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09603085/03/$23.50+0.00 # Institution of Chemical Engineers Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part C, March 2003

THE RATE AND EXTENT OF FOULING IN A SINGLE-TUBE WORT BOILING SYSTEM

K. L. TSE, A. M. PRITCHARD and P. J. FRYER
Centre for Formulation Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

ort is the fermentation feedstock that provides all the necessary sugars and nutrients required for successful brewing. It is boiled to stabilize its composition prior to fermentation, a process that leads to the coagulation and subsequent occulation of proteins and tannins, and fouling of the heat transfer surfaces. Fouling by commerciallysupplied wort was studied in a single-tube (15 mm 0.2 mm wall thickness, with wall temperature control) model wort boiling system, at wall temperatures of 130, 150 and 170 C and ow velocities of 0.07, 0.14 and 0.18 m s1, with the overall objective being to identify modes of operation which prolong operating times. Heat transfer was quanti ed in terms of the amounts of heat transferred to the liquid and vapour phases. The in uence of operating conditions on the fouling process was determined by calculating the decrease in heat transfer coef cient with the increasing number of batches of wort processed. The work quanti ed the in uence of wall temperature, wort velocity (and hence circulation time) and the duration of the boil. Fouling showed little temperature dependence as for all wall temperatures, a constant rate of fouling (dRf=dt) was determined; dRf=dt 1 105 m2 kW1 h1, in the absence of vapour condensation and dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1, with vapour condensation. The rate of fouling in the system was more affected by wort velocity, particularly under conditions where vapour was condensed. Under these conditions, curves obtained for velocities 0.07 and 0.14 m s1 showed an initial, more rapid rate of fouling, which then continued at a reduced rate. The initial rate of fouling doubled as the wort velocity halved (at wort velocity 0.07 m s1 initially dRf=dt 4 105 m2 kW1 h1 compared to dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1 at velocity 0.14 m s1), whereas the nal rate was the same at both velocities (dRf=dt 8 106 m2 kW1 h1). Keywords: wort boiling; fouling; vapour condensation; fouling resistance; nucleate boiling.

INTRODUCTION In the brewing process, wort is the fermentation feedstock which provides all the necessary sugars and nutrients required by the yeast for successful fermentation. Wort boiling is the unit operation during which the composition of the wort extracted by mashing and recovered during latering (or ltration) is stabilized prior to fermentation. It is the most energy-intensive of the brewhouse operations, utilizing up to 40% of the total brewhouse energy requirements (Kollnberger, 1984). The boiling process is responsible for the principal colour and avour development of the nal product (Briggs et al., 1982; Lewis and Young, 1995), although it has multiple objectives (Briggs et al., 1982), including the coagulation and subsequent occulation of proteins and tannins, as hot or cold break (formed during wort boiling and on wort cooling, respectively). The coagulation of proteins and formation of protein tannin complexes during wort boiling is important as it promotes colloidal stability of the nal product and prevents undesirable haze formation (Briggs et al., 1982). Although 13

by far the greatest amounts of insoluble substances are removed as hot and cold break (or trub), fouling of heat transfer surfaces due to the deposition of insoluble material is an inherent and problematic aspect of the process (Andrews, 1992; Reed, 1991). Wort boiler fouling is the principal cause for the rigorous cleaning-in-place (CIP) practices necessary in the brewhouse and which both shorten production run-times and occupy valuable process time. Additionally, effective cleaning of the fouled surfaces requires the use of cleaning agents, with associated cost and waste management considerations (Renfrew, 1999). Although wort boiler fouling is a well-recognized problem, with implications for overall process ef ciency (Reed, 1991), few studies have investigated either the deposition process or the nature of the fouling itself. Increased understanding of wort boiler fouling would provide signi cant bene ts to the brewing industry. Identi cation of the in uential variables would allow operations to be run in such a way as to mitigate fouling, thus increasing process ef ciency. Investigations into the cleaning of fouled plant provide information on cleaning

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TSE et al. The study aimed to determine the effects of three process parameters, i.e. boil time, wort velocity (and hence circulation time) and wall temperature on the overall heat transfer coef cient and fouling process. The model system was characterized using water and the data so obtained used to determine the controlling in uences on the rate of fouling.

