Dorf, R.C., Wan, Z., Paul, C.R., Cogdell, J.R.

Voltage and Current Sources

The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
2
VoIfage and
Currenf Sources
2.1 Step, Impulse, Ramp, Sinusoidal, Exponential, and
DC Signals
Step Function The Impulse Ramp Function Sinusoidal
Function DCSignal
2.2 Ideal and Piactical Souices
Ideal Souices Piactical Souices
2.3 Contiolled Souices
What Aie Contiolled Souices: What Is the Signifcance of
Contiolled Souices: How Does the Piesence of Contiolled Souices
Affect Ciicuit Analysis:
2.1 Step, Impu!se, Ramp, Sinusuida!, Expunentia!,
and DC Signa!s
Fc|ord C. Dorf ond Z|en Won
The impoitant signals foi ciicuits include the step, impulse, iamp, sinusoid, and dc signals. These signals aie
widely used and aie desciibed heie in the time domain. All of these signals have a Laplace tiansfoim.
Step Functiun
The unit-step function u() is defned mathematically by
Heie un se means that the amplitude of u() is equal to 1 foi > 0. Note that we aie following the convention
that u(0) 1. Fiom a stiict mathematical standpoint, u() is not defned at 0. Neveitheless, we usually take
u(0) 1. If is an aibitiaiy nonzeio numbei, u() is the step function with amplitude foi > 0. The unit
step function is plotted in Fig. 2.1.
The Impu!se
The unit impulse o(), also called the Je|a [unton oi the Drat Jsr|uon, is defned by
u

( )
,
,

>
<

1 0
0 0
RIchard C. Iorl
Inverry of Co|forno, Dov
Zhen Wan
Inverry of Co|forno, Dov
CIayfon R. auI
Inverry of Kenruc|y, Iexngron
}. R. CogdeII
Inverry of Texo or Aurn
2000 by CRC Press LLC
The fist condition states that o() is zeio foi all nonzeio values of , while the second condition states that the
aiea undei the impulse is 1, so o() has unit aiea. It is impoitant to point out that the value o(0) of o() at
0 is not defned; in paiticulai, o(0) is not equal to infnity. Foi any ieal numbei K, Ko() is the impulse with
aiea K. It is defned by
The giaphical iepiesentation of Ko() is shown in Fig. 2.2. The notation K in the fguie iefeis to the aiea of
the impulse Ko().
The unit-step function u() is equal to the integial of the unit impulse o(); moie piecisely, we have
Conveisely, the fist deiivative of u(), with iespect to , is equal to o(), except at 0, wheie the deiivative
of u() is not defned.
Ramp Functiun
The un-ram [unton r() is defned mathematically by
Note that foi > 0, the slope of r() is 1. Thus, r() has
un s|oe, which is the ieason r() is called the unit-iamp
function. If K is an aibitiaiy nonzeio scalai (ieal num-
bei), the iamp function Kr() has slope K foi > 0. The
unit-iamp function is plotted in Fig. 2.3.
The unit-iamp function r() is equal to the integial of the unit-step function u(); that is,
FIGURE 2.1 Unit-step function. FIGURE 2.2 Giaphical iepiesentation of the impulse Ko()
( )
1 2 3
1
0
o ( )
0
( )
o
o i i r
r
r
( ) ,
( ) ,

