Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Hybrid Power Systems Based on Renewable Energy

A Thesis Report Submitted by ABHIJEET SAI DASARI SAI KIRAN JAGADABI MADHU DHARAVATH In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING At

MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, A.P.) DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Gandipet, Hyderabad - 500 075.

2013 2014

Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Hybrid Power Systems Based on Renewable Energy
A Thesis Report Submitted by Abhijeet Sai Dasari Sai Kiran Jagadabi Madhu Dharavath (10261A0212) (10261A0218) (10261A0213)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. S. Abhishek Reddy Assistant Professor At

MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, A.P.) DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Gandipet, Hyderabad - 500 075.

2013 2014

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology
(Affiliated to JNT University, Hyderabad, A.P) Chaitanya Bharathi P.O, Gandipet, Hyderabad-75

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar work entitled Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Hybrid Power Systems Based on Renewable Energy is being submitted by Abhijeet Sai Dasari (10261A0212), Sai Kiran Jagadabi (10261A0218) and Madhu Dharavath (10261A0213) in partial fulfillment for the award of Degree Bachelor of Technology in Electrical & Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad during the academic year 2013-14, is a record of bonafide work carried out by him under our guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this report have not been submitted by the student to any other University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

Internal Guide Mr.S.Abhishek Reddy Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, MGIT, Hyderabad.

Head of the Department Dr.P.Ramkishore Kumar Reddy Professor & Head, Dept. of EEE, MGIT, Hyderabad.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the completion of any task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and encouragement made it possible. I take pleasure in presenting before you, my project, which in studied blend of both research and knowledge. We express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. G. Chandra Mohan Reddy, Principal, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology for permitting us to carry out this project and providing the necessary infrastructure in the campus. We also would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. P Ram Kishore Kumar Reddy, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Electrical Engineering, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology, for the valuable guidance and suggestions, keen interest and thorough encouragement extended throughout period of project work. We would also like to express our gratefulness to our Guide, Mr.S.Abhishek Reddy, Assistant Professor in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology for his valuable suggestions, rare insights, being a constant source of encouragement and inspiration throughout my project work. I express my thanks to all the non-teaching staff in and out of the department who have contributed for the successful completion of my project work. Finally, we thank our parents for continuously motivating us to pursue higher level of knowledge and co-operating with us in preparing many paper and project presentations just like this thesis. We thank them especially for showing extreme patience and perseverance. With gratitude, 1. Abhijeet Sai Dasari -

2. Sai Kiran Jagadabi

3. Madhu Dharavath

CONTENTS
S.No List of Figures Abstract Topic Page No i iii

1. Conventional Energy Sources

1.1 Introduction 1.2 CES Present 1.3 Electricity from CES
1.3.1 Coal 1.3.2 Natural Gas 1.3.3 Petroleum Liquids 1.3.4 Nuclear Fuel 01 01 02 02 03 03 04 04 04 05 07

1.4 Problems of CES

1.4.1 Pollution 1.4.2 Availability

1.5 Conclusion

2. Non-Conventional Energy Sources

2.1 Introduction 2.2 NCES Present 2.3 Electricity from NCES
2.3.1 Wind 2.3.2 Solar 2.3.3 Geothermal 08 08 08 09 09 10 10 11

2.4 Benefits of NCES 2.5 Conclusion

3. Hybrid Power System

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Technological Configurations for HPS 3.3 Conclusion by overcoming its Problems
12 13 14

4. Photovoltaic Cell
4.1 Introduction to Photovoltaics 4.2 Solar Cell
4.2.1 Solar Cell Efficiency 4.2.2 Solar Cell Materials 15 15 16 17 17 17 19 19

4.3 Solar Panel

4.3.1 Theory and Construction

4.4 Advantages in a Nutshell 4.5 Conclusion

5. Wind Turbine
5.1 Introduction 5.2 Principle of Wind Turbine
5.2.1 Design and Construction 5.2.2 Types of Wind Turbines 5.2.2.1 Horizontal Axis Design (HAWT) 5.2.2.2 Vertical Axis Design (VAWT) 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 23

5.3 Advantages of Wind Power 5.4 Conclusion

6. Fuel Cell
6.1 Introduction 6.2 Working and Design of a Fuel Cell
5.2.1 Types of Fuel Cells 24 24 26

6.3 Knowing PEMFC 6.4 Conclusion

27 29

7. Ultracapacitor
7.1 Introduction 7.2 Concept 7.3 Energy density and power density 7.4 Conclusion
30 31 32 34

8. Electrolyzer and Power Conditioner

8.1 Electrolyzer 8.2 Science of Electrolyzer 8.3 Power Conditioner 8.4 Uses of a Power Conditioner 8.5 Conclusion
35 35 36 37 37

9. Layer of Scheme
9.1 Electrolyzer
38

10. System Description and Dynamic Modeling

10.1 System Description 10.2 Dynamic System Modeling
10.2.1 Solar Cell 10.2.2 Wind Turbine 10.2.3 Fuel Cell 10.2.4 Electrolyzer 10.2.5 Ultracapacitor 39 39 40 42 43 45 46 46 47

10.3 Developing Simulink Models

10.3.1 Overall Hybrid Power System Model

10.3.2 Wind Turbine Subsystem 10.3.3 Solar Cell Subsystem (PV) 10.3.4 Intermediate Subsystem 10.3.5 Electrolyzer Subsystem 10.3.6 Fuel Cell Stack Subsystem 10.3.7 Fuel Cell Flow control Subsystem 10.3.8 Ultra Capacitor Model 10.3.9 Simulation Workspace

49 51 55 57 59 66 68 69

11. Simulation Results

11.1 Simulating System and Obtaining Results
70

Conclusion References

74 75

LIST OF FIGURES
S. No
01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Fig No
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 8.1 8.2 9.1 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7

Name of the figure

World Electricity Generation Share of Electricity Generation by Fuel in 2010 Global Warming Projections Extrapolating the Hubbert Curve for depletion Worlds net Electricity generation by Fuel Worlds Renewable Energy Jobs as of 2006 Typical Hybrid Power System Energy Flow for All-Renewable HPS Solar Land Area Solar Cell Solar Panel Working Components of HAWT HAWT and VAWT Block diagram of a fuel cell Typical PEMFC Classification of Supercapacitors

Page No
02 03 05 06 09 11 12 13 15 15 18 21 22 25 28 30

Principle charge storage of different capacitor types 32 Ragone chart PEM Electrolyzer Typical Power Conditioner Block Diagram of the Layer of Scheme Equivalent Circuit Simplified Circuit AIR 403 power curve PEM fuel cell diagram Simulink Model - 1 Simulink Model - 2 Simulink Model - 3 34 35 36 38 41 41 42 43 47 48 49

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4

Simulink Model - 4 Simulink Model - 5 Simulink Model - 6 Simulink Model - 7 Simulink Model - 8 Simulink Model - 9 Simulink Model - 10 Simulink Model - 11 Simulink Model - 12 Simulink Model - 13 Simulink Model - 14 Simulink Model - 15 Simulink Model - 16 Simulink Model - 17 Simulink Model - 18 Simulink Model - 19 Simulink Model - 20 Simulink Model - 21 Simulink Model - 22 Simulink Model - 23 Power tracking performance of the HPS Current variations Voltage variations Hydrogen variation in storage tank

50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 71 72 72 73

ii

ABSTRACT
In this project, a detailed dynamic model and simulation of a solar cell/wind turbine/fuel cell hybrid power system is developed using a novel topology to complement each other and to alleviate the effects of environmental variations. Comparing with the nuclear energy and thermal power, the renewable energy is inexhaustible and has non-pollution characteristics. The solar energy, wind power, hydraulic power and tide energy are natural resources of the interest to generate electrical sources. As the wind turbine output power varies with the wind speed and the solar cell output power varies with both the ambient temperature and radiation, a FC system with an UC bank can be integrated to ensure that the system performs under all conditions. Excess wind and solar energies when available are converted to hydrogen using electrolysis for later use in the fuel cell. In this project dynamic modeling of various components of this isolated system is presented. Transient responses of the system to step changes in the load, ambient temperature, radiation, and wind speed in a number of possible situations are studied. The recent commercial availability of small PEMFC units has created many new opportunities to design hybrid energy systems for remote applications with energy storage in hydrogen form. Here, Ultra-capacitors are used in power applications requiring short duration peak power. The voltage variation at the output is found to be within the acceptable range. The output fluctuations of the wind turbine varying with wind speed and the solar cell varying with both environmental temperature and sun radiation are reduced using a fuel cell. Therefore, this system can tolerate the rapid changes in load and environmental conditions, and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the equipment side voltage. The proposed system can be used for off-grid power generation in non-interconnected areas or remote isolated communities.