mechanisms and regimes which could allow the ef cient use of more effective cleaning agents. This knowledge should, in turn, translate into longer process runtimes and diminished brewhouse downtime for CIP. Ultimately such a study would aim to provide useful information to enable design improvements in the speci cations of process equipment. Wort boiling equipment can be broadly divided into two categories: kettles with internal boilers and those tted with external boilers or calandrias. The type of kettle used depends on several factors including the size of the brewing operation, geographical location and the age of the brewhouse. Traditionally kettles were tted with steam coils in the base such that boiling occurred in the kettle. However, due to the low surface area available for heat transfer and the comparatively large volume of wort to be boiled, this con guration tends to result in high wall temperatures, which brewers tend to associate with increased rates of boiler fouling. For external boilers, kettles are tted with external shell and tube heat exchangers through which the kettle contents are circulated, initially under forced convection and then, as the temperature of the wort increases to allow boiling, under thermosyphon action. The increased surface area available in external heat exchangers enables lower steam pressures to be used, thus reducing wall temperatures and potentially mitigating the rate of boiler fouling. In a typical brewing operation in the United Kingdom, batches of wort are each boiled for about 90 min to produce evaporation rates between 8 and 10% per hour (Briggs et al., 1982), although rates as low as 5% are used for some brews. Measurements of speci c gravity are used to follow the progress of the boil and to indicate when suf cient evaporation has occurred. The number of batches that can be processed before CIP is required varies widely between breweries, depending on the type of equipment (including that upstream in the brewhouse), the size of the brewing operation, the raw materials, the water used, the product and the control measures for steam heating. In some instances (generally small breweries) cleaning is carried out after each boil, although cleaning is more commonly undertaken after 612 batches have been processed (Briggs et al., 1982). In some thermosyphon units up to 24 batches can be processed before cleaning is necessary (Hancock and Andrews, 1996). In almost all cases, by the time cleaning of the heat transfer surfaces takes place, operating ef ciency is generally signi cantly lower than in a clean system (Andrews, 1992). To attempt to resolve the problem of wort boiler fouling, a model system was constructed, based on an electrically heated single tube evaporator. The wort was constantly recirculated from a holding tank through the test section, the wall of which was maintained at a constant temperature. Heat transfer was quanti ed in terms of both the sensible heat transferred and the amount of latent heat removed by evaporation. Once boiling commenced, the wort was boiled for a given period during which the evaporated material was condensed and recovered. To simulate brewery practice, a series of 1012 batches of wort was boiled, each for a xed time, at each operating condition. The in uence of operating conditions on the fouling process was determined by measuring the decrease in heat transfer coef cient with the increasing number of batches processed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Single-tube Wort Boiling System The model wort boiling system was designed to reproduce the salient features of process plant and is shown schematically in Figure 1. The working uid was rst pumped into the holding tank through the inlet piping. The valves were then adjusted to allow wort to be circulated from the holding tank into the heated test section by a rotary diaphragm pump (RD5S, Charles Austen Ltd, UK). The uid passed from the test section into a disengagement chamber, from which the liquid drained back into the holding tank, for recirculation. The holding tank, disengagement chamber, valves and all pipework (o.d. 15 mm) were all constructed from type 316 stainless steel: the test section was made of thin wall 3=8 inches o.d. 0.2 mm wall thickness type 316 stainless

Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the model wort boiling rig. Components: (1) inlet, (2) rotary diaphragm pump, (3) electromagnetic owmeter, (4) test section, (5) heating blocks, (6) disengagement chamber, (7) recirculation line, (8) holding tank, (9) holding tank vent, (10) recirculation line, (11) bypass loop, (12) vapour transfer line, (13) condenser, (14) collection vessel, (15) balance. Notation: TCC, control thermocouple; TCM, measuring thermocouple.

