Siri Benn Senior Seminar March 18, 2014 The Multiplicity of Medieval Wind Diagrams As one interacts with

the Four Winds Diagram from the scholastic theologian Peter of Poiters Epitome Historiae Sacrae from 1300 (fig. 1), the concentric circles and winding text begin to hypnotize the viewer. The eye is drawn inward and outward as it follows the rings. It seems difficult to decide where to begin first. To our modern minds, the text seems to be a logical place to start unpacking the diagram, but there are visual elements that demand our attention. Faces with animated breaths stare out at the viewer, and smaller figures squirm in roundels around the edges of the circle. And then there is the uncontained Christ. His body is gone, but his hands, feet, and haloed head identify him. Overall, there seems to be something meaningful about the overall placement of the circles. After time spent meditating over the picture, the viewer cannot help but notice the repetitions of numbers and strong delineations along the vertical and horizontal axis. The pattern of concentric circles burns an imprint on ones inner eye, so that the image is never far from memorys recall. There is a strong sense that the layout of this picture has been carefully determined, but its purpose is not clear. Even the main text that accompanies the diagram gives us no information. The Four Winds Diagram precludes a long chart concerning the genealogy of Christ. This bears little relation to the diagram, and brings us no closer to unpacking the diagram. Unlike the diagrams in modern textbooks and newspapers, this image comes with no explanatory caption to help the viewer extract information.

Instead, the viewer is left to grapple with the images implicit meanings while attempting to incorporate the textual elements placed within its circular framework. Our diagrams design is far from arbitrary, but there is no simple answer to explain it meaning or use. While this might frustrate modern viewers, to a learned scholastic theologian the overlap of pictorial and verbal significances would have been an intellectual delight. This plays to the notion of multiplicity, which is paramount to understanding medieval philosophy and intellectual taste. Just as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost were the same substance, they were fundamentally different entities. With this example in mind, it seems plausible that images could have multiple correct meanings as well. In fact, it was very much the tradition of theologians at this time to create multi-themed works, be they texts or images.1 I would like to argue that Peter of Poitiers Four Winds Diagram is such an image, which epitomizes the medieval predilection towards a multiplicity of meanings. The diagram contains four congruent readings, which I would like to argue take no precedent over one another but exist contemporaneously. My analysis will begin with the first subtopic of iconography (in this case iconography of winds), the second is its exegetical function, the third being mnemonic significance, and the fourth being the diagrams own self-consciousness as an image. My argument combines work by previous scholars, who have all attempted to give a single hermeneutic reading to the diagram, rather than underline its multiplicity. By
Anna Esmeijer, Divina Quaternitas: a Preliminary Study in the Method and Application of Visual Exegesis.Assen: Van Gorcum & Comp, 1978.
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combining this scholarship, I argue that we can understand the Four Winds Diagram as a personification of winds, a memory tool, and a metaphorical statement about pictorial representation, all at once. Before delving into the first subtopic of iconography, it is prudent to familiarize oneself with the intellectual and historical context Peter of Poitiers diagram. Because the history of scholasticism is immense and sprawling, we will only focus on the points that are crucial to understanding the intellectual culture surrounding the creation of the diagram. Peter of Poitiers (also referred to as Petrus Pictavinsis) was a scholastic theologian and teacher in Paris in the late twelfth century. His text, the Epitome Historiae Sacrae, is a compendium of the genealogy of Jesus Christ beginning with Adam (figure 2). The text is written on a lengthy scroll, similar to the likes that Peter was known to have hung up in his classroom when he was teaching. The task of complaining all of biblical history into the mentally accessible form of a genealogical tree illustrates a perfect example of the intellectual aims of medieval scholasticism. 2 A comparable example is the famous Mystic Ark imagined by the scholastic Hugh of St. Victor. In his lengthy article modern medievalist Conrad Rudolph digitally reconstructs Hughs complex diagram of everything known to Christians regarding history and the cosmos (figure 3).3 In the example of the Mystic Ark, some information is based on ancient Aristotelian ideas of the known world, and other portions come from scriptural analysis of the Bible. Peters wind diagram, much

2 3

Esmeijer, Divina Quaternitas, 99. Conrad Rudolf, First, I Find the Center Point: Reading the Text of Hugh of Saint Victors The Mystic Ark. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 4 (2004).