Modeling and simulations are conducted using MATLAB/Simulink software packages to verify the effectiveness of the proposed system. The results aim to show that the proposed hybrid power system can tolerate the rapid changes in natural conditions and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the voltage within the acceptable range.

iii

Project Documentation

CHAPTER 1 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

1.1 Introduction
Energy exists freely in nature. Some of them exist infinitely (never run out, called Renewable), the rest have finite amounts (they took millions of years to form, and will run out one day, called Non-Renewable). Non-renewable energy is energy from fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas) and uranium. Fossil fuels are mainly made up of Carbon. It is believed that fossil fuels were formed over 300 million years ago, when the earth was a lot different in its landscape. It had swampy forests and very shallow seas. This time is referred to as 'Carboniferous Period'. These conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At the same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and exploit their new deposits. It is envisaged at known deposits of petroleum in our country will get exhausted by the few decades and coal reserves are expected to last for another hundred years. The coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity are conventional sources of energy.

1.2 CES Present

Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation. Fossil energy is from recovered fossils (like brown coal, hard coal, peat, natural gas and crude oil) and are originated in degraded products of dead plants and animals. These fossil fuels are based on the carbon cycle and thus allow stored (historic solar) energy to be recycled today. In 2005, 81% were of the world's energy needs met from fossil sources. Biomass is also derived from wood and other organic wastes and modern

remains. The technical development of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th Century set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

1.3 Electricity from CES

Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882. The first power plants were run on water power or coal, and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind generators, and petroleum.

Figure 1.1: World Electricity Generation

Today, total world energy consumption of Conventional Energy sources is about 83.3%, generating 16.26 trillion kilowatt hours from a total of 21.43 trillion kilowatt hours of electricity. 1.3.1 Coal Coal is one of the most important sources of energy and is being used for various proposes such as heating of housed, as fuel for boilers and steam engines and for generation of electricity by thermal plants. It is the predominant fuel used for electricity generation worldwide. In 2010, coal-fired generation accounted for 40 percent of overall worldwide electricity generation. In 2040, total world electricity generation from coal is

73 percent higher than the 2010 level, although coal's share of the electricity market falls to 36 percent in 2040. China and India alone account for 89 percent of the projected growth in coal-fired generation.

Figure 1.2: Share of Electricity Generation by Fuel in 2010

1.3.2 Natural Gas Like coal, petroleum is also derived from plants and also from dead animals that lived in remote past. Natural gas has also been produced in the Earth's curst by the similar process as petroleum and this is also a combustible fuel. In 2010, natural gas accounted for 22 percent of the world's electricity generation. Its projected share rises to 24 percent in 2040. Prospects for natural gas have improved substantially over the past several years, in large part because of revised expectations for shale gas, tight gas, and coalbed methaneespecially shale gas.

1.3.3 Petroleum Liquids Electricity generation from petroleum and other liquid fuels declines over the IEO2013 projection period, continuing a two-decade long trend. Worldwide, electricity generation derived from liquids falls from 5 percent of total production in 2010 to 2 percent in 2040.

Nations respond to high, sustained oil prices by reducing or eliminating their use of oil for generationopting instead for alternative sources of electricity, including natural gas and nuclear.

1.3.4 Nuclear Fuel Electricity generation from nuclear power worldwide increases from 2,620 billion kilowatt hours in 2010 to 5,492 billion kilowatt hours in 2040 in the IEO2013. In IEO2013, the rate of growth in nuclear power generation worldwide is slower than in previous IEO projections. High capital and maintenance costs may keep some countries from expanding their nuclear power programs, while a lack of trained labor resources, concerns about safety, and limited global nuclear supply chain capability could keep national nuclear programs from meeting previously planned generation results.

1.4 Problems of CES

Dependence on fossil fuels from regions or countries creates energy security risks for dependent countries. Oil dependence in particular has led to war, funding of radicals, monopolization, and socio-political instability. Fossil fuels are non-renewable, unsustainable resources, which will eventually decline in production and become exhausted, with consequences to societies that remain dependent on them. Fossil fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but are being consumed quicker than are formed. Extracting fuels becomes increasingly extreme as society consumes the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction in fuel mines get intensive and oil rigs drill deeper (going further out to sea). Extraction of fossil fuels results in environmental degradation, such as the strip mining and mountaintop removal of coal. 1.4.1 Pollution The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere. The fossil fuels are mainly based on organic carbon compounds. They are according to the IPCC the causes of the global warming. During the combustion with oxygen in the form of heat energy, carbon dioxide released. Depending on the composition and purity of the fossil fuel also results in other chemical compounds such as nitrogen oxides and soot and fine dust. Greenhouse gas emissions result from fossil fuel-based electricity generation.

Typical megawatt coal plant produces billions of kilowatt hours per year. From this generation, the carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, small airborne particles, nitrogen oxides (NOx) (ozone (smog)), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOC), mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, other heavy metals, and uranium traces are produced. Due to this the Global temperatures are estimated to increase 5C in the next 100 years.

Figure 1.3: Global Warming Projections Nuclear power poses numerous threats to people and the environment and point to studies in the literature that question if it will ever be a sustainable energy source. These threats include health risks and environmental damage from uranium mining, processing and transport, the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation or sabotage, and the unsolved problem of radioactive nuclear waste. They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious nuclear accidents. 1.4.2 Availability The depletion of energy resources is a complex phenomenon. Depletion is not a process of simply "running out" of a resource, but instead is a complex process of technological change and adaptation. This adaptation can leads to development of new resources, which are often lower quality, more costly to process, or more difficult to access (e.g. deep

water oil resources, shale oil, or bitumen). We attempt to understand depletion within this broad context of technical change and adaption, and to understand the impacts of these shifts on the environment. Globally - every year we currently consume the equivalent of over 11 billion tonnes of oil in fossil fuels. Crude oil reserves are vanishing at the rate of 4 billion tonnes a year if we carry on at this rate without any increase for our growing population or aspirations, our known oil deposits will be gone by 2052.

Figure 1.4: Extrapolating the Hubbert Curve for depletion Well still have gas left, and coal too. But if we increase gas production to fill the energy gap left by oil, then those reserves will only give us an additional eight years, taking us to 2060. But the rate at which the world consumes fossil fuels is not standing still, it is increasing as the world's population increases and as living standards rise in parts of the world that until recently had consumed very little energy. Fossil Fuels will therefore run out earlier. Its often claimed that we have enough coal to last hundreds of years. But if we step up production to fill the gap left through depleting our oil and gas reserves, the coal deposits we know about will only give us enough energy to take us as far as 2088. And lets not even think of the carbon dioxide emissions from burning all that coal.