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steel to reduce the wall heat transfer resistance and to allow the fouled test section to be sampled with minimal disturbance of the deposit. Flow rates were measured using an electromagnetic owmeter (Model IFM5080, Krohne Ltd, UK). Vapour was transferred from the top of the disengagement chamber to a shell and tube condenser and the condensate collected in a vessel placed on a balance. To reduce heat losses, the apparatus was insulated with mineral wool. The holding tank and test section were heated electrically. The one metre length of the test section was heated using 10 individual heating blocks. Each heating block consisted of a mica band heater (each 100 mm in length, 140 W), tted with a 100 mm long aluminium sleeve (wall thickness 5 mm) to ensure good contact between the heater and the test section. The heaters were connected in parallel in three groups, consisting of the bottom two, the central six and the top two, each group being separately controlled electrically. Three of the heating blocks, the upper (no. 1), central (no. 5) and lowest (no. 10) were tted with K-type thermocouples placed between the test section and the aluminium sleeve, to measure the wall temperature and provide data for control of the groups of heater blocks. A 900 W silicone rubber heating mat (height 400 mm) surrounded the holding tank and was used only to maintain the contents at temperature and to reduce heat losses (thermocouple controlled at a setpoint of 100 C). Set-points for the wall temperatures for the electrical test section heaters and holding tank heater were de ned and controlled using a LabviewTM program. The same program logged the values of the variables, shown schematically in Figure 2: the wort temperatures at the inlet

and outlet of the test section, the wort input ow-rate, the mass of condensate collected on the balance, the power supplied to the three heating blocks and the temperatures from the controlling thermocouples. Typical operation of the model system involved circulating the wort at a constant mass rate through the test section, with a consequent increase in wort temperature with time. Once boiling commenced the evaporated material was condensed and the mass recovered was recorded as a function of time.

Calculations and Modelling The heat transferred was measured as the sum of the sensible heat transferred, from the inlet and outlet temperatures and the mass of condensate recovered. Simple mass and heat balances carried out over the system were used to calculate the rate of heat input, Qwall, through the wall. Qwall min Cp,l(Tout Tin ) mevap (l Cp,gTout) (1)

where the measured variables are the mass ow rate into the test section, min, the mass ow rate of condensate, mevap and the inlet and outlet temperatures from the test section, Tin and Tout. Values for water were used for the speci c heat capacity of the liquid, Cp,l and gas, Cp,g and for the latent heat of evaporation, l. The rst term describes the sensible heat transferred, and the second term the latent heat of evaporation. Having determined the rate of heat input across the test section, the overall heat transfer coef cient, U can be found from: Qwall UA DTLM (2)

By determining an average value for the overall heat transfer coef cient for each batch processed in a series of experimental runs, a value can then be obtained for the fouling resistance (Fryer et al., 1997):
1 1 Rf U Uo
(3)

Figure 2. Test section showing variables measured for determination of the overall heat transfer coef cient: min, mass ow rate at inlet; Tin, temperature at inlet; Qwall, rate of heat input across wall of test sections; Tout, temperature at outlet; mevap, mass of evaporate collected. TCC, control thermocouple.

where Uo is the clean heat transfer coef cient. Average values of U and hence of Rf were calculated from measurements with Tout between 90 and 95 C (referred to below as pre-boiling conditions) and after the start of boiling. The latter contain contributions from both the sensible heat transferred and the latent heat removed. With the increasing number of batches processed, the fouling curve can be determined by plotting values of the fouling resistances against the elapsed time. The slope of this curve gives a measure of the rate of fouling in the system. Using the fouling resistance curves generated under a range of conditions, it is then possible to determine the in uence of the various operating parameters on the rate of fouling.

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16 Experimental Procedure

TSE et al. Reynolds numbers falls between 17,000 and 340,000. The model Re are lower, although still mostly in turbulent ow, due to the high pipe diameters used in process plant.