like Hugh of St. Victors Arc combines sacred and secular knowledge, which is seen in its iconographical content (and will be explored more deeply later on). For now, it is crucial to understand that it is this very cohesion of scriptural and classical information that typified Scholastic thought in the middle ages. 4 It is important to underline the reverence medieval scholars showed towards antiquity. Not only did scholars have great respect for their methods of exercising memory and rhetoric, but they deeply respected their thinkers as well. Philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, and Plotinus were read and synthesized with doctrine to add a philosophical dimension to Christian thought. We should be careful not see the ancient and medieval world as being at odds, but rather as a cohesion of ideas in order to attempt an understanding of the universe.5 One of the most straightforward appropriations from antiquity that the diagram makes is found in its iconography. Put simply the Four Winds Diagram is about winds. Medieval understanding of the nature of winds was inherited ancient knowledge, much like the aforementioned ideas on rhetoric and philosophy. To the literate observer, this diagram would have offered straightforward information about the winds as scholars knew them in that day. But we should not assume that all information on winds was quite standardized, or that their depictions would be either. According to Barbara Obrist, the leading scholar in medieval wind diagrams,

4 Maryanne

Cline Horowitz, The New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 1 ed., s.v. Scholasticism." New York: Charles Scribners & Sons, 2004. 2175.

Horowitz, The History of Ideas. Rhetoric." .

representations of the winds are not only diverse but also numerous. 6 Indeed if one visually compares the range of diagrams made throughout the middle ages, all kinds of schema and iconography are used to express different ideas about the winds (figures 4,5,6). However, there are some general similarities throughout the diagrams that help us understand the basic medieval understanding of winds. One of the most consistent visual themes that can be seen throughout these diagrams is the connection made between winds and the cardinal directions. We can discern the locations of the cardinal directions in the diagram by the labels of occidens for west (found to the right, 4th row out), oriens for east (same row to the left) meridiens for south (to the top), and septentrio for north (bottom). These four winds would carry weather from their directions, often giving them a character (for example, the north wind was harsh). The four cardinal winds were sometimes accompanied by four or eight ordinal winds, also known as ministeriales, which are placed here on an axis diagonal to the four main points. 7 These ministeraiales were thought to be less predictable than the cardinal winds, and are therefore treated as lesser forces. It is significant that their fall in status should push them beyond the outer blue ring of the diagram. This suggests that because of their chaotic nature, they do not fit into the ordered universe like the cardinal winds do. 8 By differentiating an inside and outside in the diagram, we are forced to unpack the rest of the image to understand the universe that is being depicted. By consulting the text in the circles,
6 7 8

Barbara Obrist, Wind Diagrams and Medieval Cosmology. Speculum 72, no. 1 (1997): 40-1. Esmeijer, Divina Quaternitas, 98. Obrist, Wind Diagrams, 83.

we gain more insight into this visualized schema of the cosmos. We see a general representation of the planetary orbits as the red rings that surround the inner sphere of the earth (figure 7). While the poem is not the main focus of our iconographic analysis, it must be considered when trying to unpack the symbols of the diagram. One begins reading in the center of the diagram, where earth is represented as a complete circle. From there, one continues to the bottom right and reads clockwise. The text is a shorter version of a longer poem on winds from seventh century theologian Isidore of Sevilles book De natura rerum. The first three lines of text in the central medallion read: Four winds rise up from a fourfold boundary. Around these four winds twin winds are joined on the right and on the left. And so they surround the world with a twelvefold blast9 The next line reads, First is Aparctias Arctos to blow from the axis, introducing us right away to the anthropomorphized winds.10 The rest of the text concerns itself with descriptions of the personified winds. According to Obrist, textual passages regarding the role of the winds were often pushed to the outside, where they again tend to fall into patterns reflecting the disposition of winds in the four parts of the world,11 as is seen in figure 4. In Four Winds Diagram the text is

ibid, 35 ibid, 39. 11 ibid, 66.

