CHAPTER 9 The Sasanid Empire and the Rise of Islam, 2001200

I0.

The Sasanid Empire, 224651 A0. Politics and Society 10. The Sasanid in!dom "as esta#lished in 224 and controlled the areas o$ Iran and %esopotamia. The Sasanids con$ronted Ara# pastoralists on their E&phrates #order and the 'y(antine Empire on the "est. )elations "ith the 'y(antines alternated #et"een "ar and peace$&l tradin! relationships. In times o$ peace, the 'y(antine cities o$ Syria and the Ara# nomads "ho !&ided cara*ans #et"een the Sasanid and 'y(antine Empires all $lo&rished on trade. Ara#s also #ene$ited $rom the in*ention o$ the camel saddle, "hich allo"ed them to ta e control o$ the cara*an trade. 20. The Iranian hinterland "as r&led #y a lar!ely a&tonomo&s local aristocracy that did not, ho"e*er, pose a threat to the sta#ility o$ the Sasanid Empire. +0. The Sil )oad #ro&!ht ne" prod&cts to the Sasanid Empire, incl&din! a n&m#er o$ crops $rom India and ,hina. '0. )eli!ion and Empire 10. The Sasanid Empire made -oroastrianism its o$$icial reli!ion. The 'y(antine Empire made ,hristianity its o$$icial reli!ion. 'oth -oroastrianism and ,hristianity "ere intolerant o$ other reli!ions. State sponsorship o$ -oroastrianism and ,hristianity set a precedent $or the lin that de*eloped #et"een the Islamic reli!ion and the Islamic state. 20. The 'y(antine and Sasanid Empires "ere characteri(ed #y state in*ol*ement in theolo!ical str&!!les. The 'y(antine Empire "ent to "ar "ith the Sasanids o*er the latter.s persec&tion o$ ,hristians, #&t the 'y(antine emperors and #ishops themsel*es p&r!ed ,hristianity o$ #elie$s that they considered heretical, s&ch as the %onophysite doctrine and /estorianism. In the third cent&ry %ani o$ %esopotamia $o&nded a reli!ion "hose #elie$s centered aro&nd the str&!!le #et"een 0ood and E*il. %ani "as illed #y the Sasanid shah, #&t %anichaeism spread "idely in ,entral Asia. Ara#s had some a"areness o$ these reli!io&s con$licts and ne" a#o&t ,hristianity. +0. 1&rin! this period, reli!ion had replaced citi(enship, lan!&a!e, and ethnicity as the paramo&nt $actor in people.s identity. II0. The 2ri!ins o$ Islam A0. The Ara#ian Penins&la 'e$ore %&hammad 10. %ost Ara#s "ere settled people. /omads "ere a minority, #&t they "ere important in the cara*an trade that lin ed 3emen to %esopotamia and the %editerranean. This cara*an trade !a*e rise to and s&pported the merchants o$ cara*an cities s&ch as Petra and Palmyra. It also #ro&!ht Ara#s into contact "ith the 'y(antine and Sasanid ci*ili(ations. 20. The nomads "ere polytheists "ho "orshiped nat&ral $orces and celestial #odies, #&t they "ere also $amiliar "ith other reli!ions incl&din! ,hristianity. +0. %ecca "as a cara*an city #et"een 3emen and Syria. %ecca "as also a c&lt center that attracted nomads to "orship the idols enshrined in a small c&#ical shrine called the 4a.#a.