Experiments were designed to mimic standard brewery operation. Consequently, each batch was boiled for a xed period of time (usually 90 min) from the start of boiling, as indicated by the onset of condensate recovery. At the end of the experiment, the boiled wort was discarded, a fresh volume introduced into the rig and the experiment repeated. Unlike fouling in dairy systems, for example, the build-up of deposit occurred over a relatively long time-scale, with a series of typically 12 batch volumes required at each operating condition (i.e. in excess of 18 h of fouling) before a signi cant difference in the overall heat transfer coef cient could be observed. The total time taken for a run varied between 2 and 5 h depending on the wall temperature for the test, the initial temperatures of the working uid and the rig, and the ambient temperature. The wort used in the experiments was obtained from a commercial brewery and supplied with hops and sugar added. Although all the wort was prepared in the brewery using the same protocol, there is naturally some between batch variation. A typical wort contains simple sugars, more complex polysaccharides, amino acids, peptides, proteins, other nitrogenous materials, vitamins, organic and inorganic phosphates, mineral salts, polyphenols (including tannin precursors and tannins) and small quantities of lipids (Lewis and Young, 1995) in addition to other minor components, some as yet unidenti ed (Briggs et al., 1982). Elemental analysis of wort used in this study has revealed the following composition (Tse et al., 2001): 39.37% carbon, 6.37% hydrogen, 0.71% nitrogen (equivalent to 4.44% protein), 0.09% calcium and 0.15% phosphorus. Speci c gravities of the unboiled wort (measured at 25 C using a density meter; Mettler-Toledo Ltd, UK) were typically about 1.073 g cm3. Following 90 min boiling, values varied from 1.074 to 1.088 g cm3, depending on both the initial wort and the number of preceding boils.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The initial set of experiments with water provided information on how the heat transfer coef cient varied with ow rate and wall temperature. Figure 3 shows the percentages of sensible and latent heat transferred during the course of a single batch boil. At the onset of vapour production and recovery, the percentage of convective heat transfer changes fairly rapidly to around 50%, a value which is maintained throughout the remainder of the experiment. All heat transfer coef cients calculated are the overall heat transfer coef cients U for the system. The changes in U with wall temperature are shown in Figure 4. There is a consistent increase in the value of U with increasing wall temperatures both before and after vapour production and condensation, which can be explained by an increase in nucleate boiling and the amount of vapour produced, as shown on the ow pattern map of Hewitt and Roberts (1969) (Figure 5). Figure 6 shows the changes in U with velocity. The average pre-boiling values decrease consistently with increasing velocity, presumably because the amount of any sub-cooled nucleate boiling decreases more rapidly than any increase in the convective component due to the increased degree of turbulence at higher velocities. However, values for the average boiling coef cient and for the maximum value of the boiling coef cient for a given wall temperature do not show a similar decrease, but are similar, with average values of 500 and 700 W m2 K1, respectively. This suggests that the main mechanism for heat transfer under these conditions is nucleate boiling, which is relatively insensitive to ow conditions until annular lm boiling occurs. Calculation of the mass ows of liquid and vapour at the outlet from the test section allowed deductions to be made

Characterizing the Model System Characterization of the system was carried out with deionised water to which 1% KNO3 had been added to provide suf cient conductivity for the owmeter to operate. Fluid velocities were varied from 0.07 to 0.18 m s1 and wall temperatures from 110 to 170 C. This gave information on system behaviour and values for the initial overall heat transfer coef cient in the absence of deposit. As no condensate was recovered at measured wall temperatures of 110 C, the experimental matrix chosen for the wort fouling experiments used standard wall temperatures of 130 C (equivalent to a steam pressure of 3 bar gauge, which is cited by operators as a typical industrial value for kettles with external calandrias), 150 and 170 C. The last condition is much higher than would be desired in industry but was chosen to exaggerate the possible in uence of this operating parameter on the rate of boiler fouling. Most experiments were carried out at a ow rate of 0.14 m s1 (Re 7600 at 100 C), with additional measurements between 0.07 m s1 (Re 3800) and 0.18 m s1 (Re 9900). In industry wort velocities may vary widely during a single run, depending on whether forced convection or thermosyphon modes are used, although for external calandria systems, the range of

Figure 3. A typical time course for a single batch boil, showing the change in sensible and latent heat contributions as a percentage of the total heat transferred. Batch number 3 processed in series of 20 wort boils; Twall, 130 C; velocity, 0.14 m s1 (Re 7600).

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Figure 4. The in uence of test section wall temperature on the average heat transfer coef cients, in the absence of and with vapour condensation, measured with water. Wall temperature varied from 110 to 170 C; uid velocity 0.14 m s1.

Figure 6. The in uence of test section wall temperature and uid velocity on the two-phase ow composition at the outlet from the test section, plotted on the Hewitt and Roberts (1969) ow pattern map for vertical ow in a tube. G2=r is the momentum ux, where Gg mass ux of vapour, i.e. vapour mass ow rate=tube cross sectional area (kg s1 m2), rg vapour density (kg m3), Gl mass ux of liquid, i.e. liquid mass ow rate=tube cross sectional area (kg s1 m2) and rl liquid density (kg m3).

about the likely two-phase ow patterns within the test section, as shown on the two-phase ow pattern map (Figure 5). With increasing wall temperature, increasing volumes of vapour are formed and the ow pattern in the system becomes churn ow. The pulsating, highly unstable nature of churn ow was re ected in the behaviour of the system at high wall temperatures; towards and after the onset of boiling, the test section was observed to shake, presumably due to the unstable pulsing of the liquid near the wall and the passage of large unstable vapour bursts up the tube. Figure 5 shows that as the liquid ow rate, as measured by the Reynolds number, increases, the mass ow of vapour in the system decreases.

