Learning Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning

Nurul Hamida Politeknik Negeri Semarang nurulpolines@yahoo.com Abstract. Students learn in many different ways, such as by seeing and hearing; reflecting and acting; reasoning logically and intuitively. Similarly, teaching methods also vary. The ways in which a student characteristically acquires, retains, and retrieves information are considered learning style. Language learning has certain characteristics which are different from other learning. Consequently, although some theorists proposed learning styles, only some of them fit in second or foreign language learning. Since mismatches often occur between student learning styles and teacher teaching styles, this paper defines several dimensions of learning style thought to be particularly relevant to foreign and second language learning. This paper also tries to outline ways in which certain learning styles are favored by most language teachers, and suggests steps to address the educational needs of all students in foreign language classes. Key-words: Learning style, teaching style, second language learning.

INTRODUCTION
Classroom activities involve two parties, they are students and teachers. They affect to each others, whatever the students do in teaching and learning process will be influenced by whatever the teachers do. Similarly, what the teachers do in the classroom will have impact on the students too. Consequently, the result or the outcome of teaching and learning activities happen in the classroom is influenced by the students and the teachers. The students deal with the learning activities, and the teaching activities involve the teachers. Those two activities influence the students learning outcomes. Some theorists, such as: Barbe et al, Gregorc, and Dunn cited in Felder (1995) suggest that in order to get effective learning, the students learning styles should match the teaching styles. Learning is the process of absorbing information or knowledge, or the process of transferring information/knowledge from the teachers to the students. One of the aspects which influence this process is the students learning styles and strategies. Therefore, learning styles and strategies have become very interesting being discussed for decades in education sectors. As teachers, instructors, facilitators as well as agent in transferring knowledge and source of information for students, it is necessary for us to know about it, especially if we want to be good teachers. Learning styles are also the most important tool for us when we construct knowledge or teaching materials for the students.

LEARNING STYLES
Learning style influences the students achievement in the learning process. A number of studies have investigated this matter. Moreover, there are a lot of research concerning with it. There are a lot of theorists in learning styles, such as: Gregorc, Kolp, Keefe, Oxford, Lawrence, Fielder, Ehrman, etc. Keefe (1979) defines learning styles as 8 Learning Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning (Nurul Hamida)

the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and response to the learning environment. According to Stewart & Feliceti (1992) learning styles are educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn. There are several aspects involves in student learning style, and Lawrence (1986) proposed that there are 4 aspects of the person: cognitive style, i.e., preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning; patterns of attitudes and interest that affect what an individual will pay most attention to learning situation; a tendency to seek situations compatible with ones own learning patterns; and a tendency to use certain strategies and avoid others. From those definitions above, it can be concluded that learning style is a students consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning, and it is not really concerned with what learners learn, but rather how they prefer to learn. It is the way in which an individual learner tries to learn. It includes how they approach learning, experience learning and utilizing information. Everybody learns in his individual way, what someone does in learning will be different from others. No learning style is better than the other. Every individual has the capacity to learn within each of the learning styles, but individuals have a preferred learning style. Gregorc (1985) suggested that 95% of individuals have specific learning style preferences. Some of those preferences are so deeply embedded that individuals cannot adapt to meet alternative style requirements posed by different learning situations. However, Students learning styles can change and develop and do not necessarily stay the same, as said by Barbe & Milone (1981). Moreover, according to Schmeck (1981) content and task influence the learning style of the learners, therefore, individuals can change their learning strategies in response to the demand.

LEARNING STYLE AND STRATEGIES IN SECOND OR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

The research in second language learning has revealed that individuals vary in their learning strategies they employ because of differences in learning styles, affective styles, and cognitive styles. Learning strategies are defined as specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragements to tackle a difficult language task used by students to enhance their own learning. (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992). According to Oxford (1990) foreign or second language learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps, or the techniques that the students use often consciously to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the second language. Actually there are a lot of theorists proposed learning styles, but not all fit in language learning. According to Rebecca L. Oxford (2003) Language learning styles and strategies are among the main factors that help to determine how, and how well our students learn a second or foreign language. Ehrman (1996) proposes that although some style aspects prove to be influential, but there are four biggest major style dimensions which are relevant to second language learning, they are as follows: 1. Sensory Preferences