1.5 Conclusion
In todays world, we're really dominated by things like oil and natural gas for our economic development which we're using up faster and faster. As we try to lift billions of people out of poverty in the third world, in the developing world, we're using energy much faster. And those resources are going away becoming obsolete. This in turn is damaging our ecosystem around the world increasing the Global warming. Every year, power plants in the US alone put more than 2.5 million tons of CO2, a major greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Fossil fuels are also responsible for a significant amount of land, water, and air pollution beyond their CO2 production. For example, coal mining brings solid wastes to the surface that would normally remain under ground and the areas around a mine can remain barren for generations if due to the lack of proper topsoil. The burning of coal for energy also produces many different types of particulate matter that pollute the air. The finest of these particles can be inhaled deeply and cause various respiratory health problems in people living around the power plant. These pollutants make their way into the water cycle and fall the ground as acid rain, which can destroy land and pollute large bodies of water.

As it stands, when a person wants electricity they are forced to purchase it from someone else. The average person does not have access to coal mining equipment or coal-fired power plants to make their own electricity. However, the average person does have access to the sun. As a result, renewables can often be gathered cleanly and safely in local or regional communities due to the wide availability of the inputs. This means that national manufacturing and energy rates aren't dependent upon prices set by unstable foreign markets.

CHAPTER 2 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

2.1 Introduction
Renewable energy or Non-Conventional energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.

2.2 NCES present

About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes from renewable resources, with 10% of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.

2.3 Electricity from NCES

Renewable energy is the fastest-growing source of electricity generation in the IEO2013. Total generation from renewable resources increases by 2.8 percent annually, and the renewable share of world electricity generation grows from 21 percent in 2010 to 25 percent in 2040. About 80 percent of the increase is in hydroelectric and wind power. The contribution of wind power, in particular, has grown swiftly over the past decade, from 31.4 billion kilowatt hours of net generation in 2000 to 341.5 billion kilowatt hours in

2010a trend that continues in the Reference case projection. Of the 5.4 trillion kilowatt hours of new renewable generation added over the projection period, 2.8 trillion kilowatt hours (52 percent) is attributed to hydroelectric power and 1.5 trillion kilowatt hours (28 percent) to wind.

Figure 2.1: Worlds net Electricity generation by Fuel 2.3.1 Wind Wind (primary renewable natural) power harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms. Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 282,482 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2012. Energy production is more than 450 TWh, which is about 2.5% of worldwide electricity usage.

2.3.2 Solar Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of everevolving technologies such as solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity,

solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Solar photovoltaic is a sustainable energy source. By the end of 2011, a total of 71.1 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year. And by end of 2012, the 100 GW installed capacity milestone was achieved. 2.3.3 Geothermal Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012. An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.

2.4 Benefits of NCES

Renewable energy wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, and biomass provides substantial benefits for our climate, our health, and our economy:

Little to No Global Warming Emissions Improved Public Health and Environmental Quality A Vast and Inexhaustible Energy Supply Jobs and Other Economic Benefits Stable Energy Prices A More Reliable and Resilient Energy System

Renewable energy sources can meet all these criteria. Renewable energy puts energy in our hands by offering increased local control of energy production, helping to ensure stable prices and increase the security of our energy supply. Renewable energy also provides environmental benefits such as helping to improve local air quality and reducing our impact on the land, water and climate system. Increased use of renewable energy will

10

also help boost local economies through job creation. No other energy source can provide all these benefits.

In comparison, continued reliance on conventional energy sources such as fossil fuels and nuclear power will perpetuate a host of environmental, social, and political problems and hold us dependent on limited resources controlled by a few countries and corporations.

2.5 Conclusion
Prices for fossil fuels are skyrocketing as existing stockpiles are consumed, which is leading companies to use more expensive and hazardous extraction processes to recover these limited resources. Additionally, conflicts around the world have constrained supply flows of oil and gas causing frequent price spikes. Renewable energy sources do not face these same problems. Limitless sources like solar power and wind will never suffer from spills, leaks, resource exhaustion, or contaminate land. Renewables can be deployed nearly everywhere and without the need for expensive power lines distributing the energy since they are capable of delivering power directly to the end consumer. Arguably the best part about renewables is that prices continue to drop and abundant, clean energy will continue to be the more economic option going forward.

Figure 2.2: Worlds Renewable Energy Jobs as of 2006

11

CHAPTER 3 HYBRID POWER SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction
Off grid renewable energy technologies satisfy energy demand directly and avoid the need for long distribution infrastructures. A combination of different but complementary energy generation systems based on renewable energies or mixed (RES- with a backup of battery/diesel/gasoline genset), is known as a hybrid power system (hybrid system). Hybrid systems capture the best features of each energy resource and can provide gridquality electricity, with a power range between 1 kilowatt (kW) to several hundred kilowatts. They can be developed as new integrated designs within small electricity distribution systems (mini-grids) and can also be retrofitted in diesel based power systems. Hybrid systems can provide a steady community-level electricity service, such as village electrification, offering also the possibility to be upgraded through grid connection in the future. Furthermore, due to their high levels of efficiency, reliability and long term performance, these systems can also be used as an effective backup solution to the public grid in case of blackouts or weak grids, and for professional energy solutions, such as telecommunication stations or emergency rooms at hospital.

Figure 3.1: Typical Hybrid Power System

12

3.2 Technological Configurations for HPS

A typical hybrid system combines two or more energy sources, from renewable energy technologies, such as photovoltaic panels, wind or small hydro turbines; and from conventional technologies, usually diesel or LPG gensets (though biomass fed gensets are also a feasible option, if locally available). In addition, it includes power electronics and electricity storage batteries. The hybrid system can be designed following different configurations to effectively use the locally available renewable energy sources and to serve ALL power appliances (requiring DC or AC electricity). The technological configurations can be classified according to the voltage they are coupled with; this is, using DC, AC and mixed (DC and AC) bus lines.

Figure 3.2: Energy Flow for All-Renewable HPS

Completely Renewable Hybrid Power Plant (solar, wind, biomass, hydrogen) A hybrid power plant consisting of these four renewable energy sources can be made into operation by proper utilization of these resources in a completely controlled manner.

13

3.3 Conclusion by overcoming its Problems

Most of us already know how a solar/wind/biomass power generating system works, all these generating systems have some or the other drawbacks, like Solar panels are too costly and the production cost of power by using them is generally higher than the conventional process, it is not available in the night or cloudy days. Similarly Wind turbines cant operate in high or low wind speeds and Biomass plant collapses at low temperatures. So if all the three are combined into one hybrid power generating system the drawbacks can be avoided partially/completely, depending on the control units. As the one or more drawbacks can be overcome by the other, as in northern hemisphere it is generally seen that in windy days the solar power is limited and vice versa and in summer and rainy season the biomass plant can operate in a full flagged so the power generation can be maintained in the above stated condition. The cost of solar panel can be subsided by using glass lenses, mirrors to heat up a fluid that can rotate the common turbine used by wind and other sources. Now the question arises what about the winter nights or cloudy winter days with very low wind speeds. Here comes the activity of the Hydrogen. As we know the process of electrolysis can produce hydrogen by breaking water into hydrogen and oxygen, it can be stored; hydrogen is also a good fuel and burns with oxygen to give water. Hydrogen can be used to maintain the temperature of the biomass reservoir in winter so that it can produce biogas in optimum amount for the power generation. As stated above biogas is a good source in summer; in this period the solar energy available is also at its peak, so if the demand and supply is properly checked and calculated the excess energy can be used in the production of hydrogen and can be stored. In sunny, windy &hot day, the turbine operates with full speed as the supply is maximum, and this excess power can be consumed for the process of manufacturing hydrogen. In winter, the power consumption is also low so the supply limit is low, and obtained with lesser consumption.

14

CHAPTER 4 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

4.1 Introduction to Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.

Figure 4.1: Solar Land Area

4.2 Solar Cell

A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

Figure 4.2: Solar Cell

15

It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical characteristicse.g. current, voltage, or resistancevary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek (phs) meaning "light", and from "Volt", the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term "photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

4.2.1 Solar Cell Efficiency Solar cell efficiency is the ratio of the electrical output of a solar cell to the incident energy in the form of sunlight. The energy conversion efficiency () of a solar cell is the percentage of the solar energy to which the cell is exposed that is converted into electrical energy. This is calculated by dividing a cell's power output (in watts) at its maximum power point (Pm) by the input light (E, in W/m2) and the surface area of the solar cell (Ac in m2). (4.1) Several factors affect a cell's conversion efficiency value, including its reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency, and conduction efficiency values. In 2013, the highest efficiencies have been achieved by using multiple junction cells at high solar concentrations (44.7% by The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Soitec, CEA-Leti and the Helmholtz Center Berlin).