9 10

wound throughout the image, speaking directly to the popularity of symbolizing winds with human-like traits. The textual passage and the visual symbolism of the Four Winds Diagram give us a general understanding of the location and origin of winds in the cosmos. Because the heads of the personified winds remain within the largest concentric circle of the diagram, we are lead to assume that they are sublunary forces. This is an important distinction to make, for it reveals the importance of the personification of the winds in the first place. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, winds would be attributed to the celestial spheres, where they were would be at the whim of Gods ministrations. 12 In order to grasp the full theological weight of the iconography, we must appreciate this elevated status of winds as direct agents of God, rather than indirect consequences of his power. It is our understanding of this importance of winds that allows us to deduce the second aspect of the diagram; its visual statement or exegesis. The word exegesis refers to an interpretation of a text, usually something religious. This idea of giving an explanation visually, not verbally, is thusly referred to as visual exegesis. While literary exegesis was quite common in the Middle Ages, visual exegesis was used when words had a hard time encapsulating or synthesizing something. In the Four Winds Diagram, the accompanying poem gives us no insight into the connection between God and winds. Rather, it is all suggested by the images design and symbols. By personifying the winds as breathing heads, the viewer is more likely to think of

12

ibid, 35.

them as the actual breath of God who could act metaphorically [as] the action of the incorporeal (and immaterial) Christian Divine Spirit13. Our other iconographic clue is that of the encircling form of Christ. Had the figure of Christ not been present in this diagram, it would have been much more difficult for a viewer to make the connection between God and his terrestrial winds on their own. In our diagram, however, the parallel is made more obvious by aligning the winds on the same axis as the head, hands, and feet of Christ.14 A similar use of exegesis is found in the previously mentioned example of Hugh of St. Victors Mystic Ark (figure 3). The two diagrams share similar symbols (most noticeable being the encompassing form of Christ), and their subject matter is roughly the same (depictions of the cosmos). Rhetorically, they also operate similarly, relying on the utilization of visual exegesis. It is clear that Hugh of St. Victor believed he could sum up the history of creation and the cosmos more succinctly in image than he could with words in his design of the Mystic Ark. Indeed, Conrad Rudolf recounts his struggles while trying to reproduce the image himself using the long set of directions Hugh leaves behind on the proper making of the Ark. It would seem that in this instance the image speaks more clearly than words. Likewise in the Four Winds Diagram, the presence of Christ so closely connected to the personified winds makes a visual suggestion between the relationship of wind and Gods power. One

13 14

ibid, 76. ibid, 83.

could surmise that the diagram is suggesting winds were a way in which humans can sense God, who is otherwise unknowable. 15 Moving away from the theme of iconography, we come to our third facet, which is that of the diagrams mnemonic significance. In order to appreciate this new aspect of the diagram, we must give ourselves over to the purely visual experience of it. While the concentric circles are emblematic of the earth and the heavens, they also provide a visual architecture in which the trajectory of ones eye is plotted out for them. This underscores the argument that multiple levels of function and meaning can coexist in a single image. Francis Yates, one of the first scholars of medieval memory arts, makes the argument that many diagrams from the eleventh and twelfth centuries show inspiration from the rhetorical and mnemonic techniques from antiquity. The mental demand on the minds of preaching monks like the Dominicans, and teachers at Universities increased, explaining the demand for their images to become more powerfully didactic. 16 Scholars and teachers alike capitalized on the ancient technique of mnemonic devices, such as images, to help recall vast amounts of information. This information could be lists, such as the seven virtues, or long theological glosses of scripture. The idea of an image lending itself to be used as a memory tool can be seen in the physical elements of the Four Winds Diagram.

15

ibid, 84. Francis Yates,. The Art of Memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966. 84-5.

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In our diagram there are repeated shapes and suggestive forms of crosses and repetitions of the number four. When compared to the Psalter Map (figure 8), the Four Winds Diagram is quite emblematic, with simple colors and geometricized shapes. The design seems much more deliberate, and therefore is able to direct how we experience the image physically. The revolving spheres in particular set the rhythm of the image, and guide the viewers eye. The bold lines make a pathway that controls ones gaze through the image, almost like a maze or labyrinth. Indeed it is no coincidence that the labyrinth on the floor of Chartres Cathedral shares such strong visual similarities to our diagram of winds. (figure 9) Everything about the design, from its shape, to the intricacy of its lines was worked out to make this diagram function to its full potential as a memory aid. One of the most prominent scholars on the medieval arts of memory is Mary Carruthers. Her work, along with Yates has progressed modern understanding of medieval memory practices and theory. One of her major points to understanding memory aids is the fact that they represented a process in which one mentally built a structure to house the information needed. She puts emphasis on the creative process of memory aids, suggesting that each mind palace had to be built specifically for the individual. She stresses that it is the act of mentally constructing memorial architectures that solidifies thoughts in ones mind, rather than dumping information into a template. This would allow a scholar to access any specific piece of information at will, giving them flexibility and ingenuity in their thinking. Carruthers summarizes this cognitive phenomenon thusly:

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the goal of rhetorical mnemotechnical craft was not to give students a prodigious memory for all the information they might be asked to repeat in an examination, but to give an orator the means and wherewithal to invent his material, both beforehand and- crucially- on the spot. Memoria is most usefully thought of as a compositional art. The arts of memory are among the arts of thinking, especially involved with fostering the qualities we now revere as imagination and creativity. 17 She makes a helpful clarification of the term rationes, in context of these memory aids which are not reasons of the sort that engage a philosopher but schemes or ordering devices, something like what structures and activates my computers memory in particular ways. They put matters in relationships and proportions, and make thinking possible. 18 In a sense, it was understood that God gave humans knowledge of ratios and relationships to help us make sense of his created world. Indeed, Carruthers goes on to describe Augustines memorial rationes are of numbers and dimension because numbering, measuring, and calculating, are all essential mnemonic means by which we make the mental webs we need in order to think. Unlike Hildegard Von Bingens mystical visions (figure 10) or the Byzantine Icon of the Pantokrator (figure 11), our Four Winds Diagram was not a holy image. There was no amount of extraterrestrial power within it. It did not function as an

17Carruthers,

The Craft of Thought: Meditation, Rhetoric, and the Making of Images 400-1200, 11. 18 Carruthers, The Craft of Thought, 33.

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icon, in which the image of Christ was equal to the presence of Christ. Likewise, memory aids were not imprinted on ones mind from God, or painted by the hands of angels. They were a craft of the rhetorician, who carefully designed the image to convey its own functional and iconographic significance to the viewer. Diagrams, such as ours, would have been understood as visual constructions, made by human hands for human modes of thinking. In practice it was believed that a viewer would be able recall information he or she had gained and stored away about the winds. In their meditation on winds, they would be led to think of their relationship to God. More specifically they would be reminded that winds, in fact, were thought to be corporeal evidence of God. From this point, the viewer would then be able to concentrate purely on visualizing God in his totality, which was the ultimate goal of Christian thought. Medieval theology and cognitive thought acknowledged the difficulty of this task. Indeed, because of Gods nature as the encompassing spirit of the universe, it was thought impossible to grasp gods true form while living. Church doctors like Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas Aquinas were both interested in the mental faculties of humans in picturing the divine form. While both agree that humans cannot comprehend God as an immaterial substance, we can sense his power through physical means. Aquinas cites a crucial scriptural passage as evidence that visible substances are the only way we can know god while alive. He writes: St. Paul in Romans 1 [20] says that the unseen things of God, his eternal power, and his godhead have been

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clearly seen from the creation of the world, i.e. by man, by understanding the things he has made.19 In the context of the discussion of our diagram, it begins to make sense why we see such emblematic representations of the cosmos and its winds. This brings us to the fourth and final facet of the diagram, which is that of its self-reflexivity. The theme of the images consciousness is arguably the broadest of all, and subsequently deals with the first three themes of this paper. The image seems to have knowledge of itself as a created image. While the Four Winds Diagrams subject is winds, I would argue that it is also about seeing something that is in reality invisible. To state an obvious fact, winds are invisible to our eyes, yet we can plainly look at their imagined forms. This still leaves viewers with a metaphorical gap between representation and idea. In order to bridge this gap, we must refer to medieval image theorists, who attempted to explain this very phenomenon. Mary Carruthers warns her readers to be aware of our modern biases towards the subject of representation. Her revised definition attempts to capture the medieval mindset of representation, which is tied closely with ideas of memory, imagination, and rhetoric. She explains representation, as we have seen, was understood not in an objective or reproductive sense as often as in a temporal one; signs make something present to the mind by acting on memory. She goes on to point out that the Latin verb repraesentare, represent, is derived from the word meaning present

Thomas Aquinas trans. Timothy S. McDermott., Aquinas: Selected Philosophical Writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, 43.
19