Sensory preferences refer to the physical, perceptual learning channels with which the student is the most comfortable. Sensory preferences are divided into four categories as follows: visual auditory kinesthetic (movement-oriented) tactile (touch-oriented). Ragam Jurnal Pengembangan Humaniora Vol. 12 No. 1, April 2012 9

Visual students like to read and obtain a great deal from visual stimulation. For these students, lectures, explanations, conversations, and oral directions without any visual back up can be confusing for them. However, auditory students do not find any difficulties without any visual input. They can learn language well from lectures, conversation or from oral directions. Kinesthetic and Tactile students prefer working with tangible objects, flashcards, collages etc. Some students may have a combination of two or sometimes three or even all of the learning styles, as proposed by Ehrman (1996) that learning styles are not dichotomous (black or white; present or absent). Learning styles generally operate on a continuum or on multiple, intersecting continua. For example, a person might be more visual and auditory but with lesser kinesthetic. Reid (1995) demonstrated that English as a Second Language (ESL) students varied significantly in their sensory preferences. Students from Asian cultures, for instance, were often highly visual, with Koreans being the most visual. Many studies, including Reids, found that Hispanic learners were frequently auditory. He also discovered that Japanese are very non auditory. Many of ESL students from a variety of cultures were tactile and kinesthetic in their sensory preferences. And most of ESL students strongly preferred auditory and kinesthetic learning as a major learning style. 2. Personality types

Personality type is often called psychological type. It consists of four strands: extraverted versus (vs) introverted, intuitive-random vs sensing-sequential, thinking vs feeling, and closure-oriented/judging vs open/perceiving. Oxford & Leaver (1996) found a number of significant relationships between personality type and second or foreign language proficiency. a. Extraverted vs introverted. Extravert students like to have interactions with people while they learn. In contrast, introvert students prefer to learn by themselves. Those two categories of students can learn to work together with the help of the teacher. Intuitive Random vs Sensing Sequential. Intuitive-random students think in abstract, futuristic, large scale and non sequential ways. They like to create theories and new possibilities and have sudden insights, and prefer to guide their own learning. However, Sensing Sequential students like facts than theories, want guidance and specific instruction from the teachers, and look for consistency. The key to teach those two different kind of students is to offer variety and choice; sometimes an organized structure for the Sensing Sequential students, but for Intuitive Random students is multiple options and enrichment activities. Thinking vs Feeling. Thinking learners are oriented toward the truth. In contrast, feeling learners value other people in very personal ways. Second language teachers can help thinking learners show greater overt compassion to their feeling classmates, and can suggest their feeling learners should tone down their emotional expression. Closure-oriented/Judging vs Open/Perceiving. Closure-oriented students want to reach judgments or completion quickly and want clarity as soon as possible. They are serious and hard working learners who prefers to have written information and enjoy specific tasks with deadlines. Meanwhile, open learners like to have fun and hates deadlines. They seem to soak up second language information by osmosis rather than hard effort. However, according to Ehrman & Oxford (1989), open students sometimes do better than closure-oriented students in developing fluency, but they are at a disadvantage in a traditional classroom setting. Those two different students provide a good balance for each other in the second language classroom because they can benefit from their collaboration. Desired Degree of Generality (Global/Holistic vs Analytic). Global students like socially interactive and communicative events. They enjoy the conversation as long Learning Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning (Nurul Hamida)

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as they can get the message being communicated, without concern much with the grammar or the vocabularies. However, analytic learners tend to concentrate on grammatical details and often avoid more free-flowing communicative activities. Those two different students have to learn from each other to be balance, and the teacher can be the facilitator. Biological Differences. The three aspects biological differences involve are: biorhythm, sustenance, and location. Biorhythm reveals the times of day when students feel comfort to learn the language. Sustenance refers to the need for food and drink while learning. Some second language learners tend to have snack, chew candies or have soft drink while learning. Location involves the nature of environment such as: temperature, lighting, sound and comfort of the seat.

