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Question: What Is Radioactivity? What is Radiation? Unstable atomic nuclei will spontaneously decompose to form nuclei with a higher stability. The decomposition process is called radioactivity. The energy and particles which are released during the decomposition process are called radiation. When unstable nuclei decompose in nature, the process is referred to as natural radioactivity. When the unstable nuclei are prepared in the laboratory, the decomposition is called induced radioactivity. Answer: There are three major types of natural radioactivity: 1. Alpha Radiation Alpha radiation consists of a stream of positively charged particles, called alpha particles, which have an atomic mass of 4 and a charge of +2 (a helium nucleus). When an alpha particle is ejected from a nucleus, the mass number of the nucleus decreases by four units and the atomic number decreases by two units. For example:
238 92U

42He + 23490Th

The helium nucleus is the alpha particle. 2. Beta Radiation Beta radiation is a stream of electrons, called beta particles. When a beta particle is ejected, a neutron in the nucleus is converted to a proton, so the mass number of the nucleus is unchanged, but the atomic number increases by one unit. For example:
234 90

Th 0-1e + 23491Pa

The electron is the beta particle.

GEIGER MLLER COUNTER

A GeigerMller counter, also called a Geiger counter, is a type of particle detector that measures ionizing radiation. It detects the emission of nuclear radiation alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays by the ionization produced in a low-pressure gas in a GeigerMller tube,[1] which gives its name to the instrument. In wide and prominent use as a hand-held radiation survey instrument, it is perhaps one of the world's best-known radiation instruments. The original operating principle was discovered in 1908 in early radiation research. Since the subsequent development of the Geiger-Mller tube in 1928 the Geiger-Mller counter has been a popular instrument for use in radiation dosimetry, health physics, experimental physics, the nuclear industry, geological exploration and other fields, due to its robust sensing element and relatively low cost. However there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and in measuring the energy of incident radiation.[2]

Principle of operation

Geiger counter instruments consist of two main elements; the Geiger-Mller tube, and the processing and display electronics. The radiation sensing element is an inert gas-filled Geiger-Mller tube (usually containing helium, neon, or argon with halogens added) at a low pressure which briefly conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of radiation makes the gas conductive by ionization. The tube has the property of being able to amplify each ionization event by means of the Townsend avalanche effect [2] and produces an easily measured current pulse which is passed to the processing electronics. The article on the Geiger-Muller tube has a more detailed description of the fundamental ionisation mechanism
Particle detection

The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were for the detection of alpha and beta particles, and the instrument is still used for this purpose today. For alpha particles and low energy beta particles the "endwindow" type of G-M tube has to be used as these particles have a limited range even in free air, and are easily stopped by a solid material. The tube window is thin enough to allow these particles through with minimal attenuation, and normally has a density of about 1.5 - 2.0 mg/cm2.[1] Alpha particles have the shortest range, and for their detection the window should ideally be within 10mm of the radiation source due to the particle attenuation in free air.[1] However, the G-M tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between alpha and beta particles. High energy beta particles can also be detected by a thin-walled "windowless" G-M tube, which has no dedicated end window. Although the tube walls have a greater stopping power than a thin end window, they still allow these more energetic particles to reach the fill gas.[1]

GEIGERMLLER TUBE
The GeigerMller tube (or G-M tube) is the sensing element of the Geiger counter instrument used for the detection of ionizing radiation. It was named after Hans Geiger who invented the principle in 1908,[1] and Walther Mller who collaborated with Geiger in developing the technique further in 1928 to produce a practical tube that could detect a number of different radiation types.[2][3] It is a gaseous ionization detector and uses the Townsend avalanche phenomenon to produce an easily detectable electronic pulse from as little as a single ionising event due to a radiation particle. It is used for the detection of gamma radiation, X-Rays, and alpha and beta particles. It can also be adapted to detect neutrons. The tube operates in the "Geiger" region of ion pair generation. This is shown on the accompanying plot for gaseous detectors showing ion current against applied voltage using a model based on a tube detector with a coaxial central anode.

Whilst it is a robust and inexpensive detector, it is unable to measure high radiation rates efficiently, has a finite life in high radiation areas and is unable to measure incident radiation energy, so no spectral information can be generated and there is no discrimination between radiation types.

Principle of operation
The tube consists of a chamber filled with a low-pressure (~0.1 atm) inert gas. This contains two electrodes, between which there is a potential difference of several hundred volts. The walls of the tube are either metal or have their inside surface coated with a conductor to form the cathode, while the anode is a wire in the center of the chamber. When ionizing radiation strikes the tube, some molecules of the fill gas are ionized, either directly by the incident radiation or indirectly by means of secondary electrons produced in the walls of the tube.