Wort Boiling Experiments Heat transfer A typical pro le for the change in U over the duration of a single batch run at a wall temperature of 130 C and a wort velocity of 0.14 m s1 is shown in Figure 7, together with the outlet temperatures and log mean temperature differences over the test section. This illustrates how the heat transfer changes according to whether vapour is being condensed or not. U increased with run time, with a mean value of 850 W m2 K1 before vapour condensation started, to a maximum value of 1120 W m2 K1 at the point at which the temperature of the wort at the outlet of the

Figure 5. The in uence of uid velocity, on the average heat transfer coef cients, in the absence and with vapour condensation, measured with water. Velocities varied from 0.07 to 0.18 m s1; wall temperature 130 C.

Figure 7. Changes in the heat transfer coef cient, outlet temperature and log mean temperature difference over the test section during the processing of a single wort batch. Batch number 2 in a series of 20 batch boils; Twall, 130 C; velocity, 0.14 m s1.

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TSE et al.

test section reached approximately 100 C. Thereafter, during the boiling phase and particularly towards the end of the processing time, there was a considerable degree of scatter in the values of U, with a mean value of 780 W m2 K1, which makes it dif cult to determine particular trends in behaviour. These values are smaller than other quoted values for nucleate boiling (1.2 1.6 kW m2 K1; Briggs et al., 1982), suggesting that there may be some additional heat transfer resistance in the system, possibly of the test section wall. The decrease from the maximum value suggests that there may be some steam blanketing occurring at the heat transfer surface. However, nucleate boiling on surfaces is strongly dependent on surface wettability and roughness, so changes in these parameters during the run may explain the variations. The picture is further complicated by the variability in composition and amount of any deposits formed along the tube (Tse et al., 2003). As the number of batches processed increased, the recorded maximum value of the heat transfer coef cient decreased (from 1120 to 760 W m2 K1) and there was a concomitant attening in the curve after the onset of vapour condensation. This indicates that the fouling process in uences the heat transfer through both the convective and nucleate boiling modes. Over the duration of 20 batch boils (each 90 min in duration, with a total process time of approximately 76 h), the value of the average heat transfer coef cient before vapour condensation was observed was observed to fall from 790 to 470 W m2 K1 and that with vapour condensation from 740 to 480 W m2 K1. Using the average values of U for each batch, the fouling curve for a series of runs can be determined for the particular operating conditions and tted to an appropriate equation, as for example in Figure 8 for a series of runs with Twall set to 130 C and a velocity of 0.14 m s1. Values of Rf both before and after the onset of vapour condensation are shown. In determining values of Rf for these experiments, the values of Uo taken were those obtained from the rst batch of each fouling run, as this was considered to provide the best indication of a clean system, prior to the formation of further fouling deposit. Up to a total processing time of 42 h, both series of data could be tted to equations showing the same linear rate of increase of Rf with time, with dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1. For processing times from 42 to 76 h a reduced rate was observed, given by dRf=dt 6 106 m2 kW1 h1 before vapour condensation, and dRf=dt 8 106 m2 kW1 h1 after condensation starts. The existence of two distinct regions of different slope in the fouling resistance curves is not unexpected, similar curves are well known (Fryer et al., 1997; Hewitt et al., 1994), where the initial rapid rate of fouling slows to produce a nal equilibrium deposit.

Figure 8. Changes in the fouling resistance curves, before and after vapour condensation for a series of 20 batch boils (total processing time 76 h). Processing conditions: Twall, 130 C; velocity, 0.14m s1. Lines show the curves used to calculate the rate of fouling for each condition: solid line, no vapour condensation, dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1 (042 h) and dRf=dt 6 106 m2 kW1 h1 (4276 h); dashed line, with vapour condensation, dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1 (042 h) and dRf=dt 8 106 m2 kW1 h1 (4276 h).

that the amount of deposit formed was not limited by depletion of the fouling precursor species up to at least 90 min boiling. In accordance with brewery practice therefore, all further experiments were carried out at a standard batch boiling time of 90 min.