16

4.2.2 Solar Cell Materials Various materials display varying efficiencies and have varying costs. Materials for efficient solar cells must have characteristics matched to the spectrum of available light. Some cells are designed to efficiently convert wavelengths of solar light that reach the Earth surface. However, some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth's atmosphere as well. Light absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical configurations to take advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms. Various materials used for making solar cells are as follows: Crystalline silicon Thin films Cadmium telluride Copper indium gallium selenide Gallium arsenide multijunction Light-absorbing dyes (DSSC) Quantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs) Organic/polymers Silicon thin films Indium Gallium Nitride

4.3 Solar Panel

A solar panel is a set of solar photovoltaic modules electrically connected and mounted on a supporting structure. A photovoltaic module is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells. The solar module can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts.

4.3.1 Theory and Construction Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying)

17

member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semiflexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in 1958.Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other nonmagnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated. Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

Figure 4.3: Solar Panel Working

18

4.4 Advantages in a Nutshell

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Panels are undoubtedly what comes to peoples minds when they talk about solar energy. Considering that in an hour, the sun radiates solar energy enough to cover for human energy consumption for a year then going green with solar Photovoltaic (PV) panels is perhaps in the right direction! However, with solar energy systems technology, we are still behind in capturing this naturally free vast amou nt of energy provided by nature. Herein we can review some basic advantages of solar energy panels: PV panels provide clean green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally friendly. Solar energy is energy supplied by nature it is thus free and abundant. Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with distributed power generation DPG is indeed the next generation power network structure. Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low, almost negligible, compared to costs of other renewable energy systems Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling PV panels can provide an effective solution to energy demand peaks especially in hot summer months where energy demand is high. Solar photovoltaic panels are one of major renewable energy systems that are promoted through government subsidy funding (FITs, tax credits etc.); thus financial incentive for PV panels make solar energy panels an attractive investment alternative.

4.5 Conclusion
Solar energy is not only sustainable, it is renewable and this means that we will never run out of it. It is about as natural a source of power as it is possible to generate electricity. The creation of solar energy requires little maintenance. Once the solar panels have been installed and are working at maximum efficiency there is only a small amount of maintenance required each year to ensure they are in working order. They are a silent producer of energy. There is absolutely no noise made from photovoltaic panels as they convert sunlight into usable global electricity with zero emissions.

19

CHAPTER 5 WIND TURBINE

5.1 Introduction
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electrical power. Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation and uses little land. The effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those from other power sources. As of 2011, Denmark is generating more than a quarter of its electricity from wind and 83 countries around the world are using wind power to supply the electricity grid. In 2010 wind energy production was over 2.5% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing rapidly at more than 25% per annum.

5.2 Principle of Wind Turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power. A wind turbine used for charging batteries may be referred to as a wind charger. Larger turbines can be used for making small contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming an increasingly important source of renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels. A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the Wind Power Density (WPD) It is a calculation of the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for different heights above ground. Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density. Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Meters".

5.2.1 Design and Construction Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape.

20

Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components: The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy. The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary gearbox), adjustable-speed drive or continuously variable transmission component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity. The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common.

Figure 5.1: Components of HAWT

5.2.2 Types of Wind Turbines Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common.

21

5.2.2.1 Horizontal Axis Design (HAWT)

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
5.2.2.2 Vertical Axis Design (VAWT)

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable, for example when the turbine is integrated into a building. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. Subtypes of the vertical axis design include: Darrieus wind turbine Giromill Savonius wind turbine Twisted Savonius

Figure 5.2: HAWT and VAWT

22

5.3 Advantages of Wind Power

Wind energy offers many advantages, which explains why it's the fastest-growing energy source in the world. Research efforts are aimed at addressing the challenges to greater use of wind energy. Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so it's a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gasses. Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which can't be used up. Wind is actually a form of solar energy; winds are caused by the heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the earth, and the earth's surface irregularities. Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available today, costing between 4 and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending upon the wind resource and project financing of the particular project. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently. Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause greenhouse gases or other pollutants. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to produce their own supply. Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and businesses can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good use of range of wind turbines available today.

5.4 Conclusion
Wind power is a free and inexhaustible ("renewable") source of energy where wind turbines harness a boundless supply of kinetic energy in the form of wind. Moreover by adding wind power to the energy supply diversifies the world energy portfolio and reduces any nations reliance on imported fuels, stabilizing the the cost of electricity, reducing vulnerability to price spikes and supply disruptions, and bolstering the security of any national energy supply.

23

CHAPTER 6 FUEL CELL

6.1 Introduction
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen/air to sustain the chemical reaction; however, fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied.

6.2 Working and Design of a Fuel Cell

Fuel Cells are generally made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load. At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide. The most important design features in a fuel cell are: The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell. The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen. The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.

24

The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nanomaterial-based catalyst. A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors: Activation loss Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections) Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).

Figure 6.1: Block diagram of a fuel cell To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits to yield higher voltage and parallel-channel of configurations allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be distributed uniformly over all of the cells to maximize the power.

25

6.2.1 Types of Fuel Cells There are several different types of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are usually classified by their operating temperature and the type of electrolyte they use. Some types of fuel cells work well for use in stationary power generation plants. Others may be useful for small portable applications or for powering cars. The main types of fuel cells include:

Polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) The Department of Energy (DOE) is focusing on the PEMFC as the most likely candidate for transportation applications. The PEMFC has a high power density and a relatively low operating temperature (ranging from 60 to 80 degrees Celsius, or 140 to 176 degrees Fahrenheit). The low operating temperature means that it doesn't take very long for the fuel cell to warm up and begin generating electricity. Well take a closer look at the PEMFC in the next section.

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) These fuel cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators that could provide electricity for factories or towns. This type of fuel cell operates at very high temperatures (between 700 and 1,000 degrees Celsius). This high temperature makes reliability a problem, because parts of the fuel cell can break down after cycling on and off repeatedly. However, solid oxide fuel cells are very stable when in continuous use. In fact, the SOFC has demonstrated the longest operating life of any fuel cell under certain operating conditions. The high temperature also has an advantage: the steam produced by the fuel cell can be channeled into turbines to generate more electricity. This process is called co-generation of heat and power (CHP) and it improves the overall efficiency of the system.

Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) This is one of the oldest designs for fuel cells; the United States space program has used them since the 1960s. The AFC is very susceptible to contamination, so it requires pure hydrogen and oxygen. It is also very expensive, so this type of fuel cell is unlikely to be commercialized.

26

Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) Like the SOFC, these fuel cells are also best suited for large stationary power generators. They operate at 600 degrees Celsius, so they can generate steam that can be used to generate more power. They have a lower operating temperature than solid oxide fuel cells, which means they don't need such exotic materials. This makes the design a little less expensive.

Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC) The phosphoric-acid fuel cell has potential for use in small stationary power-generation systems. It operates at a higher temperature than polymer exchange membrane fuel cells, so it has a longer warm-up time. This makes it unsuitable for use in cars.

Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) Methanol fuel cells are comparable to a PEMFC in regards to operating temperature, but are not as efficient. Also, the DMFC requires a relatively large amount of platinum to act as a catalyst, which makes these fuel cells expensive.

6.3 Knowing PEMFC

The polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most promising fuel cell technologies. This type of fuel cell will probably end up powering cars, buses and maybe even your house. The PEMFC uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell. First, let's take a look at what's in a PEM fuel cell: The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of the catalyst. The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively

27

charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons. For a PEMFC, the membrane must be hydrated in order to function and remain stable. The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.

