations.i- 0et*een t*o -)o-ositions" I, *e sa2 t.at t.e sentence 9 a:+a)1 ';<;= Mary's dog is cute contains t.e -)o-osition p an+ t.e sentence Mary has a dog contains t.e -)o-osition q1 t.en1 using t.e s2m0ol >> to mean 'presupposes'1 *e can )e-)esent t.e )elations.i- as p >> q. e3" Pete) is 0al+ 9>-= Pete) e3ists p >> q 9>5=

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

?.en *e -)o+uce t.e o--osite o, t.e sentence in Mary's dog is cute 02 negating it 9Mary's dog isn't cute=1 *e ,in+ t.at t.e )elations.i- o, -)esu--osition +oesn4t c.ange" T.e same -)esu--osition q 9Mary has a dog= continues to 0e -)esu--ose+ 02 NOT p 9Mary's dog isn't cute=1 so NOT p >> q. T.is -)o-e)t2 o, -)esu--osition is gene)all2 +esc)i0e+ as constancy under negation" It means t.at t.e -)esu--osition o, a statement *ill )emain constant1 i"e" still t)ue1 even *.en t.at statement is negate+" e3" Pete) isn4t 0al+ 9NOT -= Pete) e3ists NOT p >> q 9>5=

Types of presupposition P)esu--osition .as 0een associate+ *it. t.e use o, a la)ge num0e) o, *o)+s1 -.)ases1 an+ st)uctu)es" ?e s.all consi+e) t.ese linguistic ,o)ms .e)e as in+icato)s o, potential presuppositions1 *.ic. can onl2 0ecome actual -)esu--ositions in conte3ts *it. s-ea/e)s" 9Saue)lan+1 %&&<=

a= Existential presupposition @ t.e -ossessive const)uction in Englis. is associate+ *it. a -)esu--osition o, e3istence" T.e existential presupposition is not onl2 assume+ to 0e -)esent in -ossessive const)uctions 9your car >> you have a car=1 0ut in an2 +e,inite noun -.)ase 9 the car=" A2 using t.ese -)esu--ositions1 t.e s-ea/e) is assume+ to 0e committe+ to t.e e3istence o, t.e entities name+" e3" #o.n4s c.il+)en a)e ve)2 nois2 77 #o.n .as c.il+)en"

0= Factive presupposition @ t.e -)esu--ose+ in,o)mation ,ollo*ing a ve)0 li/e no! can 0e t)eate+ as a ,act1 an+ is +esc)i0e+ as a "active presupposition" A num0e) o, ot.e) ve)0s1 suc. as reali#e $she didn't reali#e he !as ill >> he !as ill%, regret $!e regret telling hi& >> !e told hi&%, as (

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

*ell as -.)ases involving be *it. a!are $' !asn't a!are that she !as &arried >> she !as &arried%, odd $it isn't odd that he le"t early >> he le"t early%, an+ glad $i'& glad that it's over >> it's over% .ave "active presuppositions. ex. (ohn reali#ed he !as in debt >> (ohn !as in debt.

c= )exical presupposition @ t.e use o, one ,o)m *it. its asse)te+ meaning is conventionall2 inte)-)ete+ *it. t.e -)esu--osition t.at anot.e) 9non8asse)te+= meaning is un+e)stoo+" Eac. time 2ou sa2 t.at someone &anage to +o somet.ing1 t.e asse)te+ meaning is t.at t.e -e)son succee+e+ in some *a2" ?.en 2ou sa2 t.at someone didn't &anage1 t.e asse)te+ meaning is t.at t.e -e)son +i+ not succee+" In 0ot. cases1 .o*eve)1 t.e)e is a -)esu--osition 9non8asse)te+= t.at t.e -e)son tried to +o t.at somet.ing" Manage is conventionall2 inte)-)ete+ as asserting succeeded and presupposing tried. Ot.e) e3am-lesB stop $he stopped s&o ing >> he used to s&o e%, start $they started co&plaining >> they !eren't co&plaining be"ore%, again $you're late again >> you !ere late be"ore%. In t.e case o, lexical presuppositions1 t.e s-ea/e)4s use o, a -a)ticula) e3-)ession is ta/en to -)esu--ose anot.e) 9unstate+= conce-t1 *.e)eas in t.e case o, a "active presupposition1 t.e use o, a -a)ticula) e3-)ession is ta/en to -)esu--ose t.e t)ut. o, t.e in,o)mation t.at is state+ a,te) it"

