Fuel cell

Abstract
scist William Grove developed the first crude fuel cells in 1839. The first commercial use of fuel cells was in NASA space programs to generate power for pro es! satellites and space capsules. Since then! fuel cells have een used in man" other

There are man" t"pes of fuel cells! ut the" all consist of side(! side( and

electricit"

through

chemical

reaction with o*"gen or another o*idi+ing agent.2149"drogen is the

an anode 'negative a cathode 'positive

most common fuel! ut h"drocar ons such as natural gas and alcohols li$e methanol are sometimes used. #uel cells are different

an electrol"te that allows charges to move etween the two sides of the fuel cell. )lectrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an e*ternal circuit! producing direct As the main

from atteriesin that the" re1uire a constant source of fuel and o*"gen to run! ut the" can produce electricit" continuall" for as long as these inputs are supplied.

current electricit".

applications. #uel cells are used for primar" and commercial! ac$up power for industrial and

difference among fuel cell t"pes is the electrol"te! " fuel cells the are t"pe

classified

residential uildings and in remote or inaccessi le areas. The" are used to power fuel cell vehicles! including automo iles! airplanes! su marines. uses! for$lifts!

of electrol"te the" use. #uel cells come in a variet" of si+es. ,ndividual fuel cells produce ver" small

amounts of electricit"! a out -.. volts! so cells are /stac$ed/! or placed in series or parallel circuits! to increase the voltage and current output to meet an application0s power generation re1uirements. 234 ,n addition to electricit"! fuel cells produce water! heat and! depending on the fuel source! ver" small amounts other of nitrogen emissions. dio*ide and The energ" S$etch of William Grove:s 1839 fuel cell The principle of the fuel cell was discovered scientist ;hristian " German #riedrich

oats! motorc"cles and

efficienc" of a fuel cell is generall" etween 5-&6-7! or up to 887 efficient if waste heat is captured for use.

Sch<n ein in 1838 and pu lished in one of the scientific maga+ines of the time.234=ased on this wor$! the first fuel cell was demonstrated " Welsh scientist and arrister Sir William

INTRODUCTION WHAT IS FUEL CELLS?

%emonstration model of a direct& methanol fuel cell. A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energ" from a fuel into

>o ert Grove in the #e ruar" 1839 edition of the Philosophical

Magazine
254

and

Journal

of

commercial use of a fuel cell. ,n 1989! Thomas =ritish =acon engineer #rancis successfull"

Cnited

Technologies

Science and later s$etched! in 1853! in the same ?ournal.284 The fuel cell he made used similar materials to toda":s phosphoric&acid fuel cell. ,n 1988! W. Thomas Gru ! a

;orporation:s CT; Bower su sidiar" was the first compan" to

developed a 8 $W stationar" fuel cell. ,n 1989! a team led " 9arr" ,hrig uilt a 18 $W fuel cell tractor for Allis&;halmers which was

manufacture and commerciali+e a large! stationar" fuel cell s"stem for use as a co&generation power plant in hospitals! office universities uildings. and large Bower

chemist wor$ing for the General )lectric ;ompan" 'G)(! further

demonstrated across the CS at state fairs. This s"stem used potassium h"dro*ide as the electrol"te h"drogen and

CT;

modified the original fuel cell design " using a sulphonated pol"st"rene ion&e*change mem rane as the

mar$eted their fuel cell! the Bure;ell 3--! a 3-- $W s"stem! now replaced " a 5-- $W version! the Bure;ell Aodel 5--.2.4 CT; Bower continues to e the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles! having supplied fuel
284

and compressed

electrol"te. Three "ears later another G) chemist! @eonard Niedrach!

o*"gen as the reactants. @ater in 1989! =acon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five&

devised a wa" of depositing platinum onto the mem rane! which served as catal"st for the necessar" h"drogen o*idation and o*"gen reduction

$ilowatt unit capa le of powering a welding machine. ,n the 196-s! Bratt and Whitne" licensed =acon:s C.S. patents for use in the C.S. space program to suppl" electricit" and drin$ing water 'h"drogen and

cells

for

theApollo missions! and the Space Shuttle program! and is developing fuel cells for automo iles! uses! and cell phone towers. The compan" has demonstrated the first fuel cell capa le of starting under free+ing conditions with its proton e*change mem rane.

reactions. This ecame $nown as the :Gru &Niedrach fuel cell:. G) went

on to develop this technolog" with NASA and Ac%onnell Aircraft! leading to its use during Bro?ect Gemini. This was the first

o*"gen eing readil" availa le from the spacecraft tan$s(. ,n 1991! the first h"drogen fuel cell automo ile was developed " >oger =illings. 264

History

How do fuel cells work?

