Resistors

Example: Circuit symbol:

Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED to limit the current passing through the LED!

Connecting and soldering

The Resistor Colour Code Colour #umber $lac% Red & ( $rown ' )range * +ellow , -reen $lue 0iolet -rey 3hite . / 1 2 4

Resistors may be connected either way round! "hey are not damaged by heat when soldering!

Resistor values - the resistor colour code

Resistance is measured in ohms5 the symbol for ohm is an omega ! ' is 6uite small so resistor 7alues are often gi7en in % and 8 ! ' % 9 '&&& ' 8 9 '&&&&&& ! Resistor 7alues are normally shown using coloured bands!

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table! 8ost resistors ha7e , bands:

"he first band gi7es the first digit! "he second band gi7es the second digit! "he third band indicates the number of zeros! The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

"his resistor has red (( , 7iolet (1 , yellow (, :eros and gold bands! ;o its 7alue )n circuit diagrams the is (1&&&& 9 (1& % ! is usually omitted and the 7alue is written (1&<!

Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)

"he standard colour code cannot show 7alues of less than '& ! "o show these small 7alues two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means = &!' and silver which means = &!&'! "he first and second bands represent the digits as normal! >or example:

Red, violet, gold bands represent green, blue, silver bands represent ./ = &!&' 9 &!./

(1 = &!' 9 (!1

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)

"he tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code! "olerance is the precision of the resistor and it is gi7en as a percentage! >or example a *4& resistor with a tolerance of ?'&@ will ha7e a 7alue within '&@ of *4& , between *4& - *4 9 *.' and *4& A *4 9 ,(4 (*4 is '&@ of *4& ! B special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance: silver ?'&@, gold ?.@, red ?(@, bro n ?'@! Cf no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ?(&@! "olerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor 7alues are rarely re6uired!

!uzzer and !leeper

"hese de7ices are output transducers con7erting electrical energy to sound! "hey contain an internal oscillator to produce the sound which is set at about ,&&D: for bu::ers and about * %D: for bleeperEs! $u::ers ha7e a 7oltage rating but it is only approximate, for example /0 and '(0 bu::ers can be used with a 40 supply! "heir typical current is about (.mB! $leepers ha7e wide 7oltage ranges, such as *-*&0, and they pass a low current of about '&mB! $u::ers and beepers must be connected the right way round, their red lead is positi7e (A !

Cnductor (miniature

"nductor (coil)

circuit symbol
Bn inductor is a coil of wire which may ha7e a core of air, iron or ferrite (a brittle material made from iron ! Cts electrical property is called inductance and the unit for this is the henry, symbol D! 'D is 7ery large so mD and FD are used, '&&&FD 9 'mD and '&&&mD 9 'D! Cron and ferrite cores increase the inductance! Cnductors are mainly used in tuned circuits and to bloc% high fre6uency BC signals (they are sometimes called cho%es ! "hey pass DC easily, but bloc% BC signals5 this is the opposite of capacitors! Cnductors are rarely found in simple proGects, but one exception is the tuning coil of a radio recei7er! "his is an inductor which you may ha7e to ma%e yourself by neatly winding enameled copper wire around a ferrite rod! Enameled copper wire has 7ery thin insulation, allowing the turns of the coil to be close together, but this ma%es it impossible to strip in the usual way the best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire through folded emery paper! #arning$ a ferrite rod is brittle so treat it li%e glass, not ironH Bn inductor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are re6uired when soldering!

%oudspea&er
Loudspea%ers are output transducers which con7ert an electrical signal to sound! Isually they are called Jspea%ersJ! "hey re6uire a dri7er circuit, such as a ... astable or an audio amplifier, to pro7ide a signal! "here is a wide range a7ailable, but for many electronics proGects a *&&m3 miniature loudspea%er is ideal! "his type is about 1&mm diameter and it is usually a7ailable with resistances of 2 and /, ! Cf a proGect specifies a /, spea%er you must use this higher resistance to pre7ent damage to the dri7ing circuit!