J
=

[
0 0
1 foi any ieal numbei > 0
K
K J K
o
o i i r
r
r
( ) ,
( ) ,
=

[
0 0
foi any ieal numbei > 0
u J

( ) ( ) ,
~
[
o i i all except 0
FIGURE 2.3 Unit-iamp function
( )
1 2 3
1
0
r

( )
,
,

>
<

0
0 0
r u J

( ) ( )
~
[
i i
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Conveisely, the fist deiivative of r() with iespect to is equal to u(), except at 0, wheie the deiivative of
r() is not defned.
Sinusuida! Functiun
The sinusoid is a continuous-time signal: cos(u - ).
Heie is the amplitude, u is the fiequency in iadians pei second (iad/s), and is the phase in iadians. The
fiequency [ in cycles pei second, oi heitz (Hz), is [ u/2r. The sinusoid is a peiiodic signal with peiiod 2r/u.
The sinusoid is plotted in Fig. 2.4.
Decaying Expunentia!
In geneial, an exponentially decaying quantity (Fig. 2.5)
can be expiessed as
a e
-/
wheie a instantaneous value
amplitude oi maximum value
e base of natuial logaiithms 2.718 .
t time constant in seconds
time in seconds
The cuiient of a dischaiging capacitoi can be appioxi-
mated by a decaying exponential function of time.
Time Cunstant
Since the exponential factoi only aroat|es zeio as incieases without limit, such functions theoietically last
foievei. In the same sense, all iadioactive disintegiations last foievei. In the case of an exponentially decaying
cuiient, it is convenient to use the value of time that makes the exponent -1. When t the me tonsan,
the value of the exponential factoi is
In othei woids, aftei a time equal to the time constant, the exponential factoi is ieduced to appioximatly 37%
of its initial value.
FIGURE 2.4 The sinusoid cos(u - ) with -r/2 < < 0.
r+ 2
2u
r 2
2u
3r2
2u
3r+2
2u

u
cos(u +)
0

FIGURE 2.5 The decaying exponential.

e e
e


t 1
1 1
2 718
0 368
.
.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
DC Signa!
The diiect cuiient signal (dc signal) can be defned mathematically by
() K -~ < < -~
Heie, K is any nonzeio numbei. The dc signal iemains a constant value of K foi any -~ < < ~. The dc signal
is plotted in Fig. 2.6.
Dehning Terms
Ramp: A continually giowing signal such that its value is zeio foi s 0 and piopoitional to time foi > 0.
Sinusoid: A peiiodic signal x() cos(u - ) wheie u 2r[ with fiequency in heitz.
Unit impulse: A veiy shoit pulse such that its value is zeio foi = 0 and the integial of the pulse is 1.
Unit step: Function of time that is zeio foi <
0
and unity foi >
0
. At
0
the magnitude changes fiom
zeio to one. The unit step is dimensionless.
Re!ated Tupic
11.1 Intioduction
Relerences
R.C. Doif, InroJuton o E|etrt Crtus, 3id ed., New Yoik: Wiley, 1996.
R.E. Ziemei, Sgna|s anJ Sysems, 2nd ed., New Yoik: Macmillan, 1989.
Further Inlurmatiun
IEEE Tiansactions on Ciicuits and Systems
IEEE Tiansactions on Education
2.2 Idea! and Practica! Suurces
C|oyron F. Pou|
A ma|emata| moJe| of an electiic ciicuit contains Jea| moJe|s of physical ciicuit elements. Some of these
ideal ciicuit elements (e.g., the iesistoi, capacitoi, inductoi, and tiansfoimei) weie discussed pieviously. Heie
we will defne and examine both Jea| and ratta| o|age anJ turren sourtes. The teiminal chaiacteiistics of
these models will be compaied to those of actual souices.
FIGURE 2.6 The dc signal with amplitude K.
( )
0
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Idea! Suurces
The Jea| nJeenJen o|age sourte shown in Fig. 2.7 constiains the teiminal voltage acioss the element to a
piesciibed function of time,
S
(), as ()
S
(). The polaiity of the souice is denoted by signs within the
ciicle which denotes this as an ideal nJeenJen souice. Contiolled oi JeenJen ideal voltage souices will be
discussed in Section 2.3. The cuiient thiough the element will be deteimined by the ciicuit that is attached to
the teiminals of this souice.
The Jea| nJeenJen turren sourte in Fig. 2.8 constiains the teiminal cuiient thiough the element to a
piesciibed function of time,
S
(), as ()
S
(). The polaiity of the souice is denoted by an aiiow within the
FIGURE 2.7 Ideal independent voltage souice.
i(t)

b
a
v(t) v
S
(t) v
S
(t)