Here are some examples how learners have different learning styles and strategies in second or foreign language learning; (1) Anita learns English through grammar drills and sentence analysis, (2) Linda wants to be able to speak English fluently by rehearsing as much as she can in private, (3) Ari does not like studying the English grammar as well as memorizing vocabularies, but he prefers to chat with English native speakers, (4) Heni outlines every English lesson seriously in order to communicate English well either in spoken or written, and (5) Joko likes to practice speaking English with his classmates very much. Those students do different learning activities to acquire the new language. In other words, we can say that students also have certain learning styles and strategies in second or foreign language learning. Language learning styles and strategies appear to be among the most important variables influencing performance in a second language (Oxford; 1989). However, Research indicates that language learners at all levels use strategies but some or most them are not fully aware of the strategies they use or the strategies that might be most beneficial to employ (Chamot & Kupper, 1989). And they also proposed five strategies that can be used by language learners such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Metacognitive techniques for organizing, focusing, and evaluating ones learning. Affective strategies for handling emotions or attitudes. Cognitive strategies for linking new information with existing schemata and for analyzing and classifying it. Memory storage for entering new information to memory storage and for retrieving it when needed. Compensation strategies (such as guessing or using gestures) to overcome deficiencies and gaps in ones current language knowledge.

Rebecca Oxford (1989) stated that language learning styles and strategies appear to be among the most important variables influencing performance in a second language. According to Pressly & McCormic (1995) learning strategies are intentionally used and consciously controlled by the learner. In language teaching, strategies implies to conscious movement towards a language goal (Bialystok; 1990). Language Learning Strategies are conscious steps or behaviors used by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information. The strategies being used by language learners should be appropriate with the material, the tasks, the goals, needs and the stage of the learners. Oxford (1990) states that a given strategy is neither good or bad; it is essentially neutral until the context of its use thoroughly considered, and it is useful if the following conditions are presents: (a) The strategy relates well to the second language task at hand, (b) The strategy fits the particular students learning style, (c) The students employ the strategy effectively and link it with other relevant strategies. Appropriate learning strategies which fulfill these conditions, make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective, and more transferable to new Ragam Jurnal Pengembangan Humaniora Vol. 12 No. 1, April 2012 11

situations. Moreover, Little (1991) states that learning strategies can also enable students to become more independent, autonomous and lifelong learners. However, students are not always aware of the power of consciously using second language learning strategies in order to make the learning become quicker and more effective (Nyikos & Oxford, 1993). There are six major categories of second and foreign language learning strategies (Oxford; 1990) as follows: 1. Cognitive strategies. These strategies enable the learners to manipulate the language materials in direct ways through; summarizing, note taking, outlining, reorganizing information, practicing in naturalistic setting, etc. These strategies are significantly related to second and foreign language proficiency in studies by Ku, Kato, and Giesen cited in Felder (1995) Metacognitive strategies. The examples of these strategies are planning language tasks and materials, monitoring mistakes, evaluating task success, etc. (Purpura, cited in Felder (1995)) found that these strategies have significant influence on second and foreign language learning. Memory-related strategies. These strategies are better used to memorize grammar and vocabularies for English low levels but not for advance learners. Therefore, these strategies do not always have significant influence on second and foreign language learning (Purpura, cited in Felder (1995)) Compensatory strategies. The examples of these strategies are as follows; guessing the meaning from the context in listening and reading, using synonyms for the missing word in speaking and writing. Oxford & Ehrman (1995) demonstrated that these strategies significant related to language learning. Affective strategies. Different from lower proficiency learners, higher proficiency learners less need these strategies. Consequently, these strategies do not always significant influence on language learning (Oxford & Ehrman; 1996) The examples of these strategies are talking about someones feeling, rewarding for good performance, etc. Social strategies. The strategies; such as asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification, asking for help in doing language tasks, talking with native speakers as the conversation partners, and exploring cultural and social norms have significant influence on second and foreign language proficiency. (Dreyer & Oxford cited in Felder (1995))

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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Oxford (1990) synthesized existing research on how the following factors influence the choice of strategies used among students language learning. 1. Motivation. More motivated students tended to use more strategies than less motivated students, and the particular reason for studying the language (motivational orientation, especially as related to career field) was important in the choice strategies. Gender. Females reported greater overall strategy than males in many studies (although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of particular strategy) Cultural background. Rote memorization and other forms of memorization were more prevalent among some Asian students from other cultural backgrounds. Certain other cultural also appeared to encourage strategies in language learning. Attitudes and beliefs. These were reported to have a profound effect on the strategies learners choose, with negative attitudes and beliefs often causing poor strategy used. Type of tasks. The nature of task helped determine strategies naturally employed to carry out the task. Learning Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning (Nurul Hamida)

2. 3.