8ost circuits used to dri7e loudspea%ers produce an audio (BC signal which is combined with a constant DC signal! "he DC will ma%e a large current flow through the spea%er due to its low resistance, possibly damaging both the spea%er and the dri7ing circuit! "o pre7ent this happening a large 7alue electrolytic capacitor is connected in series with the spea%er, this bloc%s DC but passes audio (BC signals! Loudspea%ers may be connected either way round except in stereo circuits when the A and - mar%ings on their terminals must be obser7ed to ensure the two spea%ers are in phase! Correct polarity must always be obser7ed for large spea%ers in cabinets because the cabinet may contain a small circuit (a Jcrosso7er networ%J which di7erts the high fre6uency signals to a small spea%er (a JtweeterJ because the large main spea%er is poor at reproducing them! 8iniature loudspea%ers can also be used as a microphone and they wor% surprisingly well, certainly good enough for speech in an intercom system for example!

'iodes
Example: Circuit symbol:

Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction! "he arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow! Diodes are the electrical 7ersion of a 7al7e and early diodes were actually called 7al7es!

For ard (oltage 'rop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather li%e a person pushing through a door with a spring! "his means that there is a small 7oltage across a conducting diode, it is called the for ard voltage drop and is about &!10 for all normal diodes which are made from silicon! "he forward 7oltage drop of a diode is almost constant whate7er the current passing through the diode so they ha7e a 7ery steep characteristic (current7oltage graph !

Reverse (oltage
3hen a re7erse 7oltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes lea% a 7ery tiny current of a few FB or less! "his can be ignored in most circuits because it will be 7ery much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction! Dowe7er, all diodes ha7e a ma)imum reverse voltage (usually .&0 or more and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the re7erse direction, this is called brea&do n! )rdinary diodes can be split into two types: ;ignal diodes which pass small currents of '&&mB or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents!

Connecting and soldering

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or * for anode and & or - for cathode (yes, it really is %, not c, for cathodeH ! "he cathode is mar%ed by a line painted on the body! Diodes are labelled with their code in small print5 you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodesH ;mall signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the ris% is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning )B!!! in which case you should use a heat sin% clipped to the lead between the Goint and the diode body! B standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sin%! Rectifier diodes are 6uite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering them!

Testing diodes
+ou can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED to chec% that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other! B lamp may be used to test a rectifier diode, but do #)" use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will destroy the diodeH

Signal diodes (small current)

;ignal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals in circuits, so they are only re6uired to pass small currents of up to '&&mB! -eneral purpose signal diodes such as the '#,',2 are made from silicon and ha7e a forward 7oltage drop of &!10! +ermanium diodes such as the )B4& ha7e a lower forward 7oltage drop of &!(0 and this ma%es them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the wea% radio signal!

>or general use, where the si:e of the forward 7oltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they ha7e a lower resistance when conducting, and they ha7e 7ery low lea%age currents when a re7erse 7oltage is applied!

,rotection diodes for rela-s

;ignal diodes are also used with relays to protect transistors and integrated circuits from the brief high 7oltage produced when the relay coil is switched off! "he diagram shows how a protection diode is connected across the relay coil, note that the diode is connected Jbac%wardsJ so that it will normally #)" conduct! Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly di7erted through the diode! 3ithout the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high 7oltage Jspi%eJ in its attempt to %eep the current flowing!

Rectifier diodes (large current)

Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to 8aximum con7ert alternating current (BC to direct 8aximum Re7erse current (DC , a process called rectification! Diode Current 0oltage "hey are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass through the diode! '#,&&' 'B .&0

'#,&&( '#,&&1 '#.,&' '#.,&2

'B 'B *B *B

'&&0 '&&&0 '&&0 '&&&0

Bll rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore ha7e a forward 7oltage drop of &!10! "he table shows maximum current and maximum re7erse 7oltage for some popular rectifier diodes! "he '#,&&' is suitable for most low 7oltage circuits with a current of less than 'B!

!ridge rectifiers
"here are se7eral ways of connecting diodes to ma%e a rectifier to con7ert BC to DC! "he bridge rectifier is one of them and it is a7ailable in special pac%ages containing the four diodes re6uired! $ridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum re7erse 7oltage! "hey ha7e four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled A and -, the two BC inputs are labelled !