+= *tructural presupposition @ ce)tain sentence st)uctu)es .ave 0een anal2se+ as conventionall2 an+ )egula)l2 -)esu--osing t.at -a)t o, t.e st)uctu)e is al)ea+2 assume+ to 0e t)ue" S-ea/e)s can use suc. st)uctu)es to t)eat in,o)mation as -)esu--ose+1 i"e" assume+ to 0e t)ue1 an+ .ence to 0e acce-te+ as t)ue 02 t.e listene)" Fo) e3am-le1 !h+question in Englis. a)e conventionall2 inte)-)ete+ *it. t.e -)esu--osition t.at t.e in,o)mation a,te) t.e !h+"or& 9e"g" !hen did he leave, >> he le"t an+ !here did you buy the bi e, >> -ou bought the bi e = is al)ea+2 /no*n to 0e t.e case" T.e listene) -e)ceives t.at t.e in,o)mation -)esente+ is necessa)il2 t)ue )at.e) t.an Cust t.e -)esu--osition o, t.e -e)son as/ing t.e 5uestion" e3" ?.en +i+ s.e t)avel to t.e USAD 77 s.e t)avelle+" E

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

e= Non+ "active presupposition . *.at is -)esu--ose+ is not t)ue" Fo) e3am-le1 ve)0s li/e drea& $' drea&ed that ' !as rich >> ' !as not rich% 1 i&agine $!e i&agined !e !ere in /a!aii >> !e !ere not in /a!aii% an+ pretend $he pretends to be ill >> he is not ill% a)e use+ *it. t.e presupposition t.at *.at ,ollo*s is not t)ue" e3" I *is. 2ou *e)e 0eing .onest 77 2ou a)e not 0eing .onest"

,= 0ounter"actual presupposition . *.at is -)esu--ose+ is not onl2 unt)ue1 0ut is t.e o--osite o, *.at is t)ue o) cont)a)2 to ,acts" Fo) instance1 some con+itional st)uctu)es1 gene)all2 calle+ counte),actual con+itionals1 -)esu--ose t.at t.e in,o)mation in t.e i"8 clauses1 is not t)ue at t.e time o, utte)ance 9i" you !ere &y "riend, you !ould have helped &e >> you are not &y "riend=" e3" I, 2ou *e)e m2 +aug.te)1 I *oul+ not allo* 2ou to +o t.is 77 2ou a)e not m2 +aug.te)"

Projection Problem T.e -)oCection -)o0lem occu)s *.en a sim-le sentence 0ecomes -a)t o, a mo)e com-le3 sentence" In t.is case1 t.e meaning o, some -)esu--osition 9as a -a)t= +oesnFt su)vive to 0ecome t.e meaning o, a mo)e com-le3 sentence 9as a *.ole=" 96ule1 ';;G=

a=No0o+2 )eali:e+ t.at Hell2 *as ti)e+ 0=I imagine+ t.at Hell2 *as ti)e+ c=I imagine+ t.at Hell2 *as ti)e+ an+ no0o+2 )eali:e+ t.at s.e *as ti)e+"

T.)oug. t.ese e3am-les1 *e can o0se)ve t.at1 *.en t.e s-ea/e) utte)s 9a=1 *e can -)esu--ose t.at 1elly !as tired an+ t.at1 *.en t.e s-ea/e)s utte)s 90=1 *e can -)esu--ose t.at 1elly !as not tired" $o*eve)1 *.en t.e s-ea/e) utte)s 9c=, *e can4t un+e)stan+ *.at t.e s-ea/e) means 02 t.at I

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

utte)ance *it.out a conte3t 0ecause t.e t*o -a)ts .ave an o--osite meaning"
e3" AB #o.n )eg)ets loosing .is *allet" AB Aut .e +i+n4t loose .is *allet"

I, *e com0ine t.ese t*o utte)ances1 *e .ave t.e se5uence 4#o.n )eg)ets loosing .is *allet1 0ut .e +i+n4t loose .is *allet4" I+enti,2ing t.e +i,,e)ent -)o-ositions involve+1 *e can see t.at t.e -)esu--osition 4#o.n lost .is *allet4 +oes not su)vive as a -)esu--osition o, t.e com0ine+ utte)ances" a" #o.n )eg)ets loosing .is *allet 0" #o.n lost .is *allet c" p >> q d. $e +i+n4t loose .is *allet e" #o.n )eg)ets loosing .is *allet1 0ut .e +i+n4t loose .is *allet" ," p 2 r >> NOT q 9>- J )= 9>)= 9>-= 9>5=