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can e directed outside the cell to do wor$! such as powering an electric motor or illuminating a light ul or a cit". =ecause of the wa" electricit" ehaves! this current returns to the fuel cell! completing an electrical circuit. 'To learn more a out

The chemical reactions that produce this current are the $e" to how a fuel cell wor$s. There are several $inds of fuel cells! and each operates a it differentl". =ut in general terms! h"drogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their electrons. The h"drogen atoms are now Dioni+ed!E and carr" a positive electrical charge. The negativel" charged electrons provide the current through wires to do wor$. ,f alternating current 'A;( is needed! the %; output of the fuel

electricit" and electric power! visit DThrow The SwitchE on the

Smithsonian we site Bowering a Generation of ;hange.(

cell must

e routed through a

the electrol"te to the anode! where it com ines with h"drogen ions. The electrol"te pla"s a $e" role. ,t must permit onl" the appropriate ions to pass etween the anode and cathode. ,f free electrons or other su stances could travel through the electrol"te! the" would disrupt the chemical reaction. Whether the" com ine at anode or cathode! together h"drogen and

supplied with h"drogen and o*"gen! it will generate electricit". )ven etter! since fuel cells create

conversion device called an inverter. Graphic )nerg" " Aarc Aarshall! Schat+ >esearch ;enterF*"gen

electricit" chemicall"! rather than " com ustion! the" are not su ?ect to the thermod"namic laws that limit a conventional power plant 'see

enters the fuel cell at the cathode and! in some cell t"pes 'li$e the one illustrated a ove(! it there com ines with electrons returning from the electrical circuit and h"drogen ions that have traveled through the

D;arnot @imitE in the glossar"(. Therefore! fuel cells are more

efficient in e*tracting energ" from a fuel. Waste heat from some cells can also e harnessed! oosting s"stem

electrol"te from the anode. ,n other cell t"pes the o*"gen pic$s up electrons and then travels through

o*"gen form water! which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is

efficienc" still further.

Types of fuel cells; desi !

%ifferent t"pes of fuel cells.

%rawing of an al$ali cell.

)fficienc" is a out .- percent! and operating temperature is 18- to 3-degrees ;! 'a out 3-- to 5-- degrees #(. ;ell output ranges from 3-watts 'W( to 8 $ilowatts '$W(. Al$ali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide oth electricit" and drin$ing water. The" re1uire pure h"drogen fuel! however! and their platinum electrode catal"sts are e*pensive. And li$e an" container

filled with li1uid! the" can lea$.

Alkali

fuel

cells

operate

on

%rawing of a molten car onate cell

compressed h"drogen and o*"gen. The" generall" use a solution of potassium h"dro*ide 'chemicall"! GF9( in water as their electrol"te.

"olte! Carbo!ate fuel cells

'A;#;( use high&temperature

compounds of salt 'li$e sodium or

magnesium( car onates 'chemicall"! ;F3( as the electrol"te. )fficienc" ranges from 6- to 8- percent! and operating temperature is a out 68degrees ; '1!3-- degrees #(. Cnits with output up to 3 megawatts 'AW( have een constructed! and designs e*ist for units up to 1-- AW. The high temperature limits damage from car on mono*ide /poisoning/ of the cell and waste heat can e rec"cled to ma$e additional electricit". Their nic$el electrode&catal"sts compared to are the

sulfur must

e removed. Blatinum

compound of metal 'li$e calcium or +irconium( o*ides 'chemicall"! F3( as electrol"te. )fficienc" is a out 6percent! and operating

electrode&catal"sts are needed! and internal parts must e a le to

withstand the corrosive acid. %rawing of how oth phosphoric

acid and B)A fuel cells operate.

ine*pensive

platinum used in other cells. =ut the high temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of A;#;sH the" would pro a l" e too hot for home use. Also! car onate ions from the electrol"te are used up in the reactions! ma$ing it necessar" to in?ect car on dio*ide to compensate. Broton )*change Aem rane 'B)A( fuel cells wor$ with a pol"mer electrol"te in the form of a thin! permea le sheet. )fficienc" is a out 5- to 8- percent! and operating temperature is a out 8- degrees ; 'a out 1.8 degrees #(. ;ell outputs generall" range from 8- to 38- $W. The solid! fle*i le electrol"te will not lea$ or crac$! and these cells operate at a low enough temperature to ma$e them suita le for homes and cars. =ut their fuels must e purified! and a platinum catal"st is used on oth sides of the mem rane! raising costs. %rawing of a solid o*ide

celltemperatures are a out 1!--degrees ; 'a out 1!8-- degrees #(. ;ells output is up to 1-- $W. At such high temperatures a reformer is not re1uired to e*tract h"drogen from the fuel! and waste heat can e rec"cled electricit". to ma$e additional the high