.ener diodes
Example: Circuit symbol: a 9 anode, % 9 cathode

Kener diodes are used to maintain a fixed 7oltage! "hey are designed to Jbrea%downJ in a reliable and non-destructi7e way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed 7oltage across their terminals! "he diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current! Kener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and brea%down 7oltage which are printed on them! Kener diode codes begin $KL!!! or $K+!!! "heir brea%down 7oltage is printed with 0 in place of a decimal point, so ,01 means ,!10 for example! Kener diodes are rated by their brea%down 7oltage and maximum power:

"he minimum 7oltage a7ailable is (!10! Mower ratings of ,&&m3 and '!*3 are common!

%ight /mitting 'iodes (%/'s)

Example:

Circuit symbol:

Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them!

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or * for anode and & or - for cathode (yes, it really is %, not c, for cathodeH ! "he cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs! Cf you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method ! LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the ris% is small unless you are 7ery slow! #o special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs!

Testing an %/'
#e7er connect an LED directly to a battery or power supplyH Ct will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out! LEDs must ha7e a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe 7alue, for 6uic% testing purposes a '% resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply 7oltage is '(0 or less! Remember to connect the %/' the correct a- round0

Colours of %/'s

LEDs are a7ailable in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, and blue and white! $lue and white LEDs are much more expensi7e than the other colours!

"he colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the Jpac%ageJ (the plastic body ! LEDs of all colours are a7ailable in uncolored pac%ages which may be diffused (mil%y or clear (often described as Jwater clearJ ! "he coloured pac%ages are also a7ailable as diffused (the standard type or transparent!

Tri-colour %/'s

"he most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one pac%age with three leads! "hey are called tri-colour because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on! "he diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED! #ote the different lengths of the three leads! "he centre lead (% is the common cathode for both LEDs5 the outer leads (a' and a( are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to gi7e the third colour!

!i-colour %/'s
B bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in Jin7erse parallelJ (one forwards, one bac%wards combined in one pac%age with two leads! )nly one of the LEDs can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described abo7e!

Sizes1 Shapes and (ie ing angles of %/'s

LEDs are a7ailable in a wide 7ariety of si:es and shapes! "he JstandardJ LED has a round cross-section of .mm diameter and this is probably the best type for general use, LED Clip but *mm round LEDs are also popular!

Round cross-section LEDs are fre6uently used and they are 7ery easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold the LED if necessary! LED clips are also a7ailable to secure LEDs in holes! )ther cross-section shapes include s6uare, rectangular and triangular!

Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge! "hey are used with resistors in timing circuits because it ta%es time for a capacitor to fill with charge! "hey are used to smooth 7arying DC supplies by acting as a reser7oir of charge! "hey are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass BC (changing signals but they bloc% DC (constant signals!

Capacitance
"his is a measure of a capacitorJs ability to store charge! B large capacitance means that more charge can be stored! Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol >! Dowe7er '> is 7ery large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller 7alues! "hree prefixes (multipliers are used, F (micro , n (nano and p (pico :

F means '&-/ (millionth , so '&&&&&&F> 9 '> n means '&-4 (thousand-millionth , so '&&&n> 9 'F> p means '&-'( (million-millionth , so '&&&p> 9 'n>

Capacitor 7alues can be 7ery difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with different labelling systemsH

"here are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and 2npolarised! Each group has its own circuit symbol!

,olarised capacitors (large values1 13F *)

Examples:

Circuit symbol:

/lectrol-tic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polari:ed and the- must be connected the correct a- round, at least one of their leads will be mar%ed A or -! "hey are not damaged by heat when soldering! "here are two designs of electrolytic capacitors5 a)ial where the leads are attached to each end (((&F> in picture and radial where both leads are at the same end ('&F> in picture ! Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board! Ct is easy to find the 7alue of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and 7oltage rating! "he 7oltage rating can be 6uite low (/0 for example and it should always be chec%ed when selecting an electrolytic capacitor! Ct the proGect parts list does not specify a 7oltage5 choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the proGectJs power supply 7oltage! (.0 is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits!