A -e)son *ill not assume t.e -)esu--osition q is t)ue *.en utte)ing e. A sim-le e3-lanation o, t.e ,act t.at -)esu--ositions +on4t K-)oCectKis t.at t.e2 a)e 4+est)o2e+4 02 entailments" ?.en t.e -e)son utte)s '(ohn regrets loosing his !allet, but he didn't loose his !allet' 1 *e .ave a -)esu--osition q an+ an entailment NOT q. T.is s.o*s t.at entail&ents 9necessa)2 conse5uences o, *.at is sai+= a)e sim-l2 mo)e -o*e),ul t.an presuppositions 9an ea)lie) assum-tions=" It ma2 0e 0est to t.in/ o, -)esu--ositions as 4-otential -)esu--ositions4 *.ic. onl2 0ecome actual -)esu--ositions *.en inten+e+ 02 s-ea/e)s to 0e )ecogni:e+ as suc. *it.in utte)ances" S-ea/e)s can in+ee+ in+icate t.at t.e -otential -)esu--osition is not 0eing -)esente+ as a st)ong assum-tionL t.e s-ea/e)s a)e not committe+ to t.e -)esu--osition as an assume+ ,act"

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

Ordered entailments ene)all2 s-ea/ing1 entailment is not a -)agmatic conce-t 9i"e" .aving to +o *it. t.e s-ea/e) meaning=1 0ut it is consi+e)e+ a -u)el2 logical conce-t" 9Hea)ns1 %&''= e3" Ao0 ate t.)ee san+*ic.es"

a=Somet.ing ate t.)ee san+*ic.es" 0=Ao0 +i+ somet.ing to t.)ee san+*ic.es" c=Ao0 ate t.)ee o, somet.ing" +=Somet.ing .a--ene+"

?.en a s-ea/e) utte)s t.e -)evious sentence1 t.e s-ea/e) is necessa)il2 committe+ to t.e t)ut. o, a ve)2 la)ge num0e) o, bac ground entail&ents" On an2 occasion1 in utte)ing t.e sentence1 .o*eve)1 t.e s-ea/e) *ill in+icate .o* t.ese entailments a)e to 0e o)+e)e+" T.at is1 t.e s-ea/e) *ill communicate1 t2-icall2 02 st)ess1 *.ic. entailment is assume+ to 0e t.e ,o)eg)oun+1 o) mo)e im-o)tant ,o) inte)-)eting inten+e+ meaning1 t.an an2 ot.e)s" Fo) e3am-le1 *.en t.e s-ea/e) utte)s sentence a=1 .e in+icates t.at t.e "oreground entail&ent1 an+ .ence .is main assum-tion1 is t.at Ao0 ate a ce)tain num0e) o, san+*ic.es" a= Ao0 ate T$REE san+*ic.es"

In sentence 0=1 t.e ,ocus s.i,ts to AOA1 an+ t.e main assum-tion is t.at someone ate t.)ee san+*ic.es" 0= AOA ate t.)ee san+*ic.es"

T.e st)ess in Englis. ,unctions to ma)/ t.e main assum-tion o, t.e s-ea/e) in -)o+ucing an utte)ance" As suc.1 it allo*s t.e s-ea/e) to ma)/ ,o) t.e listene) *.at t.e ,ocus o, t.e message is1 <

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

an+ *.at is 0eing assume+"

Implicatures
T*o ve)2 +i,,e)ent elements a)e com0ine+ to ma/e u- t.e total signi,ication o, an utte)ance" T.ese elements a)e o)+ina)il2 calle+ *.at is sai+ an+ *.at is im-licate+" An im-licatu)e is a case o, sa2ing one t.ing 0ut conve2ing somet.ing else" So1 ,o) instance1 an utte)ance o, 3't is a !ell done !or 4 ma21 in t.e )ig.t conte3t1 im-licate t.at ''t is a horrible !or '1 even t.oug. t.is is not *.at t.e sentence lite)all2 means" T.e)e a)e t*o +i,,e)ent so)t o, im-licatu)eB conventional an+ conve)sational" T.e2 .ave in common t.e -)o-e)t2 t.at t.e2 0ot. conve2 an a++itional level o, meaning 0e2on+ t.e semantic meaning o, t.e *o)+s utte)e+" 9Potts1 %&&I=