In uence of Wall Temperature Anecdotal evidence from brewery operators and others (Reed, 1991; Hancock and Andrews, 1996) suggests that wall temperatures have a strong in uence on the rate of fouling; minimizing the temperature driving force reduces the degree of fouling and subsequent need for cleaning. Operational constraints prevented experiments being

In uence of Total Boiling Time In a separate series of experiments under the same conditions, individual batch boils were carried out for only 45 min instead of the normal value of 90 min. The absence of any signi cant differences in the heat transfer for a given total process time in the two series, and the steady rates of decrease for both coef cients, shown in Figure 9, suggests

Figure 9. The in uence of batch processing time on the measured average heat transfer coef cients with and without vapour condensations, as a function of total processing time. For all experiments: Twall, 130 C; velocity, 0.14 m s1 (Re 7600).

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Figure 10. The in uence of the test section wall temperature on the fouling resistance curves, in the absence of vapour condensation. For all experiments, wort velocity was 0.14 m s1. The solid line shows the curve used to calculate the rate of fouling at all three conditions: dRf=dt 1 105 m2 kW1 h1.

Figure 12. The in uence of wort velocity on the fouling resistance curves, in the absence of vapour condensation. For all experiments, Twall was 130 C. Lines show the curves used to calculate the rate of fouling at each condition: solid line, velocity 0.07 m s1; dotted line, velocity 0.14 m s1 dRf=dt 1 105 m2 kW1 h1 for both; dashed line, velocity 0.18 m s1dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1.

carried out at lower wall temperatures, although the higher temperatures used in comparison with brewery practice would exaggerate the effect of temperature driving force on the rate of fouling. Figures 10 and 11 show the in uence of test section wall temperature on the development of the fouling resistance curves, before and after vapour condensation, respectively. Within each set of data (before and after vapour condensation) the values of Rf appear independent of wall temperature over the total processing time investigated (equivalent to 12 batch boils, i.e. up to 42 h processing for a wall temperature of 130 C), and increase linearly with time, with the equations dRf=dt 1 105 m2 kW1 h1 (Figure 10) and dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1 (Figure 11), respectively.

The lack of any temperature dependence in Rf appears to contradict brewing industry experience. However, the results may re ect the fact that the measured values of Rf are derived from averaged heat transfer measurements over the whole test section and may be complicated by the different amounts and types of deposit observed at different positions along the test section and in industrial plant. It may also be that in thermosyphon systems the velocity of ow depends on the temperature driving forces in the system. The lack of any signi cant effect of temperature suggests that the deposition process does not have a thermal activation energy, such as might be expected for a chemical reaction process, or a decrease in solubility of the material with increasing temperature. The lower rate of deposition under conditions before vapour condensation compared with that afterwards suggests that the deposition is closely connected with evaporation, since nucleate boiling can lead to very high solute concentration factors.

In uence of Wort Velocity Curves for Rf without and with condensation of vapour at wort velocities of 0.07, 0.14 and 0.18 m s1 (corresponding to Re 3800, 7600 and 9900) at a wall temperature of 130 C are shown in Figures 12 and 13, respectively, for processing times up to 52 h (equivalent to 12 batch boils at velocity 0.18 m s1; Re 9900). For the case with no vapour condensing (Figure 12), there is very little difference between the curves obtained at 0.07 and 0.14 m s1. Both curves show a constant rate of fouling, expressed by the equation dRf=dt 1 105 m2 kW1 h1 up to a processing time of 42 h. At 0.18 m s1, however, the curve suggests an increase in the heat transfer coef cient (negative Rf) with increasing process time (dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1).

Figure 11. The in uence of the test section wall temperature on the fouling resistance curves, with vapour condensation. For all experiments, wort velocity was 0.14m s1. The dashed line shows the curve used to calculate the rate of fouling at all three conditions: dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1.

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TSE et al. suggest that the rate of deposition is likely to be higher at lower velocities, thus giving the observed higher values of dRf=dt. The results indicate that in terms of operational parameters, the rate of wort fouling is more strongly in uenced by the uid velocity than the wall temperature of the test section. Mechanistically, the crucial factor appears to be the extent of nucleate boiling, whether or not this leads to the production of condensable vapour at the outlet from the test section. However, there will be a degree of interaction between the two operating parameters investigated. An increase in the wall temperature, with its consequent in uence on the amount of vapour produced, will increase the degree of thermosyphon action, thus affecting the wort velocity through the test section. Consequently, it may be that any effect of wall temperature in these experiments has been mediated by the associated increase in wort velocity through the test section.