Tantalum !ead Capacitors

"antalum bead capacitors are polarised and ha7e low 7oltage ratings li%e electrolytic capacitors! "hey are expensi7e but 7ery small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small si:e! 8odern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, 7oltage and polarity in full! Dowe7er older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits and a spot of colour for the number of :eros to gi7e the 7alue in F>! "he standard colour code is used, but for the spot, gre- is used to mean = &!&' and hite means = &!' so that 7alues of less than '&F> can be shown! B third colour stripe near the leads shows the 7oltage (yellow /!*0, blac% '&0, green '/0, blue (&0, grey (.0, white *&0, pin% *.0 ! "he positi7e (A lead is to the right when the spot is facing

you: J hen the spot is in sight1 the positive is to the rightJ! >or >or >or example: example: example: blue1 blue1 blue1 gre-1 gre-1 gre-1 blac& spot hite spot gre- spot means /2F> means /!2F> means &!/2F>

2npolarised capacitors (small values1 up to 13F)

Examples: Circuit symbol: ;mall 7alue capacitors are Inpolarised and may be connected either way round! "hey are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene ! "hey ha7e high 7oltage ratings of at least .&0, usually (.&0 or so! Ct can be difficult to find the 7alues of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and se7eral different labelling systemsH

8any small 7alue capacitors ha7e their 7alue printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to wor% out what the multiplier should beH >or example 041 means &!'F> 9 '&&n>! ;ometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point: >or example: 5n6 means ,!1n>!

Capacitor 7umber Code

B number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: the 'st number is the 'st digit, the (nd number is the (nd digit, the *rd number is the number of :eros to gi7e the capacitance in p>! Cgnore any letters - they Gust indicate tolerance and 7oltage rating! >or example: 108 means '&&&p> 9 'n> (not 102pF )

Colour Code Colour $lac% $rown Red #umber & ' (

)range * +ellow , -reen $lue 0iolet -rey 3hite Capacitor Colour Code . / 1 2 4

>or example: 5689 means ,1&&p> 9 ,!1n> (N means .@ tolerance !

B colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years! Ct is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around! "he colours should be read li%e the resistor code, the top three colour bands gi7ing the 7alue in p>! Cgnore the ,th band (tolerance and .th band (7oltage rating ! >or example: bro n1 blac&1 orange means '&&&&p> 9 '&n> 9 &!&'F>! #ote that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so ( identical bands actually appear as a wide band! >or example: ide red1 -ello means ((&n> 9 &!((F>!

,ol-st-rene Capacitors

"his type is rarely used now! "heir 7alue (in p> is normally printed without units! Molystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyreneH so you should use a heat sin% (such as a crocodile clip ! Clip the heat sin% to the lead between the capacitor and the Goint!

Real capacitor values (the /: and /; series)

+ou may ha7e noticed that capacitors are not a7ailable with e7ery possible 7alue, for example ((F> and ,1F> are readily a7ailable, but (.F> and .&F> are notH 3hy is thisO Cmagine that you decided to ma%e capacitors e7ery '&F> gi7ing '&, (&, *&, ,&, .& and so on! "hat seems fine, but what happens when you reach '&&&O Ct would be pointless to ma%e '&&&, '&'&, '&(&, '&*& and so on because for these 7alues '& is a 7ery small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy! "o produce a sensible range of capacitor 7alues you need to increase the si:e of the JstepJ as the 7alue increases! "he standard capacitor 7alues are based on this idea and they form a series which follows the same pattern for e7ery multiple of ten! The /: series (* 7alues for each multiple of ten 101 881 561 then it continues '&&, ((&, ,1&, '&&&, ((&&, ,1&&, '&&&& etc! #otice how the step si:e increases as the 7alue increases (7alues roughly double each time ! The /; series (/ 7alues for each multiple of ten 101 1<1 881 ::1 561 ;=1 then it continues '&&, '.&, ((&, **&, ,1&, /2&, '&&& etc! #otice how this is the E* series with an extra 7alue in the gaps! "he E* series is the one most fre6uently used for capacitors because many types cannot be made with 7ery accurate 7alues!

0ariable Capacitor ;ymbol

0ariable Capacitor

(ariable capacitors
0ariable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called Jtuning capacitorsJ! "hey ha7e 7ery small capacitance 7alues, typically between '&&p> and .&&p> ('&&p> 9 &!&&&'F> ! "he type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for ma%ing small adGustments - see below as well as the main 7ariable capacitor! 8any 7ariable capacitors ha7e 7ery short spindles which are not suitable for the standard %nobs used for 7ariable resistors and rotary switches! Ct would be wise to chec% that a suitable %nob is a7ailable before ordering a 7ariable capacitor! 0ariable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of 7alues a7ailable is 7ery limited! Cnstead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a 7ariable resistor if it is necessary to 7ary the time period!