v
S
(t)
t
ALL-LASTIC BATTRY
eseaicheis at the U.S. Aii Foice`s Rome Laboiatoiy and Johns Hopkins Univeisity have developed
an all-plastic batteiy using polymeis instead of conventional electiode mateiials. All-plastic
powei cells could be a safei, moie exible substitute foi use in electionic devices and othei
commeicial applications. In addition, all-polymei cells ieduce toxic waste disposal, negate enviionmental
conceins, and can meet EPA and FAA iequiiements.
Applications include poweiing GPS ieceiveis, communication tiansceiveis, iemote sensois, backup
powei systems, cellulai phones, pageis, computing pioducts and othei poitable equipment. Potential laigei
applications include iemote monitoiing stations, highway communication signs and electiic vehicles.
The Johns Hopkins scientists aie among the fist to cieate a potentially piactical batteiy in which both
of the electiodes and the electiolyte aie made of polymeis. Fluoio-substituted thiophenes polymeis have
been developed with potential diffeiences of up to 2.9 volts, and with potential specifc eneigy densities
of 30 to 75 watt houis/kg.
All plastic batteiies can be iechaiged hundieds of times and opeiate undei extieme hot and cold
tempeiatuie conditions without seiious peifoimance degiadation. The fnished cell can be as thin as a
business caid and malleable, allowing batteiy manufactuieis to cut a cell to a specifc space oi make the
batteiy the actual case of the device to be poweied. (Repiinted with peimission fiom NS Tet| Bre[s,
20(10), 26, 1996.)
R
2000 by CRC Press LLC
ciicle which also denotes this as an ideal nJeenJen souice. The voltage acioss the element will be deteimined
by the ciicuit that is attached to the teiminals of this souice.
Numeious functional foims aie useful in desciibing the souice vaiiation with time. These weie discussed in
Section 2.1-the step, impulse, iamp, sinusoidal, and dc functions. Foi example, an ideal independent dc voltage
souice is desciibed by
S
() V
S
, wheie V
S
is a constant. An ideal independent sinusoidal cuiient souice is
desciibed by
S
() I
S
sin(u + o) oi
S
() I
S
cos(u + o), wheie I
S
is a constant, u 2r[ with [ the [requenty
in heitz and o is a phase angle. Ideal souices may be used to model actual souices such as tempeiatuie
tiansduceis, phonogiaph caitiidges, and electiic powei geneiatois. Thus usually the time foim of the output
cannot geneially be desciibed with a simple, basic function such as dc, sinusoidal, iamp, step, oi impulse
wavefoims. We often, howevei, iepiesent the moie complicated wavefoims as a lineai combination of moie
basic functions.
Practica! Suurces
The pieceding ideal independent souices constiain the teiminal voltage oi cuiient to a |nown function of time
nJeenJen o[ |e trtu |a may |e |ateJ atross s ermna|s. Piactical souices, such as batteiies, have theii
teiminal voltage (cuiient) dependent upon the teiminal cuiient (voltage) caused by the ciicuit attached to the
souice teiminals. A simple example of this is an automobile stoiage batteiy. The batteiy`s teiminal voltage is
appioximately 12 V when no load is connected acioss its teiminals. When the batteiy is applied acioss the
teiminals of the staitei by activating the ignition switch, a laige cuiient is diawn fiom its teiminals. Duiing
staiting, its teiminal voltage diops as illustiated in Fig. 2.9(a). How shall we constiuct a trtu moJe| using the
ideal elements discussed thus fai to model this nonideal behavioi: A model is shown in Fig. 2.9(b) and consists
of the seres connection of an ideal iesistoi, R
S
, and an ideal independent voltage souice, V
S
12 V. To deteimine
the teiminal voltage-cuiient ielation, we sum Kiichhoff`s voltage law aiound the loop to give
(2.1)
This equation is plotted in Fig. 2.9(b) and appioximates that of the actual batteiy. The equation gives a stiaight
line with slope -R
S
that inteisects the axis ( 0) at V
S
. The iesistance R
S
is said to be the nerna| ressante
of this nonideal souice model. It is a fctitious iesistance but the model neveitheless gives an equivalent ermna|
|e|aor.
Although we have deiived an appioximate model of an actual souice, anothei equivalent foim may be
obtained. This alteinative foim is shown in Fig. 2.9(c) and consists of the ara||e| combination of an ideal
independent cuiient souice, I
S
V
S
/R
S
, and the same iesistance, R
S
, used in the pievious model. Although it
may seem stiange to model an automobile batteiy using a cuiient souice, the model is completely equivalent
to the seiies voltage souice-iesistoi model of Fig. 2.9(b) a |e ouu ermna|s a-|. This is shown by wiiting
Kiichhoff`s cuiient law at the uppei node to give
FIGURE 2.8 Ideal independent cuiient souice.
v(t)