Figure 6.2: Typical PEMFC The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to the cathode side of the fuel cell.

28

Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O). This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts. To get this voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell stack. Bipolar plates are used to connect one fuel cell to another and are subjected to both oxidizing and reducing conditions and potentials. A big issue with bipolar plates is stability. Metallic bipolar plates can corrode, and the byproducts of corrosion (iron and chromium ions) can decrease the effectiveness of fuel cell membranes and electrodes. Low-temperature fuel cells use lightweight metals, graphite and carbon/thermoset composites (thermoset is a kind of plastic that remains rigid even when subjected to high temperatures) as bipolar plate material.

6.4 Conclusion
Using oil and other fossil fuels for energy produces pollution. Pollution issues have been in the news a lot recently -- from the film "An Inconvenient Truth" to the announcement that climate change and global warming would factor into future adjustments of the Doomsday Clock. It is in the best interest for everyone find an alternative to burning fossil fuels for energy. Fuel cell technologies are an attractive alternative to oil dependency. Fuel cells give off no pollution, and in fact produce pure water as a byproduct. Though engineers are concentrating on producing hydrogen from sources such as natural gas for the short-term, the Hydrogen Initiative has plans to look into renewable, environmentally-friendly ways of producing hydrogen in the future. Because you can produce hydrogen from water. Other countries are also exploring fuel-cell applications. Oil dependency and global warming are international problems. Several countries are partnering to advance research and development efforts in fuel cell technologies. One partnership is The International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy. Clearly scientists and manufacturers have a lot of work to do before fuel cells become a practical alternative to current energy production methods.

29

CHAPTER 7 ULTRACAPACITOR
7.1 Introduction
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates. Supercapacitor (SC), electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) or ultracapacitor is the generic term for a family of electrochemical capacitors. Supercapacitors don't have a conventional solid dielectric. The capacitance value of an electrochemical capacitor is determined by two storage principles, which both contribute indivisibly to the total capacitance: Double-layer capacitance Electrostatic storage achieved by separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer at the interface between the surface of a conductive electrode and an electrolyte. The separation of charge is of the order of a few angstroms (0.3 0.8 nm), much smaller than in a conventional capacitor Pseudocapacitance Faradaic electrochemical storage with electron charge-transfer, achieved by redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption.

Figure 7.1: Classification of Supercapacitors

30

7.2 Concept
In a conventional capacitor, energy is stored by moving charge carriers, typically electrons, from one metal plate to another. This charge separation creates a potential between the two plates, which can be harnessed in an external circuit. The total energy stored in this fashion increases with both the amount of charge stored and the potential between the plates. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage is essentially a function of the size, the distance and the material properties of the plates and the material in between the plates (the dielectric), while the potential between the plates is limited by the breakdown field strength of the dielectric. The dielectric controls the capacitor's voltage. Optimizing the material leads to higher energy density for a given size. EDLCs do not have a conventional dielectric. Instead of two plates separated by an intervening insulator, these capacitors use virtual plates made of two layers of the same substrate. Their electrochemical properties, the so-called "electrical double layer", result in the effective separation of charge despite the vanishingly thin (on the order of nanometers) physical separation of the layers. The lack of need for a bulky layer of dielectric and the porosity of the material used permits the packing of plates with much larger surface area into a given volume, resulting in high capacitances in small packages. In an electrical double layer, each layer is quite conductive, but the physics at the interface between them means that no significant current can flow between the layers. The double layer can withstand only a low voltage, which means that higher voltages are achieved by matched series-connected individual EDLCs, much like series-connected cells in higher-voltage batteries. (7.1) EDLCs have much higher power density than batteries. Power density combines the energy density with the speed at which the energy can be delivered to the load. Batteries, which are based on the movement of charge carriers in a liquid electrolyte, have relatively slow charge and discharge times. Capacitors can be charged or discharged at a rate that is typically limited by the heat tolerance of the electrodes. While existing EDLCs have energy densities that are perhaps 1/10 that of a conventional battery, their power density is generally 10 to 100 times as great. This makes them most suited to an intermediary role between electrochemical batteries and

31

electrostatic capacitors, where neither sustained energy release nor immediate power demands dominate.

Figure 7.2: Principle charge storage of different capacitor types

7.3 Energy density and power density

Supercapacitors occupy the gap between high power/low energy electrolytic capacitors and low power/high energy rechargeable batteries. The amount of energy stored in a supercapacitor is called specific energy. The energy Wmax of a capacitor is given by the formula (7.2) This formula describes the amount of energy stored and is often used to describe new research successes. However, only part of the stored energy is available to applications, because the voltage drop and the time constant over the internal resistance mean that

32

some of the stored charge is inaccessible. The effective realized amount of energy W eff is reduced by the used voltage difference between Vmax and Vmin and can be represented as: (7.3) This formula also represents the energy asymmetric voltage components such as lithium ion capacitors. Energy density is either measured gravimetrically (per unit of mass) in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) or volumetrically (per unit of volume) in watt-hours per litre (Wh/l). As of 2013 commercial gravimetric energy densities range from around 0.5 to 15 Wh/kg. For comparison, an aluminum electrolytic capacitor stores typically 0.01 to 0.3 Wh/kg, while a conventional lead-acid battery stores typically 30 to 40 Wh/kg and modern lithium-ion batteries 100 to 265 Wh/kg. Supercapacitors can therefore store 10 to 100 times more energy than electrolytic capacitors, but only one tenth as much as batteries.

Although the energy densities of supercapacitors are insufficient compared with batteries the capacitors have an important advantage, the power density. Power density describes the speed at which energy can be delivered to/absorbed from the load. The maximum power Pmax is given by the formula: (7.4) with V = voltage applied and Ri, the internal DC resistance. Power density is measured either gravimetrically in kilowatts per kilogram (kW/kg) or volumetrically in kilowatts per litre (kW/l). The described maximum power Pmax specifies the power of a theoretical rectangular single maximum current peak of a given voltage. In real circuits the current peak is not rectangular and the voltage is smaller, caused by the voltage drop. IEC 623912 established a more realistic effective power Peff for supercapacitors for power applications:

(7.5) Supercapacitor power density is typically 10 to 100 times greater than for batteries and can reach values up to 15 kW/kg.

33

Ragone charts relate energy to power and are a valuable tool for characterizing and visualizing energy storage components.

Figure 7.3: Ragone chart

7.4 Conclusion
The use of a single energy device to satisfy the entire power specification of an application required designers to either design for power (at times providing excess energy), or design for energy (at times providing inadequate power). Ultracapacitors, have a unique characteristic when compared to other energy storage devices. By leveraging these unique features, we can have more freedom when designing your power system. The high performance characteristics of ultracapacitors allow, the system designer, to develop hybrid power system solutions that cost less and perform better than non-hybrid solutions. The benefits of using ultracapacitor technology in your designs are quite extensive. Some of them are: Very High Efficiency High Current Capability Wide Voltage Range Long Cycle Life Wide Temperature Range

34

CHAPTER 8 ELECTROLYZER AND POWER CONDITIONER

8.1 Electrolyzer
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis is the electrolysis of water in a cell equipped with a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) that is responsible for the conduction of protons, separation of product gases, and electrical insulation of the electrodes. The PEM electrolyzer was introduced to overcome the issues of partial load, low current density, and low pressure operation currently plaguing the alkaline electrolyzer. Electrolysis is an important new technology for the production of hydrogen to be used as an energy carrier. With fast dynamic response times, large operational ranges, high efficiencies, and very high gas purities (99.999%), PEM electrolysis is a promising alternative for energy storage coupled with renewable energy sources.