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Age & language stage. Students of different ages and stages of language learning used different strategies, with certain strategies often being employed by older or more advanced students. Learning style. Learning style (general approach to language learning) often determined the choice of L2 learning strategies. As the examples; analytic-style students preferred strategies such as contrastive analysis or dissecting words and phrases; while global students used strategies to find meaning (guessing, scanning, predicting) and converse without knowing all the words. Tolerance of ambiguity. Students who were more tolerant of ambiguity used significantly different learning strategies in some instances than did students who were less tolerant of ambiguity.

IMPLICATION FOR SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Dyer cited in Felder (1995) noted that each preferred learning style has a matching preferred method of instruction. By utilizing appropriate teaching techniques matched with the students learning styles. Dyer and Osborne cited in Felder (1995) noted that students learning could improve. Some learning style theorists suggest that in order to get effective learning, the student learning styles should match with the teaching styles (Barbe, Swassing & Milon, Dunn, Gregorc, cited in Felder (1995). Therefore, teachers could benefit by assessing the learning styles and strategies of their students because such assessment leads to greater understanding of styles and strategies, so that we will be aware of our preferences and of possible biases. Realizing that their students have different learning style preferences, therefore, teachers should have a wide range of classroom activities that cater to different learning styles. The key of success in teaching Second or foreign language is systematically offering a great variety of activities within a learner-centered and using communicative approach. Educators can assume that learning styles are adaptable, that learning style preferences can be identified and modified, and that unconscious or subconscious learning styles can become conscious learning strategies, then students, native speakers of English as well as Non Native Speakers should be exposed to the concept of learning styles. Research with native speakers of English strongly suggests that the ability of students to employ multiple learning style results in greater classroom success. Therefore, second and foreign language learners have to make the most of their learning style preferences. Occasionally, they must also extend themselves beyond their style preferences. Friedman and Alley cited in Felder (1995) suggest that teacher guidance can initially motivate students to identify and utilize their preferred learning styles and to take deliberate advantage of those preferences. If teachers can show students the variety and versality of learning styles by providing experiences in different teaching styles, resulting awareness and expansion of students learning styles may better allow students to meet the demands of academic teaching methods and assignments (Grasha, 1996) Cohen (1984) indicated that it is useful for second language learners to use strategies which have been shown to be successful to accelerate the language learning.

REFERENCES
Bialystok, E. 1990. Communication Strategies: A Physichological Analysis of Second Language Use. Oxford: Blackwell Chamot, A. U. & Kupper, L. 1989. Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Instruction: Foreign Language Annals. No. 22. Pp.13 24 Ragam Jurnal Pengembangan Humaniora Vol. 12 No. 1, April 2012

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Cohen, A. D. 1998. 1998. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Essex: Longman Felder, M. R. 1995. Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second Language Education. Foreign Language Annals, 28, N0. 1. Pp. 21 31 Grasha, A. F. 1996. Teaching With Style: A Practical Guide to Enhancing Learning by Understanding Teaching and Learning Styles. Pittsburgh: Alliance publishers Lawrence, G. 1984. A Synthesis of Learning Style Research Involving the MBTI: Journal of Psycological Type. No. 8, pp. 2 - 15 Little. D. 1991. Learners Autonomy 1: Definitions, Issues, and Problems. Dublin: Authentik Nyikos, M. & Oxford, R.L. 1993. A factor Analytic Study of Language Learning Strategy Use: Interpretations From Information Processing Theory and Social Psychological. Modern Language Journal, 77 (1), 11 23 Oxford, R. L. & Ehrman, M. E. 1995: Adults Language Learning Strategies in an Intensive Foreign Language Program in The United States. Manoa: University of Hawaii Press Oxford, R. L. & Leaver, B. L. 1996. A Synthesis of Strategy Instruction for Language Learners. Manoa: University of Hawaii Press Oxford, R. L. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Oxford, R. L. 1996. Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross Cultural Perspective. Manoa: University of Hawaii Press Pressley, M. & Mc.Cormick, C. B. 1995. Advanced Educational Psychologycal for Educators, Researchers, and Polycymakers. New York: HarperCollins Reid, J. 1995. Learning Styles in the ESL/ EFL Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Scarcella, R. & Oxford, R. 1992. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Schmeck, R. R. 1998. Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.

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Learning Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning (Nurul Hamida)