b
a
i(t) i
S
(t)
i
S
(t)
i
S
(t)
t
V R
S S

2000 by CRC Press LLC
(2.2)
Rewiiting this equation gives
(2.3)
Compaiing Eq. (2.3) to Eq. (2.1) shows that
(2.4)
FIGURE 2.9 Piactical souices. (a) Teiminal - chaiacteiistic; (b) appioximation by a voltage souice; (c) appioximation
by a cuiient souice.
i
v
12J
i
v
J
S
12J
Slope R
S
i
v
J
S
12J
Slope R
S
I
S
Automobile
Storage
Battery

v
b
a
i
J
S

v
b
a
i

R
S
J
S

v
b
a
i
R
S
R
S
I
S

(a)
(b)
(c)
I
R

S
S

1
R I R
S S S

V R I
S S S

2000 by CRC Press LLC

Theiefoie, we can conveit fiom one foim (voltage souice in seiies with a iesistoi) to anothei foim (cuiient
souice in paiallel with a iesistoi) veiy simply.
An ideal voltage souice is iepiesented by the model of Fig. 2.9(b) with R
S
0. An actual batteiy theiefoie
piovides a close appioximation of an ideal voltage souice since the souice iesistance R
S
is usually quite small.
An ideal cuiient souice is iepiesented by the model of Fig. 2.9(c) with R
S
~. This is veiy closely iepiesented
by the bipolai junction tiansistoi (BJT).
Re!ated Tupic
1.1 Resistois
Dehning Term
Ideal source: An ideal model of an actual souice that assumes that the paiameteis of the souice, such as its
magnitude, aie independent of othei ciicuit vaiiables.
Relerence
C.R. Paul, na|yss o[ Lnear Crtus, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1989.
2.3 Cuntru!!ed Suurces
j. F. Cogde||
When the analysis of electionic (noniecipiocal) ciicuits became impoitant in ciicuit theoiy, contiolled souices
weie added to the family of ciicuit elements. Table 2.1 shows the foui types of contiolled souices. In this section,
we will addiess the questions: What aie contiolled souices: Why aie contiolled souices impoitant: How do
contiolled souices affect methods of ciicuit analysis:
What Are Cuntru!!ed Suurces!
By sourte we mean a voltage oi cuiient souice in the usual sense. By tonro||eJ we mean that the stiength of
such a souice is contiolled by some ciicuit vaiiable(s) elsewheie in the ciicuit. Figuie 2.10 illustiates a simple
ciicuit containing an (independent) cuiient souice,
s
, two iesistois, and a contiolled voltage souice, whose
magnitude is contiolled by the cuiient
1
. Thus,
1
deteimines two voltages in the ciicuit, the voltage acioss R
1
via Ohm`s law and the contiolled voltage souice via some unspecifed effect.
A contiolled souice may be contiolled by moie than one ciicuit vaiiable, but we will discuss those having
a single contiolling vaiiable since multiple contiolling vaiiables iequiie no new ideas. Similaily, we will deal
only with iesistive elements, since inductois and capacitois intioduce no new concepts. The contiolled voltage
oi cuiient souice may depend on the contiolling vaiiable in a lineai oi nonlineai mannei. When the ielationship
is nonlineai, howevei, the equations aie fiequently lineaiized to examine the effects of small vaiiations about
some dc values. When we lineaiize, we will use the customaiy notation of small letteis to iepiesent geneial and
time-vaiiable voltages and cuiients and laige letteis to iepiesent constants such as the dc value oi the peak
value of a sinusoid. On subsciipts, laige letteis iepiesent the total voltage oi cuiient and small letteis iepiesent
the small-signal component. Thus, the equation
B
I
B
- I
|
cos u means that the total base cuiient is the sum
of a constant and a small-signal component, which is sinusoidal with an amplitude of I
|
.
To intioduce the context and use of contiolled souices we will considei a ciicuit model foi the bipolai
junction tiansistoi (BJT). In Fig. 2.11 we show the standaid symbol foi an nn BJT with base (B), emittei (E),
and collectoi (C) identifed, and voltage and cuiient vaiiables defned. We have shown the common emittei
confguiation, with the emittei teiminal shaied to make input and output teiminals. The base cuiient,
B
,
ideally depends upon the base-emittei voltage,
BE
, by the ielationship
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(2.5)
wheie I
0
and V
T
aie constants. We note that the base cuiient depends
on the base-emittei voltage only, but in a nonlineai mannei. We can
iepiesent this cuiient by a voltage-contiolled cuiient souice, but the
moie common iepiesentation would be that of a nonlineai conductance,
C
BE
(
BE
), wheie
Let us model the effects of small changes in the base cuiient. If the
changes aie small, the nonlineai natuie of the conductance can be
ignoied and the ciicuit model becomes a lineai conductance (oi iesis-
toi). Mathematically this conductance aiises fiom a fist-oidei expan-
sion of the nonlineai function. Thus, if
BE
V
BE
-
|e
, wheie
BE
is the
total base-emittei voltage, V
BE
is a (laige) constant voltage and
|e
is a
(small) vaiiation in the base-emittei voltage, then the fist two teims in
a Tayloi seiies expansion aie
TABLE 2.1 Names, Ciicuit Symbols, and Defnitions foi the Foui Possible Types of Contiolled Souices
Name Ciicuit Symbol Defnition and Units
Cuiient-contiolled voltage souice (CCVS)
2
r
m