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in time, praesens. 20 Her points suggest medieval image theorists held images in high esteem, finding them worthwhile tools for meditation. However, this elevated status of images was not always the case. During the eighth and ninth centuries, waves of anxiety over art and reproductions washed over Western Europe, stemming from the intense debates over iconoclasm that were being waged in the East. 21 Theologians and artists were forced to confront the second commandment given to Moses in Exodus 20:4. God commands that you shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.22 Was any image of God or Christ inherently idolatrous? To iconoclasts, the answer was always yes. The form of God was inherently immaterial, and therefore could not be seen. But to supporters of images, an image provided a way for Christians to illicit pious thoughts in their mind. Early Church fathers like Pope Gregory the Great made reasoned defenses of art suggesting that pictures could teach the illiterate and unlearned. He maintained that while images should not be worshiped in and of themselves, they should not be destroyed because they were helpful in the act of teaching. In Gregorys mind, the illiterate and uneducated would look at the sacred images and be emotionally moved upward. Their thoughts could be coerced towards a more suitable contemplation of God. By the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, theologians like Thomas Aquinas had a far more complex understanding of the nature of cognition and images, which is
Mary Carruthers, The Book of Memory: a Study of Memory in Medieval Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, 221-222. 21 Herbert L Kessler, Neither God Nor Man: Words, Images, and the Medieval Anxiety About Art. 1. Aufl. ed. Freiburg im Br.: Rombach, 2007, 25. 22 The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version.. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
20

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evidenced in his philosophical treatise Expositio super Liberum Boethii de Trinitate. He states: All our knowing begins from sense-perception: what informs the senses informs the imaginationand in us goes on to inform understanding, since what our mind tries to understand is (the world of) our images, as Aristotle explains.23 He expounds further on the importance of images to the human intellect by citing Aristotle again; the intellect cant operate without images. In divine matters then we must have recourse to imagination.24 There is a sense from all of this that there is a connection between imagination and knowledge. The images that present themselves in the minds eye are not random or useless, but mental ruminations on Gods divine will. To Aquinas, humans as inherently sensory creatures, can only attempt know god by aligning our sense perceptions with our imagination. Although this does not allow one to consider God in his entirety, it is the highest mental state one can hope to achieve in ones lifetime, according to Aquinas. 25 To help contextualize Aquinas epistemological theories, we should look back to the only part of the Four Winds Diagram we have not discussed. This is the form of Christ encircling the outer sphere of the universe. While its simpler iconographic reading might be that Christ reminds us that everything in the universe moves under

Aquinas, Selected Philosophical Writings, 40. ibid,39. 25 ibid 42.

23 24

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in the heavenly order ordained by God, there is a more complex statement being made. This relates to our fourth topic, which is the self-consciousness of the diagram. It is not happenstance that Christ, as maestas domini, or Christ triumphant, was chosen to encircle the diagram. His presence signals to the viewer that the diagram supports the idea that the immaterial can be comprehended through visual means. Looking to literary sources, we see that one of the most popular defenses of image making throughout the Middle Ages was that of Christs body being the visible form of God. This theory finds a visual parallel, for this diagram depicts an image of invisible winds just as winds were a physical way humans could sense God. 26 Another layer to this puzzle of physical representation is Peter Poitiers accompanying text, the Genealogy of Christ. It shows an express interest in the terrestrial Christ, or the time when God was made flesh and walked on earth. Therefore I would argue that it is not a coincidence that this diagram precludes such a study.27 Although the genealogy and the diagram do not elucidate one anothers meaning, they certainly augment each other. To modern viewers, this relationship between image and text is unexpected, and seemingly unrelated, but to a medieval viewer, part of the challenge would have been to make theological connections through the different layers of meaning. As we recount the multiple layers of meaning in the Four Winds Diagram, we as viewers are forced to admit that there are numerous correct interpretations of the
Nino Zchomelidse, Deus-Homo-Imago: Representing the Divine in the Twelfth Century, in Looking Beyond: Visions, Dreams, and Insights in Medieval Art and History, ed. Colum Hourihane, (Princeton, N.J., 2010),114-5. 27 Esmeijer, Divina Quaterinitas 98-99.
26

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image. Our diagram has a fourfold meaning, first being an iconographic representation of winds, second as a piece of visual exegesis, third as a memory device, and fourth as a self-reflexive image. All four of these themes manifest themselves in the elements of design rather than in a textual explanation. It would certainly take a visually literate eye to begin to appreciate the multiplicity of meanings, which further complicates how this diagram was used. Even if one assumes that the viewer was not ichnographically or verbally literate, they would still be able to appreciate a more straightforward reading that would take pleasure in the visual symmetry and from of Christ. To those that were educated, this diagram would have provided an intellectual challenge that would have necessitated their minds to be able to comprehend the parallel narratives told visually. While this multiplicity does not suit our modern tastes of information display, the Four Winds Diagram epitomizes Christian image theory and the complexity of medieval images.

