CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL PHYSICS

CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY

LEARNING OUTCOMES
NUMBER i ii iii iv v vi vii viii

LEARNING OUTCOME
Recall certain properties of charged particles. Understand what causes free moving charges to flow producing electric current. What is potential difference? Understand the concept of resistance and understand its relationship with electric power dissipated Sketch the current vs. potential difference curves for certain materials U n d e r s t a n d O h m s L a w Understand the meaning of resistivity and relate it to the resistance of a material Understand the concept of the electromotive force and learn how internal resistance affects potential difference across a d.c. source

PROPERTIES OF CHARGED PA R T I C L E S
Molecules that have an acquired an excess of electrons will be negatively charged, while molecules that are electron deficient are positively charged. Charged particles, whether positive or negative will experience a force in an electric field. Charge is the property of matter that will cause it to experience an electric force in an electric field.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current is the net movement of charges from one region to another. When the electric field across a conductor is zero, there is no current even though some electrons are free to move about in random directions.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
What happens when we apply a electric field across the ends of a conductor? There will be a resultant displacement causing the electrons to drift in the direction of the electric force causing a current to flow.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
The blue path indicates the path of a random moving electron without an E field acting across the conductor. The pink path shows the path of an electron under the influence of an external E field. Notice that this produces a net displacement on the electron. This net displacement produces a flow of charges through the conductor. This results in an electric current.
Diagram 25.1, page 819, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
In conductors, the free moving charges are electrons. However, current is the net flow of positive particles.

Diagram 25.2, page 820, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Assume we a conductor of cross sectional area, . The amount of current flowing is defined as the net charge flowing through the cross sectional area, per second. If is the net charge flowing through the surface area in time , then the current, Unit of electric current = A (Ampere)
Diagram 25.3, page 820, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
From the previous slide we have . The unit for Coulomb (C) or . Definition: 1 Coulomb is defined as the amount of electric charge carried by an electric current of 1 Ampere in 1 second.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, Question 34.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 34.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, Question 31.

HOMEWORK
1. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 30. 2. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 31. 3. May/Jun 2011, Paper 11, question 31.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
As learned in the previous chapter, the direction of electric force on a charged particle in an E field is opposite to the direction of increasing electric potential energy. Hence, (conventional ) current flows in the direction of decreasing electrical potential energy. When current flows, the charges lose electric potential energy.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Since the amount of charges that flow is great, another quantity is used to measure the change in electric potential energy that occurs. This quantity is known as potential difference. Definition: Potential difference is the amount of electric energy transformed into other forms, like heat, per unit of charge.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The unit for potential difference is the Volt (V) (or J/C). Definition: 1 Volt is the potential difference between two points when 1 Joule of energy is transferred by one Coulomb passing from one point to the other.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
When charges flow, they flow from a point higher potential to a point with lower potential. This causes the charges to transfer their energy into forms (e.g. heat, light). This energy transferred is the potential difference between the two points.
Diagram 25.7, page 825, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 1, Question 33.

HOMEWORK
1. May/June 2008, Paper 1, question 35. 2. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 31. 3. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 32.

RESISTANCE
When electric current flows, there is a resistance offered by the ions in the conductor. This is due to the collisions that occur between the moving charges and the ions in the conductor. Definition: The electric resistance, is defined as the ratio of potential difference across (in V) to the amount of current (in A) that flows through a specific conductor or .

RESISTANCE
The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (). Definition: 1 ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor that has a potential difference of 1 volt when 1 Ampere of current flows through it. or
1= .

RESISTANCE
When electric current flows through certain elements, there is a decrease in electric potential energy in the charges. What happens to this energy? As the charges flow, they collide with the ions of the element and the electric potential energy is transferred to the ions as internal energy. The increased internal energy will cause heat to be dissipated from the element.

RESISTANCE
Let us say that we need to do work, to move Coulombs of charge across a potential difference of V. This work, or Hence, we obtain . Electric power dissipated (in Watts ), or (since )

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 1, Question 32.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 31.

HOMEWORK
1. 2. 3. 4. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 34. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 32. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 34. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 21, question 5.

I V CHARACTERISTICS
We plot current (I) versus potential difference (V) graphs to show how a varying potential difference across a specific material will affect the current through the conductor. We will limit our discussion to a constantan wire, a semiconductor diode and a filament lamp.

I V CHARACTERISTICS
The constantan wire The diagram shows the I V curve for a specimen of constantan wire at a constant temperature. The curve is a straight line indicating a linear relationship between current, I and potential difference, V.

Diagram 25.10 (a), page 827, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

I V CHARACTERISTICS
The slope of the straight line passing through the origin gives the inverse of the resistance of the specimen, or
in -1.