Figure 13. The in uence of wort velocity on the fouling resistance curves, with vapour condensation. For all experiments, Twall was 130 C. Lines show the curves used to calculate the rate of fouling at each condition: solid line, velocity 0.07 m s1, dRf=dt 4 105 m2 kW1 h1 (015 h) and dRf=dt 6 106 m2 kW1 h1 (1541 h); dotted line, velocity 0.14 m s1, dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1 (035 h). No valid t could be obtained for velocity 0.18 m s1.

Nature of the Deposition Following each series of experimental runs, the test section was removed and samples of the deposit taken for analysis. Visual assessment suggested that there were signicantly larger amounts of deposit on the lower sections, although the variations along the test sections depended heavily on the processing conditions (Tse et al., 2003). The heaviest deposition overall was at the bottom of the test section and was obtained at the lowest ow-rate and the lightest at the highest wall temperature, near the top of the test section. Variations were also observed in the nature of the deposit over the length of the section. Towards the bottom of the test section the deposit was continuous, multi-layered, quite granular in appearance and dark brown in colour (Figure 14a and c). Near the top of the section, it formed a very thin, smooth layer, lighter in colour and interrupted at intervals either by slightly heavier patches of deposit or by apparently clean areas of test section (Figure 14b and d). As the wall temperature was increased, the transition from the heavy multi-layered type to smoother, more interrupted deposit occurred lower down the test section. Chemical analyses of the two types of deposit (Tse et al., 2003) showed signi cant differences in their composition. This suggests that at least two different fouling mechanisms may be involved, possibly chemical reaction of species in the wort to form polymers or other new chemical species, and crystallisation of species as a result of evaporation of the wort at bubble nucleation sites in nucleate boiling regions. A study has been conducted into the composition and morphology of the deposit and results are reported elsewhere (Tse et al., 2003).

Examination of the test section after completion of this experimental series showed a continuous layer of powdery deposit, strongly adhering to the wall over the entire length of the test section, in comparison with the multi-layered deposits observed at the inlets to the test sections at the lower wort velocities. If the homogeneous deposition promoted the onset of nucleate boiling, possibly in a manner similar to that described by Macbeth (1977), this could explain the decrease of Rf below zero, since it would increase the overall heat transfer coef cient. At the lower velocities it would appear that the amount or morphology of the deposit is more effective in reducing heat transfer than any increase in nucleate boiling that may take place as a result of deposition. The Rf curves for conditions with condensation of vapour (Figure 13) for all three wort velocities are signi cantly different. At 0.07 m s1 the rate of fouling initially follows the equation dRf=dt 4 105 m2 kW1 h1 for the rst 15 h, and then decreases signi cantly to follow the expression dRf=dt 8 106 m2 kW1 h1. It is not clear whether this represents a change in the rate of deposition, or in the nature of the deposit; a possible explanation might be an extension of nucleate boiling to cover almost the whole of the test section. In comparison, the initial rate of fouling at 0.14 m s1 is half the initial rate at 0.07 m s1, with dRf=dt 2 105 m2 kW1 h1. No reduction in the rate of fouling is observed until after about 42 h of processing, when the rate reduces to the same value as for velocity 0.07 m s1, dRf=dt 8 106 m2 kW1 h1 (Figure 8). The rate of fouling is lowest at the highest wort velocity (0.18 m s1), although due to the degree of scatter it is not possible to obtain a valid t for the curve. At all three velocities Rf increases faster than when no vapour is being condensed, supporting the view that the rate of deposition is controlled by nucleate boiling. The higher mass ows of vapour at the lower velocities (Figure 6),

CONCLUSIONS A series of experiments have been undertaken in a single-tube model system to resolve the problem of wort boiling fouling in brewery operations. The results of the study show that material is deposited over the duration of Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part C, March 2003