Trimmer capacitors

"rimmer Capacitor ;ymbol

"rimmer capacitors (trimmers are miniature 7ariable capacitors! "hey are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adGusted only when the circuit is built!

"rimmer Capacitor
B small screwdri7er or similar tool is re6uired to adGust trimmers! "he process of adGusting them re6uires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmerH "rimmer capacitors are only a7ailable with 7ery small capacitances, normally less than '&&p>! Ct is impossible to reduce their capacitance to :ero, so they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum 7alues, for example (-'&p>!

>ultimeters
8ultimeters are 7ery useful test instruments! $y operating a multi-position switch on the meter they can be 6uic%ly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter! "hey ha7e se7eral settings (called JrangesJ for each type of Li6uid-Crystal Display (LCD meter and the choice of BC or DC! ;ome multimeters ha7e additional features such as transistor testing and ranges for measuring capacitance and fre6uency!

Choosing a multimeter "he photographs below show modestly priced multimeters which are suitable for general electronics use, you should be able to buy meters li%e these for less than P'.! B digital multimeter is the best choice for your first multimeter5 e7en the cheapest will be suitable for testing simple proGects!

Cf you are buying an analogue multimeter ma%e sure it has a high sensitivit- of (&% Q0 or greater on DC 7oltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics! "he sensiti7ity is normally mar%ed in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower BC 7alue (sensiti7ity on BC ranges is less important , the higher DC 7alue is the critical one! $eware of cheap analogue multimeters sold for electrical wor% on cars because their sensiti7ity is li%ely to be too low!

'igital multimeters

Digital 8ultimeter
Bll digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use 7irtually no power from the circuit under test! "his means that on their DC 7oltage ranges they ha7e a 7ery high resistance (usually called input impedance of '8 or more, usually '&8 , and they are 7ery unli%ely to affect the circuit under test! "ypical ranges for digital multimeters li%e the one illustrated: (the 7alues gi7en
are the maximum reading on each range

DC 0oltage: (&&m0, (&&&m0, (&0, (&&0, /&&0! BC 0oltage: (&&0, /&&0! DC Current: (&&FB, (&&&FB, (&mB, (&&mB, '&BR! R"he '&B range is usually unused and connected 7ia a special soc%et! BC Current: #one! (+ou are unli%ely to need to measure this ! Resistance: (&& , (&&& , (&% , (&&% , (&&&% , Diode "est!

Digital meters ha7e a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot be used to test diodes and other semiconductors! >ultimeters are easil- damaged b- careless use so please ta%e these precautions: Blways disconnect the multimeter before adGusting the range switch! Blways chec% the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit! #e7er lea7e a multimeter set to a current range (except when actually ta%ing a reading !
"he greatest ris% of damage is on the current ranges because the meter has a low resistance!

Rela-s

Circuit symbol for a relay

Relays
B relay is an electricall- operated s itch! Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a le7er and changes the switch contacts! "he coil current can be on or off so relays ha7e two switch positions and they are double thro (changeover switches!

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first! >or example a low 7oltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a (*&0 BC mains circuit! "here is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the lin% is magnetic and mechanical! "he coil of a relay passes a relati7ely large current, typically *&mB for a '(0 relay, but it can be as much as '&&mB for relays designed to operate from lower 7oltages! 8ost CCs (chips cannot pro7ide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small CC current to the larger 7alue re6uired for the relay coil! "he maximum output current for the popular ... timer CC is (&&mB so these de7ices can supply relay coils directly without amplification! Relays are usually ;MD" or DMD" but they can ha7e many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with , sets of changeo7er contacts are readily a7ailable! 8ost relays are designed for MC$ mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins pro7iding you ta%e care to a7oid melting the plastic case of the relay! "he supplierJs catalogue should show you the relayJs connections! "he coil will be ob7ious and it may be connected either way round! Relay coils produce brief high 7oltage Jspi%esJ when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and CCs in the circuit! "o pre7ent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil! "he animated picture shows a wor%ing relay with its coil and switch contacts! +ou can see a le7er on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on! "his le7er mo7es the switch contacts! "here is one set of contacts (;MD" in the foreground and another behind them, ma%ing the relay DMD"!