When potential difference is negative, current is also negative indicating that when the polarities of the ends are reversed, the current will flow in the opposite direction.
Diagram 25.10 (a), page 827, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

I V CHARACTERISTICS
The semiconductor diode The diagram shows the I V curve for a specimen of a semiconducting diode. For positive voltages, the current increases non linearly with the potential difference across it once the threshold voltage is crossed.. For negative potential differences, there will be a very small current flowing, in the direction opposite to the direction of the positive current, up till before the breakdown voltage.
Source: http://www.societyofrobots.com/images/DiodeChart.gif

I V CHARACTERISTICS
Diodes are devices that allow current to flow in one direction; i.e., a one way valve. To find the resistance of the diode for a particular voltage, V, we read off the graph the value of current, I. We then find the resistance, R, as

Source: http://www.societyofrobots.com/images/DiodeChart.gif

I V CHARACTERISTICS
The filament lamp The diagram shows the I V curve for a specimen of a filament lamp. Initially, the current flowing in it and the voltage across it are linearly proportional. As the voltage increases, the slope of the curve decrease. This means that as the voltage gets larger, the incremental rise in current gets smaller.
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/ph_elect14.gif

I V CHARACTERISTICS
This only could happen if the resistance gets larger. Why does the resistance of the filament lamp increase as voltage across it gets larger? As the voltage across it gets larger, the heat generated will be greater, causing the metal ions to vibrate with a greater amplitude. The frequency of collisions between charges and the metal ions will increase. This leads to higher resistance offered to current flow by the filament.
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/ph_elect14.gif

OHMS LAW
Definition: Ohms Law states that for a conductor at a constant temperature, the current through it is directly proportional to the potential difference across it.

OHMS LAW
If we examine the I V curves for the three devices as shown above, only of the devices exhibits a proportional relationship between current and potential difference. This means that if we plot an I V curve for a material at a constant temperature and obtain a linear relationship, that material obeys Ohms Law. For such devices, we can obtain the resistance by finding the inverse of the gradient of the I V curve.

RESISTIVITY
The resistance of a material depends on the:
1. The type of material, 2. The length of the material, and 3. The cross sectional area of the material.

The effect of the type of material on the resistance of the material is known as the resistivity of the material.

RESISTIVITY
Definition: The resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance between the opposite faces of a cube of the material, of unit length and unit cross sectional area.

RESISTIVITY
How are the resistance of a wire and resistivity of the wires material related mathematically?

where = resistance, in ; = cross = resistivity, in m; sectional area of the wire, in m2, length of conductor, in m.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 1, Question 34.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, Question 31.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 32.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, Question 34.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, Question 34.

HOMEWORK
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 32. Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 33. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 31. May/June 2010, Paper 21, question 6. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 32. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 33. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 23, question 8. May/Jun 2011, Paper 11, question 33.

HOMEWORK
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. May/Jun 2011, Paper 11, question 34. May/Jun 2011, Paper 12, question 33. May/Jun 2011, Paper 21, question 1. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 33. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 34.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

To move charges around in a circuit, energy must be transferred to the a unit charge to cause the charge to traverse the circuit. Definition: The electromotive force (emf) is the amount of change of other forms of energy, like chemical or mechanical into electrical energy per unit of charge. The emf can also be defined as the energy transferred by the source on a unit of charge to drive the unit charge around the circuit.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

Diagram on the left shows an ideal emf source is the electric force acting on the positive charge produced by the E field. The non electrostatic force, is produced by an external source. In a battery / fuel cell, is produced by the chemical reactions that occur. In a generator is produced by the magnetic forces that act on the charges.
Diagram 25.13, page 829, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

Diagram shows what happens when the ideal emf source is connected to an external circuit. Let us assume that the positive charge starts at point b, and is moved to point a. The work done by , . Work done per unit charge,

The work done per unit charge by is the emf causing current to flow.
Diagram 25.14, page 829, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

The charge gains electric potential energy as it moves from b to a. The E field that is produced by the circuit will cause the charges to flow (in the circuit) from a to b (higher to lower potential) When the charges return to point b after a completing a loop, the gain in electric potential energy in moving from b to a (in source) will have to dropped across the circuit. Hence, , where current that flows, resistance of circuit.
Diagram 25.14, page 829, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

The diagram shows an electric source. A electric source has an internal resistance, between points b and a. This produces a lower potential difference between a and b as compared to the ideal source. Hence, Or,

Source: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/302l/lectures/img635.png

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

For an electric source, the potential difference across the terminals would be equal to the emf only if there is no current flowing through the source. For example, a dry cell with an emf = 1.5 V would have a potential difference = 1.5 V across the terminals when I = 0. When current flows, the potential difference across the terminals would be less than 1.5 V.
Source: http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/302l/lectures/img635.png

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, Question 36.

EXAMPLES
May/Jun 2009, Paper 1, Question 32.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, Question 30.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 21, Question 6(contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, Question 32.

HOMEWORK
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 30. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 35. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 33. May/June 2011, Paper 11, question 32. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 34. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 35. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 36. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 35.