Conventional implicatures T.e2 a)e not 0ase+ on t.e coo-e)ative -)inci-les o) ma3ims" T.e2 +on4t .ave to occu) in conve)sation an+ t.e2 +on4t +e-en+ on s-ecial conte3ts ,o) t.ei) inte)-)etation" T.e2 a)e associate+ *it. s-eci,ic *o)+s an+ )esult in a++itional conve2e+ meanings *.en t.ose *o)+s a)e use+1 linguistic e3-)ession li/e but, even, there"ore, yet, an+ "or. 9Potts1 %&&I=

a" !a)2 suggeste+ c.ic/en1 0ut I c.ose 0ee, @ im-licatu)e o, 4cont)ast4 0et*een in,o)mation in - an+ 5 0" - J 5 9M7 - is in cont)ast to 5=

a" T.e manage) isnFt .e)e 2et 9>NOT -= @ t.e im-licatu)e 42et4 is t.at t.e -)esent situation is e3-ecte+ to 0e +i,,e)ent1 o) -e).a-s t.e o--osite late)" 0" NOT - is t)ue 9M7 - e3-)esse+ to 0e t)ue late)=

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

a" !a)2 *as .ung)2 an+ )ea+2 to go to 0e+ 9- J51 M7 - -lus 5= @ t*o statements containing static in,o)mation a)e Coine+ 02 4an+41 t.e im-licatu)e is sim-l2 4 in 4-lus4 0" !a)2 -ut on .e) -CFs an+ *ent to 0e+ 9- J51 M7 5 a,te) -= @ t*o statements contain a++ition4 o)

+2namic action1 )elate+ in,o)mation t.e im-licatu)e o, 4an+4 is 4an+ t.en4 in+icating se5uence"

Conversational implicatures Conve)sational im-licatu)es a)e not tie+ to t.e -a)ticula) *o)+s an+ -.)ases in an utte)ance 0ut a)ise instea+ ,)om conte3tual ,acto)s an+ t.e un+e)stan+ing t.at conventions a)e o0se)ve+ in conve)sation" 9Saue)lan+1 %&&<= e3" AB I .o-e 2ou *ent to t.e 0an/ an+ to t.e c.emist" AB I *ent to t.e 0ac/"

9S-ea/e) A +oesn4t mention going to t.e c.emist" S-ea/e) A in,e)s t.at *.at is not mention *as not visite+=

?e can )e-)esent t.e st)uctu)e o, *.at *as sai+1 *it. 0 9>0an/= an+ c 9>c.emist=" Using t.e s2m0ol M7 ,o) an im-licatu)e1 *e can also )e-)esent t.e a++itional conve2e+ meaning" AB 0 J cD AB 0 9M7 NOT c=

Anot.e) e3am-leB AB Aill an+ !a)t.a a)e leaving tomo))o*" AB IFll miss !a)t.a" ;

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

T.is e3am-le *o)/s e3actl2 t.e same *a2 as t.e one s.o*n 0e,o)e"

Generalized conversational implicatures A gene)ali:e+ im-licatu)e is a conve)sational im-licatu)e t.at is in,e)a0le *it.out )e,e)ence to a s-ecial conte3t1 no s-ecial /no*le+ge is )e5ui)e+ in t.e conte3t to calculate t.e a++itional conve2e+ meaning 9Saue)lan+1 %&&<=" One common e3am-le in Englis. involves an2 -.)ase *it. an in+e,inite a)ticle o, t.e t2-e 4aOan P4" T.ese -.)ases a)e t2-icall2 inte)-)ete+ acco)+ing to t.e gene)ali:e+ conve)sational im-licatu)e t.at B an P M7 not s-ea/e)4s P" e3" #o.n *al/e+ into a house 2este)+a2 an+ sa* a +og @ t.is e3-)ession im-lies t.at t.e .ouse is not #o.nFs .ouse" T.e ,i)st e3am-le -)ovi+e+ 0e,o)e coul+ se)ve as a ene)ali:e+ Conve)sational Im-licatu)e1 as

an2one *oul+ /no* *.at t.e 0an/ an+ t.e c.emistsF a)e1 0ut 2ou *oul+ nee+ a s-eci,ic conte3t to /no* a0out Aill an+ !a)t.a1 in t.e secon+ e3am-le"