17

(Figure 1) Four Winds Diagram, Austria; (ca. 1300) Jrn Gnther, Antiquariat, Hamburg.

18

(Figure 2) Epitome Historiae Sacrae, French, (1100s) Newberry Library MS +22.I

19

(Figure 3)The Mystic Ark, Digital reconstruction, Clement/Han/Rudolph.

20

(Figure 4) The Winds, from the Paraphrase of De Natura Rerum by Bede and other Scientific Writings, (11901200) England, MS W.73 Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

21

(Figure 5) T-O Wind Map, (9 cent),MS 212/I, fol. 109r.

th

(Figure 6) Wind Map, (ca. 8-9 cent) MS 1830, fol. 3v.

th

22

(Figure 7) (Detail of Four Winds Diagram)

23

(Figure 8) Psalter World Map, Northern Germany, (ca. 1260), British Library of London.

24

(Figure 9) Labyrinth of Chartres Cathedral, (ca.1210s) Chartres, France.

25

(Figure 10) Liber divinorum operum, Hildegard of Bingen, (13th cent) MS 1942, fol. 9r. Lucca, Biblioteca Statale.

26

(Figure 11) Double-Sided Pendant Icon with the Virgin and Christ Pantokrator, ca. 1100, Byzantine, Metropolitan Museum of Art, AN:1994.403.

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Bibliography Aristotle. De Anima: On the Soul. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Classics, 1986. Print. Carruthers, Mary. The Book of Memory: a Study of Memory in Medieval Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Carruthers, Mary. The Craft of Thought: Meditation, Rhetoric, and the Making of Images, 400-1200. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Carruthers, Mary. "Moving Images in the Mind's Eye." Hamburger and Bouch, eds., The Minds Eye (2006): 287-305. Caviness, Madeline H. Images of Divine Order and the Third Mode of Seeing. Gesta 22 (1983): 99-120. Cline Horowitz, Maryanne. The New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 1 ed., s.v. "Rhetoric." New York: Charles Scribners & Sons, 2004. Cline Horowitz, Maryanne. The New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 1 ed., s.v. "Scholasticism." New York: Charles Scribners & Sons, 2004. Cohen, Adam S. "Making Memories in a Medieval Miscellany." Gesta 48, no. 2 (2009): 135152. Esmeijer, Anna. Divina Quaternitas: a Preliminary Study in the Method and Application of Visual Exegesis. Assen: Van Gorcum & Comp, 1978. Grabowski, Stanislaus. The All-Present God: a Study in St. Augustine. St. Louis, Mo.: Herder, 1954. Holcomb, Melanie, and Lisa Bessette. Pen and Parchment: Drawing in the Middle Ages. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009. The Holy Bible: containing the Old and New Testaments with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books : New Revised Standard Version.. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Kessler, Herbert L., Gregory the Great and Image Theory in Northern Europe during the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. In A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. 151-172. Kessler, Herbert L.. Neither God Nor Man: Words, Images, and the Medieval Anxiety About Art. 1. Aufl. ed. Freiburg im Br.: Rombach, 2007. McDermott, Timothy. Aquinas: Selected Philosophical Writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

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Obrist, Barbara. Wind Diagrams and Medieval Cosmology. Speculum 72, no. 1 (1997): 3384. Plotinus. The Enneads. Trans. Stephen Mackenna. Ed. John M. Dillon. London, England: Penguin, 1991. Print. Rudolf, Conrad. First, I Find the Center Point: Reading the Text of Hugh of Saint Victors The Mystic Ark. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 4 (2004) :1-110. Yates, Francis. The Art of Memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966 Zaitsev, Evgeny A. The Meaning of Early Medieval Geometry: From Euclid and Surveyors' Manuals to Christian Philosophy. Isis 90, no.3 (1999): 522-553. Zchomelidse, Nino Deus-Homo-Imago: Representing the Divine in the Twelfth Century, in Looking Beyond: Visions, Dreams, and Insights in Medieval Art and History, ed. Colum Hourihane, (Princeton, N.J., 2010), pp. 10727.

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