1
r
m
tiansiesistance
units, ohms
Cuiient-contiolled cuiient souice (CCCS)
2

1
, cuiient gain, dimensionless
Voltage-contiolled voltage souice (VCVS)
2

1
, voltage gain, dimensionless
Voltage-contiolled cuiient souice (VCCS)
2
g
m

1
g
m
, tiansconductance
units, Siemans (mhos)
r
m
v
2

i
1
i
1
i
1
i
1
i
2
v
2

v
1
v
1

g
m
v
1

i
2
v
1
FIGURE 2.10 A simple ciicuit con-
taining a contiolled souice.
FIGURE 2.11 An nn BJT in the com-
mon emittei confguiation.
I

V
B
BE
T

1
]
1

0
1 exp -
C

BE BE
B
BE
( )
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(2.6)
We note that the base cuiient is appioximated by the sum of a constant teim and a teim that is fist oidei
in the small vaiiation in base-emittei voltage,
|e
. The multipliei of this small voltage is the lineaiized conduc-
tance, g
|e
. If we weie inteiested only in small changes in cuiients and voltages, only this conductance would be
iequiied in the model. Thus, the input (base-emittei) ciicuit can be iepiesented foi the small-signal base
vaiiables,
|
and
|e
, by eithei equivalent ciicuit in Fig. 2.12.
The voltage-contiolled cuiient souice, g
|e

|e
, can be ieplaced by a simple iesistoi because the small-signal
voltage and cuiient associate with the same bianch. The piocess of linearization is impoitant to the modeling
of the collectoi-emittei chaiacteiistic, to which we now tuin.
The collectoi cuiient,
C
, can be iepiesented by one of the Ebei and Moll equations
(2.7)
wheie and I
0
aie constants. If we iestiict oui model to the amplifying iegion of the tiansistoi, the second
teim is negligible and we may expiess the collectoi cuiient as
(2.8)
Thus, foi the ideal tiansistoi, the collectoi-emittei ciicuit may
be modeled by a cuiient-contiolled cuiient souice, which may be
combined with the iesults expiessed in Eq. (2.5) to give the model
shown in Fig. 2.13.
Using the technique of small-signal analysis, we may deiive
eithei of the small-signal equivalent ciicuits shown in Fig. 2.14.
FIGURE 2.12 Equivalent ciicuits foi the base ciicuit: (a) uses a contiolled souice and (b) uses a iesistoi.
FIGURE 2.14 Two BJT small-signal equivalent ciicuits (g
m
/r
|e
): (a) uses a CCCS and (b) uses a VCCS.
i
b
(a)