RATE AND EXTENT OF FOULING

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Figure 14. The fouled test sections after exposure to 18 h boiling. (a, c) Lower sections, corresponding to heaters 810, showing the darker-coloured, clearly porous deposit, which forms a heavy, multi-layered deposit on the internal surface. (b, d) Upper sections, corresponding to heaters 13, showing the thin layers of lighter coloured deposit, interspersed with patches of very light fouling. (a, b) Twall 130 C, Re 3800; and (c, d) Twall 170 C, Re 7600. For all test sections, diameter is 3=8 inch.

the boiling process, therefore the longer the boil, the greater the amount of fouling. Contrary to industry indications, no signi cant effects of wall temperature on the rate of fouling were observed and a single, constant value was found for the rate of increase of fouling resistance for a given wort velocity. Under conditions when no vapour was condensed there was little impact of wort velocity on the fouling curves, but signi cant differences were observed under conditions when vapour was produced and condensed.

REFERENCES
Andrews, J.M.H., 1992, External wort boilinglatest developments, Proc Conv Institute of Brewing (Australian and New Zealand Section), Melbourne, Vol. 22, pp 6568. Briggs, D.E., Hough, J.S., Stevens, R. and Young, T.W., 1982, Methods of wort boiling and hop extraction, in Malting and Brewing Science, Vol. 2: Hopped Wort and Beer, 2nd edition (Chapman and Hall, London), pp 499526. Fryer, P.J., Pyle, D.L. and Reilly, C.D. (eds), 1997, Thermal treatment of foods, in Chemical Engineering for the Food Industry (Chapman & Hall, London), pp 365382. Hancock, J.C. and Andrews, J.M.H., 1996, Wort boiling, Ferment, 9: 212217. Hewitt, G.F. and Roberts, D.N., 1969, Studies of two-phase ow patterns by simultaneous ash and x-ray photography, AERE-M2159. Hewitt, G.F., Shires, G.L. and Bott, T.R., 1994, Fouling of heat exchangers, in Process Heat Transfer (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL), pp 857877. Kollnberger, P., 1984, Wort boiling systemsnew developments, MBAA Tech Q, 21(3): 124130. Lewis, M.J. and Young, T.W., 1995, Hop chemistry and wort boiling, in Brewing (Chapman & Hall, London), pp 129140. Macbeth, R.V ., 1977, Fouling in boiling water systems, in Two-phase Flow and Heat Transfer, Butterworth, D. and Hewitt, G.F. (eds) (Oxford University Press, Oxford). Reed, R.J.R., 1991, In uence of mixing, shear and surface temperatures in wort boilers, in EBC Symposium on Wort Boiling and Clari cation, Strasbourg (Verlag Hans Carl Getra nke-Fachverlag, Nu rnberg), pp 5873. Renfrew, L.L., 1999, New advancements in cleaning technology, MBAA Tech Q, 36(1): 8591. Tse, K.L., Shao, F., Pritchard, A.M. and Fryer, P.J., 2001, Studies of fouling in wort boiling systems, Proc 6th World Cong Chemical Engineering, Melbourne. Tse, K.L., Pritchard, A.M. and Fryer, P.J., 2003, Characterisation of wort fouling deposits under ow and boiling conditions (submitted).

NOMENCLATURE
Cp,g Cp,l Gg Gl mevap min Qwall Rf Re t Tin Tout Twall U Uo DTLM speci c heat capacity of vapour, J kg1 K1 speci c heat capacity of liquid, J kg1 K1 mass ux of vapour, kg s1 m2 mass ux of liquid, kg s1 m2 mass of evaporate, kg mass ow rate at inlet, kg rate of heat transfer across test section wall, W fouling resistance, m2 kW1 Reynolds number time, s temperature at inlet, K temperature at outlet, K wall temperature of test section, K overall heat transfer coef cient, W m2 K1 clean heat transfer coef cient, W m2 K1 log mean temperature difference, K

Greek symbols rg vapour density, kg m3 rl liquid density, kg m3 l latent heat of evaporation, J kg1

Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part C, March 2003

22 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TSE et al. ADDRESS

Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to Professor P.J. Fryer, Centre for Formulation Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK. E-mail: p.j.fryer@bham.ac.uk The manuscript was received 23 October 2002 and accepted for publication after revision 28 February 2003.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support of the EPSRC. This work was carried out as part of the IMI project number GR=M15446-16146-16139 entitled Process Engineering Modelling for Brewing and Fermentation managed by Brewing Research International.

Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part C, March 2003