Gas mixtures
The main component is an inert gas such as helium, argon or neon, in some cases in a Penning mixture, and a quench gas of 5-10% of an organic vapor or a halogen gas to prevent multiple pulsing.[4] The halogen G-M tube was invented by Sidney H. Liebson in 1947.[5] The halogen tube discharge mechanism takes advantage of a metastable state of the inert gas atom to more-readily ionize a halogen molecule than an organic vapor, enabling the tube to operate at much lower voltages, typically 400600 volts instead of 9001200 volts. This type of GM tube is therefore by far the most common form now. It has a longer life than tubes quenched with organic compounds, because the halogen ions can recombine while the organic vapor is gradually destroyed by the discharge process (giving the latter a life of around 108 events).

Detection efficiency
The efficiency of detection of a G-M tube varies with the type of incident radiation. Tubes with thin end windows have very high efficiencies (can be nearly 100%) for high energy beta, though this drops off as the beta energy decreases due to attenuation by the window material. Alpha particles are also attenuated by the window. As alpha particles have a maximum range of less than 50 mm in air, the detection window should be as close as possible to the source of radiation. The attenuation of the window adds to the attenuation of air, so the window should have a density as low as 1.5 to 2.0 mg/cm2 to give an acceptable level of detection efficiency.

Background radiation
Background radiation is the ionizing radiation that people on the planet Earth are exposed to, including natural and artificial sources. Both natural and artificial background radiation varies by location.

Natural background radiation

Radioactive material is found throughout nature. Detectable amounts occur naturally in soil, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition to this internal exposure, humans also receive external exposure from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space.

Artificial background radiation

Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive fly ash which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. When coal is burned, uranium, thorium and all the uranium daughters accumulated by disintegration radium, radon, polonium are released.[36] Radioactive materials previously buried underground in coal deposits are released as fly ash.

Rad (unit)
The rad is a deprecated unit of absorbed radiation dose, defined as 1 rad = 0.01 Gy = 0.01 J/kg.[1] It was originally defined in CGS units in 1953 as the dose causing 100 ergs of energy to be absorbed by one gram of matter. It has been replaced by the gray in SI but is still used in some countries. A related unit, the roentgen, is used to quantify the number of rad deposited into a target when it is exposed to radiation. The F-factor can be used to convert between rad and roentgens. 1. The material absorbing the radiation can be human tissue or silicon microchips or any other medium (for example, air, water, lead shielding, etc.).

Units of Radioactivity and Dose

The original unit for measuring the amount of radioactivity was the curie (Ci)first defined to correspond to one gram of radium-226 and more recently defined as: 1 curie = 3.7x1010 radioactive decays per second [exactly]. In the International System of Units (SI) the curie has been replaced by the becquerel (Bq), where 1 becquerel = 1 radioactive decay per second = 2.703x10-11 Ci.

Harmful effects of Radiations

Alpha Radiation
Alpha radiation is a heavy, very short-range particle and is actually an ejected helium nucleus. Some harmful effects of alpha radiation are: 1. Most alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human skin. 2. Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans if the materials are inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through open wounds. 3. Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate clothing. Examples of some alpha emitters: radium, radon, uranium, thorium.

Beta Radiation
Beta radiation is a light, short-range particle and is actually an ejected electron. Som harmfur effects of beta radiation are:

1. Beta radiation may travel several feet in air and is moderately penetrating. 2. Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the "germinal layer," where new skin cells are produced. If high levels of beta-emitting contaminants are allowed to remain on the skin for a prolonged period of time, they may cause skin injury. 3. Beta-emitting contaminants may be harmful if deposited internally. 4. Clothing provides some protection against beta radiation. Examples of some pure beta emitters: strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium, and sulfur-35. Uses of alpha particle sources

Because alpha particles are easily stopped, an alpha source is used in some smoke detectors. A sealed alpha source of Americium-241 (half-life 458 years, producing constant signal) sends a stream of alpha particles to a sensor across an air gap. Any smoke present will block the alpha particles and change the sensor signal, this change in signal triggers the alarm. Beta and gamma radiation would be of no use because the smoke particles would not stop them, no change in signal, no alarm triggered! Alpha sources are too readily absorbed to show up with a Geiger counter or other detector and so are not suitable for 'tracer' applications. o However, an alpha particle emitting isotope of radium (radium-233, half-life 11.4 days) can be directly injected in tiny quantities into tumourous tissue to directly irradiate and kill cancer cells, an excellent medical use of an alpha emitter. Since they are not very penetrating, there is less chance of damaging healthy cells. o This is an example of internal radionuclide therapy.

Uses of beta radiation sources

Most Beta particles are stopped by a few mm or cm of solid materials. The thicker the layer the more beta radiation is absorbed. A beta source is placed on one side of a sheet of material. A detector (e.g. a Geiger counter) is put on the other side and can monitor how much radiation gets through. The signal size depends on thickness of the sheet and it gets smaller as the sheet gets thicker. Therefore the signal can be used to monitor the sheet thickness. The half-life must be quite long so that change in the signal does not result from rapid decay. This idea is used to control production lines of paper, plastic or steel sheeting. Before the sheet material passes through 'flattening' rollers, it passes between a beta source and detector. The detector signal is checked against that for a preset thickness. If the signal is too big the sheet is too thin and the rollers are moved apart to thicken the sheet. If the signal is too small the sheet is too thick and the rollers are moved closer together.