v
be
g
be
v
be
i
b
(b)

v
be
r
be

1
g
be
I
V
V
I
V
V
I
V
V
V

B
BE |e
T
BE
T T
BE
T
|e

1
]
1
1

1
]
1
1

1
]
1
1
0 0
0
1 1 exp - exp - exp
I

V
I

V
C
BE
T
BC
T

1
]
1
1

1
]
1
1

0 0
1 1 exp - - exp -
I

V

C
BE
T
B

1
]
1
1

0
1 exp -
FIGURE 2.13 Equivalent ciicuit foi BJT.
B
i
B
G
BE
(v
BE
)

v
be
E
C
E
i
C
i
B
B
i
b

v
be
E
C
E
i
c
i
b
r
be

v
ce
(a)
B
i
b

v
be
E
C
E
i
c
r
be

v
ce
(b)
g
m
v
ce
2000 by CRC Press LLC
The small-signal chaiacteiistics of the nn tiansistoi in its amplifying iegion is bettei iepiesented by the
equivalent ciicuit shown in Fig. 2.15. Note we have intioduced a voltage-contiolled voltage souice to model
the inuence of the (output) collectoi-emittei voltage on the (input) base-emittei voltage, and we have placed
a iesistoi, r
t e
, in paiallel with the collectoi cuiient souice to model the inuence of the collectoi-emittei voltage
on the collectoi cuiient.
The foui paiameteis in Fig. 2.15 (r
|e
, |
re
, , and r
te
) aie the hybiid paiameteis desciibing the tiansistoi
piopeities, although oui notation diffeis fiom that commonly used. The paiameteis in the small-signal equiv-
alent ciicuit depend on the opeiating point of the device, which is set by the time-aveiage voltages and cuiients
(V
BE
, I
C
, etc.) applied to the device. All of the paiameteis aie ieadily measuied foi a given tiansistoi and
opeiating point, and manufactuieis commonly specify ianges foi the vaiious paiameteis foi a type of tiansistoi.
What Is the Signihcance ul Cuntru!!ed Suurces!
Commonplace wisdom in engineeiing education and piactice is that infoimation and techniques that aie
piesented visually aie moie useful than abstiact, mathematical foims. Equivalent ciicuits aie univeisally used
in desciibing electiical engineeiing systems and devices because ciicuits poitiay inteiactions in a univeisal,
pictoiial language. This is tiue geneially, and it is doubly necessaiy when ciicuit vaiiables inteiact thiough the
mysteiious coupling modeled by contiolled souices. This is the piimaiy signifcance of contiolled souices: that
they iepiesent unusual couplings of ciicuit vaiiables in the univeisal, visual language of ciicuits.
A second signifcance is illustiated by oui equivalent ciicuit of the nn bipolai tiansistoi, namely, the
chaiacteiization of a class of similai devices. Foi example, the paiametei in Eq. (2.8) gives impoitant
infoimation about a single tiansistoi, and similaily foi the iange of foi a type of tiansistoi. In this connection,
contiolled souices lead to a vocabulaiy foi discussing some piopeity of a class of systems oi devices, in this
case the cuiient gain of an nn BJT.
Huv Dues the Presence ul Cuntru!!ed Suurces Allect Circuit Ana!ysis!
The piesence of noniecipiocal elements, which aie modeled by contiolled souices, affects the analysis of the
ciicuit. Simple ciicuits may be analyzed thiough the diiect application of Kiichhoff `s laws to bianch ciicuit
vaiiables. Contiolled souices entei this piocess similai to the constitutive ielations defning R, L, and C, i.e.,
in defning ielationships between bianch ciicuit vaiiables. Thus, contiolled souices add no complexity to this
basic technique.
The piesence of contiolled souices negates the advantages of the method that uses seiies and paiallel
combinations of iesistois foi voltage and cuiient divideis. The pioblem is that the couplings between ciicuit
vaiiables that aie expiessed by contiolled souices make all the familiai foimulas unieliable.
When supeiposition is used, the contiolled souices aie left on in all cases as independent souices aie tuined
on and off, thus ieecting the kinship of contiolled souices to the ciicuit elements. In piinciple, little complexity
is added; in piactice, the iepeated solutions iequiied by supeiposition entail much additional woik when
contiolled souices aie involved.
The classical methods of nodal and loop (mesh) analysis incoipoiate contiolled souices without gieat
diffculty. Foi puiposes of deteimining the numbei of independent vaiiables iequiied, that is, in establishing
the topology of the ciicuit, the contiolled souices aie tieated as oidinaiy voltage oi cuiient souices. The
equations aie then wiitten accoiding to the usual pioceduies. Befoie the equations aie solved, howevei, the
contiolling vaiiables must be expiessed in teims of the unknowns of the pioblem. Foi example, let us say we
FIGURE 2.15 Full hybiid paiametei model foi small-signal BJT.
r
be
B
i
b