Figure 8.1: PEM Electrolyzer

8.2 Science of Electrolyzer

An electrolyzer is an electrochemical device to convert electricity and water into hydrogen and oxygen, these gases can then be used as a means to store energy for later use. This use can range from electrical grid stabilization from dynamic electrical sources such as wind turbines and solar cells to localized hydrogen production as a fuel for fuel

35

cell vehicles. The PEM electrolyzer utilizes a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) to conduct protons from the anode to the cathode while insulating the electrodes electrically. Under standard conditions the enthalpy required for the formation of water is 285.9 kJ/mol. A portion of the required energy for a sustained electrolysis reaction is supplied by thermal energy and the remainder is supplied through electrical energy.

8.3 Power Conditioner

A power conditioner (also known as a line conditioner or power line conditioner) is a device intended to improve the quality of the power that is delivered to electrical load equipment. While there is no official definition of a power conditioner, the term most often refers to a device that acts in one or more ways to deliver a voltage of the proper level and characteristics to enable load equipment to function properly. In some uses, power conditioner refers to a voltage regulator with at least one other function to improve power quality (e.g. power factor correction, noise suppression, transient impulse protection, etc.). The terms "power conditioning" and "power conditioner" can be misleading, as the word "power" here refers to the electricity generally rather than the more technical electric power. Conditioners specifically work to smooth the sinusoidal A.C. wave form and maintain a constant voltage over varying loads.

Figure 8.2: Typical Power Conditioner

36

8.4 Uses of a Power Conditioner

Power conditioners vary in function and size, generally according to their use. Some power conditioners provide minimal voltage regulation while others protect against six or more power quality problems. Units may be small enough to mount on a printed circuit board or large enough to protect an entire factory. Small power conditioners are rated in volt-amperes (VA) while larger units are rated in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). Ideally electric power would be supplied as a sine wave with the amplitude and frequency given by national standards (in the case of mains) or system specifications (in the case of a power feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of zero ohms at all frequencies. No real life power feed will ever meet this ideal. So to overcome any deviations from ideality, we use a Power Conditioner

8.5 Conclusion
The ability of the PEM electrolyzer to operate, not only under highly dynamic conditions, but also in part-load and overload conditions is one of the reasons for the recently renewed interest in this technology. The demands of an electrical grid are relatively stable and predictable, however when coupling these to energy sources such as wind and solar, the demand of the grid rarely matches the generation of the renewable energy. This means energy produced from renewable sources such as wind and solar must have a buffer, or a means of storing off-peak energy. When this system is coupled to a Power Conditioner, it offers a high quality power and reliable supply to the end user.

37

CHAPTER 9 LAYER OF SCHEME

9.1 Overlay
The technique and procedure adopted for accomplishing the objectives of the abstract is given as follows: When Sunlight carrying photons is irradiated onto the PV cell, it generates power by the photoelectric effect. Likewise, when the wind is allowed to be flown onto the blades of a wind turbine, the rotor rotates converting its kinetic energy to electrical power. The DC power from both the sources is then fed to a Power Condition which boosts the DC power using a booster and then converts DC power into AC power using an inverting circuit, which is regulated. The obtained AC power is fed to a load to meet its demand. If the surplus power is generated from PV and Wind turbine, it is fed to an electrolyzer it converts this excess energy into hydrogen gas which is stored at high pressure using electrolysis principle. When the power generated from PV cell and Wind Turbine is insufficient, this stored hydrogen gas is then fed to a Fuel cell which converts this chemical energy to electrical energy for meeting the deficit load demand to be fed. Ultracapacitor is connected in parallel to a Fuel Cell to meet small variations in peak power demanded by the load.

Figure 9.1: Block Diagram of the Layer of Scheme

38

CHAPTER 10 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND DYNAMIC MODELING

10.1 System Description
The renewable energy based hybrid power system consists of a 75W solar cell, a 400W wind turbine, a 100W proton exchange membrane fuel cell, ultra-capacitors, an electrolyzer, and a power conditioner. The power conditioner includes a boost circuit and a SPWM inverter. It is used to step up ultracapacitor voltage to DC 200V and invert to 120Vrms, 60Hz AC. The wind turbine adopted is Southwest Wind power AIR 403. When wind speed is 12.5m/s, the wind turbine produces the maximum power 400W. Solar cell adopted is SIEMENS SP75 and its maximum power is 75W. Wind turbine and solar cell are the main sources to supply load demand. Fuel cell model includes a fuel cell module and a fuel controller. The fuel controller consists of two PID controllers to limit the flows of hydrogen and oxygen. The fuel cell is an accessory generator in this system and supplies insufficient power. In order to keep the supply and demand is balanced. When the supply is bigger than the load need, the electrolyzer model electrolyzes water to produce hydrogen and store it for further usage. Thus, the system can circulate supply load demand and energy will not be wasted.

10.2 Dynamic System Modeling

The fossil fuel will produce pollution after burning, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide compound and the carbon hydrogen compound etc. All of these poisonous airs are the cause of the air pollutions and greenhouse effects. The fossil fuel is the non-renewable resources and less and less after massive consumptions. Comparing with the nuclear energy and thermal power, the renewable energy is inexhaustible and has non-pollution characteristics. The solar energy, wind power, hydraulic power and tide energy are natural resources of the interest to generate electrical sources. Extensive and generalized usage of renewable energy is very popular to reduce the pollutions we have cause on earth. The wind and solar energy are welcome substitution for many other energy resources because it is natural, inexhaustible resource of sunlight to generate electricity. The main disadvantage of wind turbines is that naturally variable wind speed causes voltage and power fluctuation problems at the load side. This problem can be solved by using appropriate power converters and control strategies. Another significant

39

problem is to store the energy generated by wind turbines for future usage when no wind is available but the user demand exists. The solar cell depends on the weather factors, mainly the irradiation and the cell temperature. Therefore, the weather factors such as the irradiation and the temperature are utilized for the estimation of the maximum power in this paper. After many technological advances, proton exchange membrane fuel cell technology has now reached the test and demonstration phase. The recent commercial availability of small PEMFC units has created many new opportunities to design hybrid energy systems for remote applications with energy storage in hydrogen form.

But long-term storage of power generated by wind turbines and solar cell in some remote area has always been a problem. General battery devices can be used to store a limited amount of power for a few days. For long-term storage, electrical energy can be converted into hydrogen using an electrolyzer for later use in fuel cells. As a solution for this energy storage problem, wind energy after appropriate conversion can be stored in the form of hydrogen which will be converted to electrical energy via fuel cells. This type of energy storage provides significant advantages when compared to conventional batteries in terms of energy density and long term storage. By using an electrolyzer, hydrogen conversion allows both storage and transportation of large amounts of power at much higher energy densities. Furthermore, coupling a wind turbine, a solar cell, fuel cells and electrolyzers is efficacious to improve environment pollution because of by using natural energy.

10.2.1 Solar Cell A solar cell module is the basic element of each photovoltaic system. It consists of many jointly connected solar cells. A number of solar cell models have been developed, but the one diode electrical equivalent circuit is commonly used for cell based or module based analysis. It consists of a diode, a current source, a series resistance and a parallel resistance. The current source generates the photo-current that is a function of the incident solar cell radiation and temperature. The diode represents the p-n junction of a solar cell. The temperature dependence of the diode saturation current and constant diode ideality factor are included in the modeling. At real solar cells, a voltage loss on the way to the external contacts is observed. This voltage loss is expressed by a series resistance (Rs). Furthermore leakage currents are described by a parallel resistance (Rsh). However, the

40

series resistance is very small and the parallel resistance is very large. So we can ignore Rs and Rsh.