'0. %&hammad in %ecca 10. %&hammad "as #orn in %ecca, !re" &p as an orphan, and then !ot in*ol*ed in the cara*an trade. In 610 he #e!an recei*in! re*elations that he concl&ded "ere the "ords o$ the one !od, Allah. 2thers in his comm&nity #elie*ed that he mi!ht #e possessed #y a spirit. 20. The messa!e o$ %&hammad.s re*elations "as that there is one !od, Allah, and that all people o&!ht to s&#mit to him. At the $inal 5&d!ment, those "ho had s&#mitted to Allah "o&ld !o to paradise6 those "ho had not, to hell. %&hammad.s re*elations "ere considered to #e the $inal re*elations, $ollo"in! and s&percedin! the earlier re*elations o$ 0od to /oah, %oses, and 7es&s. ,0. The 8ormation o$ the 9mma 10. %&hammad and his $ollo"ers $led $rom %ecca to %edina in 622. In %edina, %&hammad.s %eccan $ollo"ers and con*erts $rom %edina $ormed a sin!le comm&nity o$ #elie*ers, the &mma. 20. 1&rin! the last decade o$ %&hammad.s li$e the &mma in %edina de*eloped into the core o$ the Islamic state that "o&ld later e:pand to incl&de all o$ Ara#ia and lands #eyond in A$rica, E&rope, the %iddle East and ,entral Asia. +0. %&hammad.s $ather;in;la" A#& 'a r too o*er leadership o$ the &mma as the s&ccessor <caliph= o$ %&hammad. A#& 'a r $aced t"o main tas s> standardi(ation o$ the Islamic reli!ion and consolidation o$ the Islamic state. A#& 'a r s&ccess$&lly re;esta#lished %&slim a&thority o*er the Ara#s and o*ersa" the compilation and or!ani(ation o$ the ?&ran in #oo $orm. 40. 1isa!reements o*er the @&estion o$ s&ccession to the caliphate emer!ed $ollo"in! the assassination o$ the third caliph, 9thman. A ci*il "ar "as $o&!ht #et"een those "ho s&pported eepin! the caliphate in 9thman.s clan <the 9mmaya= and those "ho s&pported the claim o$ %&hammad.s $irst co&sin and son;in;la" Ali. The 9mayya $orces "on and esta#lished the 9mayyad ,aliphate in 661. 50. These disa!reements led to the de*elopment o$ three ri*al sects in the %&slim comm&nity. The Shi.ites s&pported Ali.s claim to the caliphate and #elie*ed that the position o$ caliph ri!htly #elon!ed to the descendants o$ Ali. Those no"n as the S&nnis #elie*ed that the $irst three caliphs had #een correctly chosen and s&pported the 9mayyad ,aliphate. The most militant $ollo"ers o$ Ali $ormed the 4hari5ite <re#el= sects. %ost o$ the A00 million %&slims o$ today are either S&nnis or Shi.ites. III0. The )ise and 8all o$ the ,aliphate, 6+2125A A0. The Islamic ,on@&ests, 6+4B11 10. The Islamic con@&ests o$ areas o&tside Ara#ia #e!an in the se*enth cent&ry. In the $irst "a*e o$ con@&est, the Ara#s too Syria, E!ypt, and the Sasanid Empire. In the late se*enth and early ei!hth cent&ries, Islamic $orces too T&nisia, Spain, Al!eria, %orocco, and Sind. 20. ,ommon e:planations $or the rapidity o$ the %&slim ad*ance incl&de l&st $or #ooty, reli!io&s $anaticism, and the "ea ness o$ the $oes o$ Islam. /one o$ these e:planations has a stron! #asis in $act. The most con*incin! e:planation $inds the ca&ses o$ %&slim e:pansion in the talent o$ the %&slim leaders and the str&ct&re o$ Ara# society. +0. 1&rin! the period o$ e:pansion the Ara# $orces "ere or!ani(ed into re!&lar, paid armies and ept in military camps and !arrison to"ns so that they did not o*err&n the co&ntryside. The Ara# %&slims #ecame minority r&lers, thinly spread o*er non;%&slim societies that they dominated and ta:ed, #&t did not try to con*ert.