v
be
E
C
E
i
C
i
b
h
re
v
ce

v
ce

r
ce
2000 by CRC Press LLC
aie peifoiming a nodal analysis on a ciicuit containing a cuiient-contiolled cuiient souice. Foi puiposes of
counting independent nodes, the contiolled cuiient souice is tieated as an open ciicuit. Aftei equations aie
wiitten foi the unknown node voltages, the cuiient souice will intioduce into at least one equation its
contiolling cuiient, which is not one of the nodal vaiiables. The additional step iequiied by the contiolled
souice is that of expiessing the contiolling cuiient in teims of the nodal vaiiables.
The paiameteis intioduced into the ciicuit equations by the contiolled souices end up on the left side of
the equations with the iesistois iathei than on the iight side with the independent souices. Fuitheimoie, the
symmetiies that noimally exist among the coeffcients aie distuibed by the piesence of contiolled souices.
The methods of Thvenin and Noiton equivalent ciicuits continue to be veiy poweiful with contiolled
souices in the ciicuits, but some complications aiise. The contiolled souices must be left on foi calculation of
the Thvenin (open-ciicuit) voltage oi Noiton (shoit-ciicuit) cuiient and also foi the calculation of the output
impedance of the ciicuit. This usually eliminates the method of combining elements in seiies oi paiallel to
deteimine the output impedance of the ciicuit, and one must eithei deteimine the output impedance fiom the
iatio of the Thvenin voltage to the Noiton cuiient oi else excite the ciicuit with an exteinal souice and calculate
the iesponse.
Dehning Terms
Controlled source (dependent source): A voltage oi cuiient souice whose intensity is contiolled by a ciicuit
voltage oi cuiient elsewheie in the ciicuit.
Linearization: Appioximating nonlineai ielationships by lineai ielationships deiived fiom the fist-oidei
teims in a powei seiies expansion of the nonlineai ielationships. Noimally the lineaiized equations aie
useful foi a limited iange of the voltage and cuiient vaiiables.
Small-signal: Small-signal vaiiables aie those fist-oidei vaiiables used in a lineaiized ciicuit. A small-signal
equivalent ciicuit is a lineaiized ciicuit pictuiing the ielationships between the small-signal voltages and
cuiients in a lineaiized ciicuit.
Re!ated Tupics
2.2 Ideal and Piactical Souices 22.3 Electiical Equivalent Ciicuit Models and Device Simulatois foi Semi-
conductoi Devices
Relerences
E. J. Angelo, Ji., E|etront Crtus, 2nd ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1964.
N. Balabanian and T. Bickait, Lnear Newor| T|eory, Chesteiland, Ohio: Matiix Publisheis, 1981.
L. O. Chua, InroJuton o Non|near Newor| T|eory, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1969.
B. Fiiedland, O. Wing, and R. Ash, Prnt|es o[ Lnear Newor|s, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1961.
L. P. Huelsman, Bast Crtu T|eory, 3id ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1981.