Figure 10.1: Equivalent Circuit

Figure 10.2: Simplified Circuit The Solar Current Equation is given as:

(10.1)

41

The Solar Voltage Equation is given as:

(10.2) 10.2.2 Wind Turbine The power output of wind turbine is relating to wind speed with a cubic ratio. The power curve of the wind turbine AIR 403 studied is nonlinear, which is digitized and the resulting table is used for simulation. Both the first order moment of inertia (J) and a friction based dynamic model for the wind turbine rotor, and a first order model for the permanent magnet generator are adopted. The dynamics of the wind turbine due to its rotor inertia and generator are added by considering the wind turbine response as a second order slightly under-damped system. Using this simple approach, small wind turbine dynamic is modeled as (10.3)

Figure 10.3: AIR 403 power curve

42

10.2.3 Fuel Cell A fuel cell is a stationary power generator. The fuel cell chosen for this type of application must provide competitive, reliable, and quality power without emitting pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen, carbon or sulphur. It must respond quickly to changes in load and have low maintenance requirements as well as a long cell life. The PEM fuel cell is one of the most promising and certainly the best known of the fuel cell types satisfying above requirements. It is often considered as a potential replacement for the internal combustion engine in transportation applications. The PEM fuel cell consists of porous carbon electrodes bonded to a very thin sulphonated polymer membrane. This membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is sandwiched between two collector plates, which provide an electrical path from the electrodes to the external circuit. Flow channels cut into the collector plates distribute reactant gases over the surface of the electrodes. Individual cells consisting of collector plates and MEAs are assembled in series to form a fuel cell stack.

Figure 10.4: PEM fuel cell diagram

43

The thermodynamic potential E is defined via a Nernst equation in expanded form as:

(10.4) The parametric equation for the over-voltage due to activation and internal resistance developed from the empirical analysis is given as: (10.5)

(10.6)

(10.7) The combined effect of thermodynamics, mass transport, kinetics, and ohmic resistance determines the output voltage of the cell as defined by:

(10.8) The ohmic voltage loss in the fuel cell is given by: (10.9)

(10.10)

...(10.11) The fuel cell system consists of a stack of 65 similar cells connected in series. Therefore, the total stack voltage is given by:

44

(10.12) Using the mole conservation principle, the gas pressure of the fuel cell anode is given as:

(10.13) The gas pressure of the fuel cell cathode is given as:

(10.14)

10.2.4 Electrolyzer Water can be decomposed into its elementary components by passing electric current between two electrodes separated by an aqueous electrolyte. The electrochemical reaction of water electrolysis is given by:

According to Faradays law, hydrogen production rate of an electrolyzer cell is directly proportional to the electrical current in the equivalent electrolyzer circuit.

(10.15) where ie is the electrolyzer current, nc is the number of electrolyzer cells in series, and F is the Faraday efficiency. The ratio between the actual and the theoretical maximum amount of hydrogen produced in the electrolyzer is known as Faraday efficiency.

45

Assuming that the working temperature of the electrolyzer is 40 , Faraday efficiency is expressed by: (10.16)

10.2.5 Ultracapacitor Ultra-capacitors are used in power applications requiring short duration peak power. An ultra-capacitor is an energy storage device with a construction similar to that of a battery. In this subsection, we present the model of the UC bank to perform load sharing with the FC system when they simultaneously operate with the wind turbine and solar cell. Although FC systems exhibit good power supply capability during steady state operation, the response of fuel cells during instantaneous and short-term peak power demand periods is relatively poor. In these periods, the UC bank can assist the FC system to achieve good performance whereas reducing the cost and size of the FC system. Such an ultracapacitor module was connected in parallel with the fuel cell to reduce its voltage variation due to sudden load changes. The ultra-capacitor is modeled as a low pass filter with the transfer function given below:

(10.17) Where capacitance C=108.75 F, series resistance Rc=16 m and stray resistance

Rs=0.01 . 10.3 Developing Simulink Models

A detailed dynamic model and simulation of the entire hybrid power system is developed using a novel topology to complement each other and to alleviate the effects of environmental variations. Modeling and simulations are conducted using

MATLAB/Simulink software packages to verify the effectiveness of the proposed system.

Model Development is as follows:

46

10.3.1 Overall Hybrid Power System Model

Figure 10.5: Simulink Model - 1 47

Figure 10.6: Simulink Model - 2

5
48

10.3.2 Wind Turbine Subsystem

Figure 10.7: Simulink Model - 3

6
49

Figure 10.8: Simulink Model - 4

7
50

10.3.3 Solar Cell Subsystem (PV)

Figure 10.9: Simulink Model - 5

8
51

Figure 10.10: Simulink Model - 6

9
52

Figure 10.11: Simulink Model - 7

10
53

Figure 10.12: Simulink Model - 8

11
54

10.3.4 Intermediate Subsystem

Figure 10.13: Simulink Model - 9

12
55

Figure 10.14: Simulink Model - 10

13
56

10.3.5 Electrolyzer Subsystem

Figure 10.15: Simulink Model - 11

14
57

Figure 10.16: Simulink Model - 12

15
58

10.3.6 Fuel Cell Stack Subsystem

Figure 10.17: Simulink Model - 13

16
59

Figure 10.18: Simulink Model - 14

17
60

Figure 10.19: Simulink Model - 15

18
61

Figure 10.20: Simulink Model - 16

19
62

Figure 10.21: Simulink Model - 17

20
63

Figure 10.22: Simulink Model - 18

21
64

Figure 10.23: Simulink Model - 19

22
65

10.3.7 Fuel Cell Flow control Subsystem

Figure 10.24: Simulink Model - 20

23
66

Figure 10.25: Simulink Model - 21

24
67

10.3.8 Ultra Capacitor Model

Figure 10.26: Simulink Model - 22

25
68

10.3.9 Simulation Workspace

Figure 10.27: Simulink Model - 23

26
69

CHAPTER 11 SIMULATION RESULTS

11.1 Simulating System and Obtaining Results
Simulation results with step changes in load demand, wind speed, radiation, and ambient temperature are analyzed. Wind speed increases, at t=10s, from 10 to 12 m/s and decreases to 8 m/s at t=16s. The solar cell initially supplies power at the radiation 400W/m2 and temperature 25C. At 15s, the radiation increases to 600W/m2 and temperature also increases to 28C. The load demand changes from 355W to 215W at 10s. These step inputs cause changes in available power and load consumption. The power tracking performance of the hybrid topology with respect to load demand change and environmental variations is also analyzed. Associated parameter variations in solar cell, wind turbine, fuel cell, ultra-capacitor, power converter output, and system performance are analyzed.

With variation in load, the power demand changes from 355W to 215W at 10s. The fuel cell provides power for load requirement because of the output power of the wind turbine and solar cell are not sufficient enough to supply load demand at t=0s to 10s. However, as the wind speed increases, the captured power increases and the contribution of the fuel cell decrease. Any excess power is diverted to the electrolyzer during this period. Similarly, with sudden decrease in wind speed, the contribution of the fuel cell starts at t=19.8s.

With changes in load and environmental conditions, the solar cell current and fuel cell current vary. These changes are reflected in the performance of the fuel cell system. The stack current variation at t=0s to t=10s is due to start-up transients and load demand, as the solar cells and wind turbines contributions are limited and fixed. During t=10s to t=16s, the fuel cell current decreases to zero because load demand is reduced and the wind turbine increases output power. After t=16s, variation in fuel cell current is due to changes in power demand from the fuel cell with varying availability of wind energy.

70

Such changes in fuel cell current cause the stack voltage to vary significantly. Generally, a lower level of current implies higher stack voltage and vice versa. The use of an ultracapacitor in parallel with the fuel cell reduces the stacks output. With variations of the ultra-capacitor voltage between 49 and 62 V, the power converter unit regulates the load voltage. The controller in the boost converter adjusts the duty ratio so as to attain a fixed 200V DC in the inverters input. The inverter, on the other hand, delivers a 120 Vrms, 60 Hz AC to the load. The hydrogen is a fuel of fuel cell. The electrolyzer, electrolyzes water to produce hydrogen by the excess power of the system and store it from t=10s to t=19.8s. The variation of hydrogen in storage tank is also obtained. The system can circulate supply load demand and renewable energy will not be wasted.