Scalar implicatures Ce)tain in,o)mation is al*a2s communicate+ 02 c.oosing a *o)+ *.ic. e3-)esses one value ,)om a scale o, values 9all1 most1 man21 some1 ,e*L al*a2s1 o,ten1 sometimes=" ?.en -)o+ucing an utte)ance1 a s-ea/e) selects t.e *o)+ ,)om t.e scale *.ic. is t.e most in,o)mative an+ t)ut.,ul in t.e ci)cumstances" In t.e utte)ance so&e o" the boys !ent to the party, t.e *o)+ so&e im-licates Qnot all o, t.e 0o2s *ent to t.e -a)t2"Q ?.en an2 ,o)m o, t.e scale is asse)te+1 t.e negative o, all ,o)ms .ig.e) on t.e scale is im-licate+ 9M7 not most1 M7 not man2=" 9Potts1 %&&I= Scala) im-licatu)es can 0e cancelle+ 02 anot.e) scala) im-licatu)e )e,e))ing to t.e same -a)ticula) t.ing" Fo) e3am-leB RI 0oug.t some -)esents ,o) 2ou in Lon+on1 not some1 in ,act man2ST T.e)e1 Rman2T is cancelling RsomeT ,o) t.e e3tents o, t.e scala) im-licatu)e" '&

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

T.is ma2 0e con,using i, *e ta/e into account entailments1 0ut letFs consi+e) anot.e) e3am-leB R#o.n o) !a)2 ma+e a mista/e1 in ,act 0ot. o, t.em +i+"T I, t.is cancellation *as +ue to an entailment1 t.e secon+ -a)t o, t.e sentence coul+ not 0e -ossi0le 0ecause it is not t)ue t.at in eve)2 situation t.at #o.n o) !a)2 ma+e a mista/e1 0ot. o, t.em +i+ itL t.e ,i)st -a)t o, t.e sentence1 in te)ms o, entailments1 conceives as t)ue t.at not 0ot. #o.n an+ !a)2 ma+e a mista/e1 0ut Cust one o, t.em"

Particularized conversational implicatures A -a)ticula)i:e+ im-licatu)e is a conve)sational im-licatu)e t.at is +e)iva0le onl2 in a s-eci,ic conte3t" Aecause t.e2 a)e 02 ,a) t.e most common1 -a)ticula)i:e+ conve)stional im-licatu)es a)e t2-icall2 calle+ im-licatu)es" 9Saue)lan+1 %&&<=

AB ?.at .as .a--ene+ to t.e )oast c.ic/enD AB T.e +og is loo/ing ve)2 .a--2" In t.e a0ove e3c.ange1 A *ill li/el2 +e)ive t.e im-licatu)e Qt.e +og ate t.e )oast 0ee,Q ,)om AFs statement" Anot.e) e3am-leB AB ?.e)e +i+ I leave t.e ca) /e2sD AB T.e ca)Fs on t.e +)ive"

Properties of conversational implicatures Conve)sational im-licatu)es can 0e +enie+1 calculate+1 sus-en+e+1 cancelle+1 an+ )ein,o)ce+" a" 6ou .ave *on ,ive +olla)s 9M7 ONL6 ,ive= ''

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

0" 6ou .ave *on at least ,ive +olla)s 9sus-en+ im-licatu)e M7 onl2= c" 6ou .ave *on ,ive +olla)s1 in ,act1 2ou .ave *on ten 9cancel im-licatu)e M7 a++ing ne* in,o)mation a,te) 4in ,act4= +" 6ou .ave *on ,ive +olla)s1 t.at4s ,ou) mo)e t.an one 9)ein,o)ce+ im-licatu)e *it. a++itional in,o)mation= onl2 02

'%

Diego Luis Avila Semantics

?o)/s Cite+ a:+a)1 e)al+" P)agmaticsB Im-licatu)e1 P)esu--osition an+ Logical Fo)m" Ne* 6o)/B

Aca+emic1 ';<;" P)int" Hea)ns1 Hate" Semantics" Ne* 6o)/B Palg)ave !acmillan1 %&''" P)int" Potts1 C.)isto-.e)" T.e Logic o, Conventional Im-licatu)es" O3,o)+B O3,o)+ UP1 %&&I" P)int" Saue)lan+1 Uli1 an+ Pen/a Stateva" P)esu--osition an+ Im-licatu)e in Com-ositional Semantics" Aasingsto/eB Palg)ave !acmillan1 %&&<" P)int" 6ule1 eo)ge" T.e Stu+2 o, Language" Cam0)i+ge UEnglan+B Cam0)i+ge UP1 ';;G" P)int"

'(