#$osp$oric Acid fuel cells

'BA#;( use phosphoric acid as the electrol"te. )fficienc" ranges from 5- to 8- percent! and operating temperature is etween 18- to 3-degrees ; 'a out 3-- to 5-- degrees #(. )*isting phosphoric acid cells have outputs up to 3-- $W! and 11 AW units have een tested. BA#;s tolerate a car on mono*ide

9owever!

temperature limits applications of SF#; units and the" tend to e

rather large. While solid electrol"tes cannot lea$! the" can crac$. Aore detailed information a out each fuel cell t"pe! including

histories and current applications! can e found on their specific parts

concentration of a out 1.8 percent! which roadens the choice of fuels the" can use. ,f gasoline is used! the

%olid '%OFC(

O&ide

fuel

cells

of this site. We have also provided a glossar" of technical termsIa lin$ is

use a hard! ceramic

provided

at

the

top

of

each

technolog" page.

Applicatio!
887.2334 This is significantl" more efficient than

#ower
Stationar" fuel cells are used for commercial! industrial and residential primar" and ac$up

traditional coal power plants!

power generation. #uel cells are ver" useful as power sources in remote locations! such as spacecraft! remote weather stations! large par$s! communications centers! rural locations including research stations! and in certain militar" 'type of sub)ari! wit$ fuel cell( which are onl" a out one third energ" efficient.
2584

applications. A fuel cell s"stem running on h"drogen can e compact and lightweight! and have no ma?or moving parts. =ecause fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve com ustion! in ideal conditions the" can achieve up to 99.99997 relia ilit".2584 This e1uates to less than one minute of downtime in a si* "ear period.2564 Since fuel cellelectrol"+er s"stems do not store fuel in themselves! ut rather rel" on e*ternal storage units! the" can e successfull" applied in large& eing one

Assuming production at scale! fuel cells could

save 3-&5-7 on energ" costs when used in cogeneration s"stems.2594 #uel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generationJ a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a h"drogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution 'other than ;F3( for ever" 1!--- $W produced! compared to 38 pounds of pollutants generated
28-4

scale energ" storage! rural areas

" conventional com ustion s"stems.

e*ample.25.4 There are man" different t"pes of stationar" fuel cells so efficiencies var"! ut most are
2334

#uel ;ells also produce 9.7 less nitrogen o*ide

emissions then conventional coal&fired power plants. ;oca&;ola! Google! Walmart! S"sco! #ed)*! CBS! ,$ea! Staples! Whole #oods! Gills Fnions! Nestle Waters! Bepperidge #arm! Sierra Nevada =rewer"!

etween 5-7 and 6-7 energ" efficient. 9owever! when the fuel cell0s

waste heat is used to heat a

uilding in a

Super

Store

,ndustries!

=rigestone&#irestone!

cogeneration s"stem this efficienc" can increase to

Nissan North America! Gim erl"&;lar$! Aichelin and more have installed fuel cells to help meet their

power needs.28142834 Fne such pilot program is operating on Stuart ,sland in Washington State. There the Stuart ,sland )nerg" ,nitiative 2834 has uilt a complete! closed&loop s"stemK Solar panels power an electrol"+er which ma$es h"drogen. The h"drogen is stored in a 8-- CS gallons '1!9-- @( at 3-- pounds per s1uare inch '1!5-- $Ba(! and runs a >eliFn fuel cell to provide full electric ac$&up to the off&the&grid residence. Another closed s"stem loop was unveiled in late 3-11 in 9empstead! NL.
2854

and at the same time produces hot air and water from thewaste heat. Aicro;9B is usuall" less than 8 $We for a home fuel cell or small usiness. The waste heat from fuel cells can e diverted

during the summer directl" into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can e pumped directl" into the

uilding. The Cniversit" of Ainnesota owns the patent rights to this t"pe of s"stem ;o&generation s"stems can reach 887 efficienc" '5-&6-7
2334

Co e!eratio!
;om ined heat and power ';9B( fuel cell s"stems! including Aicro com ined heat and

electric

remainder

as

thermal(.