'0. The 9mayyad and Early A##asid ,aliphates, 661A50 10. The 9mayyads r&led an Ara# empire, not a %&slim empire. They administered their territory thro&!h the esta#lished Sasanid and 'y(antine apparat&s, !rad&ally #rin!in! in %&slim #&rea&crats and the Ara#ic lan!&a!e. )e#ellions o*erthre" the 9mayyads in B506 one #ranch o$ the $amily, ho"e*er, remained in po"er in Spain. 20. 9pon the $all o$ the 9mayyads the $amily o$ A##asCan &ncle o$ %&hammadC too o*er and esta#lished the A##asid ,aliphate. The A##asids, "ho held the caliphate &ntil 125A, pro*ided rene"ed reli!io&s leadership, "hich they com#ined "ith a style o$ r&lership and royal ceremony deri*ed $rom the Sasanids. +0. Diterat&re and learnin!, incl&din! the translation o$ 0ree te:ts and sec&lar Ara# poetry, thri*ed &nder the A##asids. 'a!hdad "as a center o$ A##asid c&lt&re6 other areas shared in this c&lt&re to *aryin! e:tents. The A##asid period also sa" an acceleration o$ the rate o$ con*ersion o$ non;%&slim s&#5ects to Islam in the ninth cent&ry. ,0. Political 8ra!mentation, A501050 10. A##asid po"er #e!an to decline in the second hal$ o$ the ninth cent&ry as the caliphs $o&nd it impossi#le to maintain control o*er their *ast territory. 2ne $actor in the decline o$ A##asid po"er "as the di$$ic&lty o$ transportation and comm&nications. Another $actor "as the dissatis$action o$ the non;%&slim pro*incial pop&lations "ith a political and economic system that "as centered on 'a!hdad. In the ninth cent&ry local re*olts car*ed the A##asid realm into smaller %&slim states that did not pay ta:es or homa!e to the caliphs in 'a!hdad. 20. In 'a!hdad, the caliphs had come to rely on T&r ish sla*e troops no"n as %aml& s. In the late ninth cent&ry, "hen they "ere not paid properly, the maml& s too control o$ the caliphate, choosin! "home*er they "anted to #e caliph and dominatin! the !o*ernment. Then in E45, the caliphate $ell &nder the control o$ the Iranian Shi.ite '&yids. As the A##asid ,aliphate declined, *ario&s pro*incial re!imes rose to po"er. These incl&ded the Samanids in '& hara and the 8atimids in E!ypt. +0. In Spain, the 9mayyads held po"er o*er a society in "hich Islamic, )oman, 0erman, and 7e"ish c&lt&res com#ined to $orm a &ni@&e I#erian *ariant o$ Islamic ci*ili(ation. %&slim Spain sa" s&#stantial &r#ani(ation, the introd&ction o$ citr&s crops, a di*erse irri!ated a!ric&lt&ral sector, and a $lorescence o$ %&slim and 7e"ish intellect&al acti*ity. 40. 9nderlyin! the political di*ersity o$ the $ra!mented %&slim "orld "as a stron! sense o$ reli!io&s identity preser*ed #y the reli!io&s scholarsCthe &lama. 10. Assa&lt 8rom Fithin and Fitho&t, 1050125A 10. In ,entral Asia and the %iddle East another nomad !ro&p, the Sel5& T&r s, too ad*anta!e o$ the decline o$ the A##asids to esta#lish the S&l5& S&ltanate. The Sel5& s r&led a territory stretchin! $rom A$!hanistan to 'a!hdad and too Anatolia $rom the 'y(antines in 10B1. 20. T&r ish depredations, the deterioration o$ the Ti!ris;E&phrates irri!ation system, ins&$$icient re*en&e, and ins&$$icient $ood reso&rces led to the collapse o$ the city o$ 'a!hdad. +0. The ,r&sades also p&t some press&re on the Islamic lands, #&t the %&slims "ere a#le to &nite &nder Saladin and his descendants to dri*e the ,hristians o&t. Go"e*er, Saladin.s descendants "ere not a#le to restore &nity and order to the Islamic "orld, "hich "as hit #y another T&r ish in*asion in 1250 and #y the %on!ol in*asions o$ the thirteenth cent&ry.