Figure 11.1: Power tracking performance of the hybrid topology with respect to load demand change and environmental variations

71

Figure 11.2: Current variations

Figure 11.3: Voltage variations

72

Figure 11.4: Hydrogen variation in storage tank

73

Conclusion
In this project, a novel renewable energy based hybrid power system is proposed and modeled for a stand-alone user with appropriate power controllers. The available power from the renewable energy sources is highly dependent on environmental conditions such as wind speed, radiation, and ambient temperature. To overcome this deficiency of the solar cell and wind system, we integrated them with the FC/UC system using a novel topology. The voltage variation at the output is found to be within the acceptable range. The output fluctuations of the wind turbine varying with wind speed and the solar cell varying with both environmental temperature and sun radiation are reduced using a fuel cell. Therefore, this system can tolerate the rapid changes in load and environmental conditions, and suppress the effects of these fluctuations on the equipment side voltage. This hybrid topology exhibits excellent performance under variable radiation, ambient temperature, wind speed and load power requirements. The proposed system can be used for off-grid power generation in non-interconnected areas or remote isolated communities.

This project benefits the endeavors of humans in reducing the carbon footprint that is creating havoc to this environment and threatening the very existence of our race. It not only helps in creating a clean energy, but also helps in lighting the remote areas and communities thereby uplifting them.

They can't do without electricity. They can do with less electricity. Kenneth Lay
As the quotation speaks, remote areas get developed cleanly only by providing them with enough electricity so that they can stand on their own, in turn developing their nations and ultimately contributing for the advancement and prosperity of the human race on the whole.

74

References
Books and Papers:
1. K. Kobayashi, H. Matsuo, and Y. Sekine, An Excellent Operating Point Tracker of the Solar-Cell Power Supply System, in Proc. 2006 IEEE Conference of Power Electronics Specialists, pp. 495-499. 2. C. T. Pan, J. Y. Chen, C. P. Chu, and Y. S. Huang, A Fast Maximum Power Point Tracing for Photovoltaic Power Systems, in Proc. 1999 IEEE Industrial Electronics Society Conf., vol. 1, pp. 390-393. 3. J. A. Gow and C. D. Manning, Development of a Photovoltaic Array Model for Use in Power-electronics Simulation Studies, IEEE Proc.-Electric Power Application, vol. 146, no. 2, pp. 193-200, March 1999. 4. K. Sapru, N. T. Stetson, and S. R. Ovshinsky, Development of a Small Scale Hydrogen Production Storage System for Hydrogen Applications, in Proc. 1997 Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., pp. 30-34. 5. M. J. Khan and M. T. Iqbal, Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of a Small Wind Fuel Cell Hybrid Energy System, Renewable Energy, pp. 421-439, 2005. 6. S. M. Shaahid and M. A. Elhadidy, Technical and Economic Assessment of Grid independent Hybrid Photovoltaic-Diesel-Battery Power Systems for Commercial Loads in Desert Environments, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 11, pp. 1794-1810, Oct. 2007. 7. D. B. Nelson, M. H. Nehrir, and C. Wang, Unit Sizing and Cost Analysis of Stand Alone Hybrid Wind/PV/Fuel Cell Power Generation Systems, Renewable Energy, pp. 1641-1656, Aug. 2006. [9] B. C. Kuo, Automatic control systems, 7thed. New York: Prentice Hall Inc, 1995. 8. B. Delfino and F. Fornari, Modeling and Control of an Integrated Fuel Cell-Wind Turbine System, in Proc. 2003 IEEE Bologna PowerTech Conf., pp. 23-26. 9. S. Obara, Analysis of a Fuel Cell Micro-Grid with a Small-Scale Wind Turbine Generator, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 32, pp. 323-336, March 2007. 10. J. C. Amphlett, R. M. Baumert, R. F. Mann,B. A. Peppley, P. R. Roberge, and T. J. Harries, Performance Modeling of the Ballard Mark- IV Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, vol. 1, pp. 9-15, 1995.

75

11. A. Rowe and X. Li, Mathematical Modeling of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, Journal of Power Sources, pp. 82-96, 2001. 12. O. Ulleberg, "Stand-alone Power Systems for the Future: Optimal Design, Operation and Control of Solar-Hydrogen Energy Systems," Ph.D. dissertation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 1997. 13. K. Sapru, N. T. Stetson, and S. R. Ovshinsky, "Development of a Small Scale Hydrogen Production Storage System for Hydrogen Applications," in Proc. 1997 the 32nd Intersociety Conf., vol. 3, pp. 1947-1952. 14. B. Ismail, S. Taib, A. R. Saad, M. Isa, and C. M. Hadzer, Development of a Single Phase SPWM Microcontroller-Based Inverter, in Proc. 2006 IEEE Power and Energy Conf., pp. 437-440, March 2006. 15. W. X. Lin, A New Approach to the Harmonic Analysis of SPWM Waves, in Proc. 2006 IEEE Mechatronics and Automation Conf., pp. 390-394. 16. SIEMENS Solar module SP75 Technical Specifications Sheet. 17. Wind Turbine Power Calculations RWE npower renewables Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Power Industry. 18. Solar Cell I-V Curves and Equivalent Circuits by NREL. 19. aban Ylmaz, Hasan Rza zalk, Mahit Gne and Osman Domu, Mathematical Model Derivation of Solar Cell by Using One Diode Equivalent Circuit via SIMULINK, International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 1 No. 12 December 2013. 20. E.M.G. Rodrigues1, R. Melcio1, 2, V.M.F. Mendes3 and J.P.S. Catalo, Simulation of a Solar Cell considering Single-Diode Equivalent Circuit Model.

URLs:
1. Honda Fuel Cell Power FCX (2004). http://world.honda.com/

FuelCell/FCX/FCXPK.pdf. 2. The Math Works http://www.mathworks.com 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_energy 4. http://www.eschooltoday.com/energy/non-renewable-energy/what-is-non-renewableenergy.html 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_development

76

6. http://www.preservearticles.com/2012032027973/what-is-conventional-source-ofenergy.html 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power_generation 8. http://www.iea.org/STATS/pdf_graphs/29ELEC.pdf 9. https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf 10. http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/electricity.cfm 11. http://planetforlife.com/oilcrisis/oilpeak.html 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletion 13. https://pangea.stanford.edu/researchgroups/eao/research/resource-depletion-andenergy-system-transitions 14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy 15. http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/publicbenefits-of-renewable.html 16. https://joinmosaic.com/advantages-of-renewable-energy 17. http://www.pembina.org/re/re-resources/benefits-of-re 18. http://technologygreenenergy.blogspot.in/2014/01/alternative-energy-sourcesadvantages.html 19. http://www.ruralelec.org/fileadmin/DATA/Documents/06_Publications/Position_pape rs/ARE-WG_Technological_Solutions_-_Brochure_Hybrid_Systems.pdf 20. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/tribalenergy/pdfs/course_analysis_taylor2.pdf 21. http://www.wwindea.org/technology/ch05/en/5_3_1.html 22. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_renewable_energy_system 23. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics 24. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect 25. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel 26. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_film_solar_cell 27. http://www.greenoughsolarfarm.com.au/solar-energy/benefits-solar-energy 28. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/blog/post/2012/12/advantages-anddisadvantages-of-solar-photovoltaic-quick-pros-and-cons-of-solar-pv 29. http://pveducation.org/ 30. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power 31. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Img/150324/0044577.jpg 32. http://energy.gov/eere/wind/advantages-and-challenges-wind-energy

77

33. http://www.pawindenergynow.org/wind/benefits.html 34. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell 35. http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/fuel-cell1.htm 36. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor 37. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor 38. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_double-layer_capacitor 39. http://www.maxwell.com/products/ultracapacitors/docs/top_10_reasons_for_ultracaps .pdf 40. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_electrolyte_membrane_electrolysis 41. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_conditioner 42. http://www.hifiprestige.it/it/xindak/3075-xindak-xf-1000es.html 43. http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/electricity_2.html 44. http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Why_Do_We_Need_Renewable_Energy

78

The End