Bhosphoric&acid fuel cells 'BA#;( comprise the segment of e*isting ;9B products

largest

worldwide and can provide com ined efficiencies close to 9-7.4 Aolten ;ar onate 'A;#;( and Solid F*ide #uel ;ells 'SF#;( are also used for com ined heat and power generation and have electrical energ" effciences around 6-7.

power'Aicro;9B( s"stems are used to generate oth electricit" and heat for homes 'see home fuel cell(! office uilding and factories. The s"stem

generates constant electric power 'selling e*cess power ac$ to the grid when it is not consumed(!

Auto)obiles
Although there are currentl" no #uel cell vehicles availa le for

produced with /a driving range of more than 5-- $m '38- mi( etween refueling/ The" can less than 8 e refueled in C.S.

commercial sale! over 3- #;)Ns protot"pes and demonstration cars have een released since 3--9. models include

minutes. The

%epartment of )nerg":s #uel ;ell Technolog" Brogram claims that! as of 3-11! fuel cells achieved 83I897 efficienc" at Q power and 53I837 vehicle efficienc" at full power!
2654

%emonstration the 9onda #;O

;larit"! To"ota

#;9N&adv! and Aercedes&=en+ #& ;ell.26-4 As of Pune 3-11

and a dura ilit" of over 13-!---

demonstration #;)Ns had driven

$m '.8!--- mi( with less than 1-7 degradation! dou le that achieved in 3--6.2634 ,n a Well&to&Wheels

Fuel Cell *lectric +e$icles 'FC*+s(

more

than

5!8--!--with more

$m than

'3!---!--- mi(! 3.!--fuel cell

refuelings. %emonstration vehicles have een

simulation anal"sis! that /did not address the economics and mar$et constraints/! General Aotors and its

partners estimated that per mile traveled! a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous

infrastructure in the C.S. as an ongoing challenge to #uel ;ell )lectric Nehicle commerciali+ation. ,n 3--6! a stud" for the ,))) showed that for h"drogen produced via electrol"sis of waterK /Fnl" a out 387 of the power generated from wind! water! or sun is converted to practical use./ The stud" further noted that /)lectricit" o tained from h"drogen fuel cells appears to e

would

move

the

scheduled

production date of their fuel cell car from 3-18 up to 3-15! asserting that /The product is read" for the mar$et technicall". ...
2.84

h"drogen produced from natural gas could use a out 5-7 less energ" and emit 587 less greenhouse gasses than an internal com ustion vehicle.
2684

The

issue

is

infrastructure./

,n 3--3 CS Bresident George W. =ush proposed the 9"drogen #uel ,nitiative '9#,(. This aimed at further developing h"drogen fuel cells and infrastructure technologies with the goal of producing

lead

engineer

from

the

%epartment of )nerg" whose team is testing fuel cell cars said in 3-11 that the potential appeal is that /these are full&function vehicles with no

four times as e*pensive as electricit" drawn from the electrical

limitations on range or refueling rate so the" are a direct replacement for an" vehicle. #or instance! if "ou drive a full si+ed SCN and pull a oat up into the mountains! "ou can do that with this technolog" and "ou can:t with current atter"&onl"

commercial fuel cell vehicles. =" 3--8! the C.S. had contri uted 1 illion
2.64

transmission grid. ... =ecause of the high cannot

2.34

energ"

losses compete

2h"drogen4 with

dollars

to

this

pro?ect.

The F ama

Administration has

electricit"./ #urthermore! the stud" foundK /Natural gas reforming is not a sustaina le solution/.2.34 /The large amount of energ" re1uired to isolate h"drogen from natural compounds 'water! natural gas! iomass(!

sought to reduce funding for the development of fuel cell vehicles! concluding that other vehicle

vehicles! which are more geared toward cit" driving./2664 Some e*perts elieve that fuel cell cars will never ecome economicall" competitive technologies decades
26.42684

technologies will lead to 1uic$er reduction in emissions in a shorter time.2..4 Steven ;hu! the CS

pac$age the light gas " compression or li1uefaction! transfer the energ" carrier to the user! plus the energ" lost when it is converted to useful electricit" with fuel cells! leaves around 387 for practical use./ 21642384
2.34