IH0. Islamic ,i*ili(ation A0. Da" and 1o!ma 10. Islamic la"CShari.aCe*ol*ed o*er time in response to the %&slim comm&nity.s need $or a le!al system. The most important so&rce o$ la" "as the traditions o$ the Prophet <s&nna= as re*ealed in reports <hadith= a#o&t his "ords or deeds. 20. Specialists on Islamic la" collected and edited tens o$ tho&sands o$ hadith, discardin! those that seemed to #e sp&rio&s and p&#lishin! the others. The Shari.a, de*eloped o*er a period o$ cent&ries, held that all %&slims are #rothers and sisters and shared the same moral *al&es. '0. ,on*erts and ,ities 10. ,on*ersion and &r#ani(ation "ere related. 1&rin! the early period o$ Islamic e:pansion, con*erts to Islam needed to learn a#o&t their ne" reli!ion and $o&nd that the #est "ay to do so "as to mo*e to the "ealthy, e:pandin! &r#an areas "here the %&slim pop&lation "as concentrated. 1iscrimination in their nati*e r&ral non;%&slim *illa!es also sp&rred ne" con*erts to mo*e to the cities. 20. 9r#an social li$e and the practice o$ Islam itsel$ "ere *aried #eca&se the %&slims had no central a&thority to prescri#e reli!io&s do!ma. The !ro"in! cities pro*ided an e:pandin! mar et $or a!ric&lt&ral and man&$act&red prod&cts and contri#&ted to an increase in trade. +0. In medicine and astronomy, %&slim scholars #&ilt on and s&rpassed the "or o$ the 0ree and Gellenistic ci*ili(ations and de*eloped s ills and theories $ar more sophisticated than those o$ ,hristian E&rope. ,0. Islam, Fomen, and Sla*es 10. %&slim "omen "ere *eiled and secl&ded as they had #een pre*io&sly in the 'y(antine and the Sasanid Empires. Fomen co&ld #e in$l&ential in the $amily, #&t only sla*e "omen co&ld ha*e a p&#lic role or appear in p&#lic #e$ore men. 20. %&slim "omen did ha*e ri!hts &nder Islamic la". These ri!hts incl&ded the ri!ht to o"n property and to retain it in marria!e, the ri!ht to di*orce, to remarry, to testi$y in co&rt, and to !o on pil!rima!e. +0. Stories a#o&t %&hammad.s yo&n! "i$e A.isha ill&strate "hat %&slims $eared most a#o&t "omen> se:&al in$idelity and meddlin! in politics. %&hammad.s $aith$&l $irst "i$e 4hadi5a and his da&!hter 8atima are held &p as models o$ $emale propriety. 40. Islam did not permit homose:&ality, #&t nota#le %&slims incl&din! r&lers and poets ad*ocated the practice o$ male homose:&ality. 50. %&slims "ere not permitted to ensla*e their $ello" %&slims, 7e"s, ,hristians, or -oroastrians e:cept "hen ta en as prisoners o$ "ar. %&slims co&ld and did hold non;%&slim sla*es, #&t the stat&s o$ sla*e "as not hereditary. 10. The )ecenterin! o$ Islam 10. The decline o$ the caliphate and $actionalism "ithin the &lama depri*ed Islam o$ a reli!io&s center. 1&rin! the t"el$th and thirteenth cent&ries t"o ne" so&rces o$ reli!io&s a&thority de*eloped> the madrasas <reli!io&s colle!es= and the S&$i #rotherhoods. 20. S&$i #rotherhoods "ere mystic $raternities "hose mem#ers so&!ht &nion "ith 0od thro&!h rit&als and trainin!. The early S&$is "ere mystics "ho "ent into ecstasies and e:pressed their ideas in poetry6 the S&$i #rotherhoods de*eloped into more prosaic or!ani(ations o$ %&slim men. +0. S&$i #rotherhoods pro*ided their mem#ers "ith spirit&al !&idance and r&les $or e*eryday li$e. The #rotherhoods ori!inated in the &r#an areas and then spread to the co&ntryside.