Secretar" of )nerg"! stated that h"drogen vehicles /will not e

with

other

or that it will ta$e to ecome

practical over the ne*t 1- to 3"ears/.2.849e told A,T:s Technology Review that he is s$eptical a out h"drogen:s use in transportation

for

them

profita le.26942.-4 ,n Pul" 3-11! the ;hairman and ;)F ofGeneral

Aotors! %aniel A$erson! stated that while the cost of h"drogen fuel cell cars is decreasingK /The car is still too e*pensive and pro a l" won:t e practical until the 3-3-&plus period! , don:t $now./2.14 Anal"ses cite the lac$ of an e*tensive h"drogen

%espite this! several ma?or car

ecause of four pro lemsK /the wa" we get h"drogen primaril" is from reforming 2natural4 gas. ... Lou:re giving awa" some of the energ" content of natural gas. ... 2#or4 transportation! we don:t have a good storage mechanism "et. ... The fuel

manufacturers have announced plans to introduce a production model of a fuel cell car in 3-18. To"ota has stated that it plans to introduce such a vehicle at a price of

around CSR8-!---.2.54 ,n Pune 3-11! Aercedes&=en+ announced that the"

cells aren:t there "et! and the distri ution infrastructure isn:t there "et. ... ,n order to get significant deplo"ment! significant rea$throughs. Aar"
2.94

" CT; Bower! To"ota! =allard! 9"drogenics! and Broton Aotor. CT; =uses have alread"

'Aercedes&=en+ '%aimler AG( ;itaro fuel cell us on Aldw"ch! @ondon.(

'6--!--- mi( of driving. 2814 #uel cell uses have a 3-&1517 higher fuel econom" than diesel uses and

"ou

need

four

accumulated over 9.-!--- $m

technological ;ritics disagree. of

natural gas uses.2834 #uel cell uses have een deplo"ed around the

Nichols!

;hairwoman

;alifornia:s Air >esources =oard! saidK /Secretar" ;hu has firml" set his mind against h"drogen as a passenger&car fuel. #ran$l"! his

world including in Whistler ;anada! San #rancisco CSA! 9am urg

German"! Shanghai ;hina! @ondon )ngland! SSo Baulo =ra+il as well as several others

e*planations don0t ma$e sense to me. The" are not ased on the facts as we $now them./28-4

,uses
,n total there are over 1-- fuel cell uses deplo"ed around the world toda". Aost uses are produced

refillingK

all

that

enters

is

electricit"

and

water. >o"al %utch Shell is also a partner in the

Fueli! statio!s
There are alread" over 88 h"drogen refueling stations in the C.S.211-4 The National >esearch ;ouncil estimated that creating the infrastructure to suppl" fuel for 1- million #;Ns through 3-38 would cost the government CSR8
24

pro?ect. The station has no roof! in order to allow an" lea$ed h"drogen to escape to the atmosphere.

illion over 16

"ears. The first pu lic h"drogen refueling station was opened in>e"$?avT$! ,celand in April 3--3. This station serves three uses uilt As part of the ;alifornia 9"drogen 9ighwa" initiative ;alifornia has the most e*tensive h"drogen refueling infrastructure in the C.S.A. As of Pune 3-11 ;alifornia had 33 h"drogen refueling stations in operation.211-4 9onda announced plans in Aarch 3-11 to open the first station that would

" %aimler;hr"sler that are in service in the pu lic transport net of >e"$?avT$. The station produces the h"drogen it needs " itself! with an electrol"+ing unit 'produced " Nors$ 9"dro(! and does not need

generate renewa le

h"drogen

through

solar&powered
needed4

11

cities

in

electrol"sis. 2citation

South

Papan. ;anada! Sweden and Norwa" also have

;arolina also has two h"drogen fueling stations! in Ai$en and ;olum ia! S;. According to the South ;arolina 9"drogen U #uel ;ell Alliance! the ;olum ia station has a current capacit" of 13- $g a da"! with future plans to develop on&site h"drogen production from electrol"sis and reformation. The Ai$en station has a current capacit" of 8- $g. The Cniversit" of South ;arolina! a founding mem er of the South ;arolina 9"drogen U #uel ;ell Alliance! received 13.8 million dollars from the Cnited States %epartment of )nerg" for its #uture #uels Brogram.21134 Papan also has a h"drogen highwa"! as part of the Papan h"drogen fuel cell pro?ect. Twelve h"drogen fueling stations have een uilt in

Refere!ce.- $ttp-//www0fuelcells0or 1-www0 oo le0co0i! 2- ,ook fuel cell by ,0+I%3ANATHAN 4- protium.us/files/course_outline.doc 5 en.!i"ipedi#.or$/!i"i/Fuel_cell