"he relayJs switch connections are usually labelled C)8, #C and #):

C?> 9 Common, always connect to this5 it is the mo7ing part of the switch!

7C 9 #ormally Closed, C)8 is connected to this when the relay coil is off! 7? 9 #ormally )pen, C)8 is connected to this when the relay coil is on!
Connect to C)8 and #) if you want the switched circuit to be on hen the rela- coil is on! Connect to C)8 and #C if you want the switched circuit to be on hen the rela- coil is off!

ST/, T@A/7 #B"%/ ,R/,@R"7+ C"RC2"T

"he main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents and signals through thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to and insulating base material some times called the substrata! "his base is manufactured with an integral bounded layer of thin copper foil which has to be partly etched or other wise remo7ed to arri7e at a pre-designed pattern to suite the circuit connections! >rom the constructors point of 7iew the main attraction of using MC$ is its role as the mechanical support for small components! "here is less need for complicated and time consuming metal wor% or chassis construction except perhaps in pro7iding the Smal enclosure! 8ost straight forward circuit designs can be easily con7erted into printed wiring layout the thorough re6uired to carry out the con7ersion can often highlights any possible error that would otherwise be missed in con7ention point to point wiring! "he finished proGect is usually neater and truly a wor% of art!

"hrough

proper

design

of

MC$

can

get

noise

immunity! "he fabrication process of the printed circuit board will determine to a large extent the price and reliability of the e6uipment! B common target aimed at is the fabrication of small series of highly reliable professional 6uality MC$s with low in7estment cost!

There are t o t-pes of ,C!$14 Single sided board 84 'ouble sided board

Single sided board "he single sided MC$s are mostly used in endearment electronics where manufacturing costs ha7e to be %ept at a minimum howe7er in industrial electronics! Blso cast factors cannot be neglected and single sided boards should be used whene7er a particular circuit can be accommodated on such boards! 'ouble sided boards Double sided MC$s can be made with or without plated through holes! "he production of boards with plated-through holes is fairly expensi7e! "herefore, plated through hole boards are only chosen where the circuit complexity and density dose not lea7e any other choice!

%@C?2T '/S"+7

"he layout of a MC$ has to incorporate all the information on the board before one can go on to the artwor% preparation! "his means that a concept, which clearly defines all the details of the circuit, is a prere6uisite before the actual layout can start! "he detailed circuit diagram is 7arying important for the layout designer but the must also be familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the e6uipment! 3hen designing the layout one should obser7e the minimum si:e (component body length and weight ! $efore starting to design the layout ha7e all the re6uired components to hand so that an accurate assessment of space can be made care must be ta%en so as to allow for ade6uate air flow after the components ha7e been mounted! Ct might be necessary to turn some components round to a different angular position so that terminals are closer to the connections of other components! "he scale can be chec%ed by positioning the components on the s6uad paper! Cf any connection crosses, then one can reroute to a7oid such condition! Bll common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a common line routed around the perimeter of the layout this will act as the ground plane! Cf possibly try to route the outer supply line ground plane! Cf possibly try to route the other supply lines around the apposite edge of the layout or through the center! "he first step is to rearrange the circuit to eliminate the crosso7er without altering the circuit detail in any way! Mlan the layout as if loo%ing at the top side of the board first this

should be translated in re7erse later for the etching pattern! Larger areas are recommended to maintain good copper adhesi7e! Ct is important to bear in mind always that copper trac% width must be at least to the recommended minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for increased width where termination holes are needed from this aspect it can become little tric%y to negotiate the route for connections to small transistors! )ne can effect the copper interconnection pattern in the under side of the board in a way described below 8a%e the interconnections pattern loo%ing li%e con7entional point to point writing by routing uniform width of copper from component to component

/TCB"7+ ,R?C/SS
Etching process re6uires the use of chemicals, acid resistant dishes and a running water supply! >erric chloride is the maximum used solution, but other enchants such as ammonium sulphate can be used! #itric acid can also be used but in general it is not used due to the poisonous fumes! "he pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the board using a latex type of adhesi7e that can be cubed after use! "he pattern is laid firmly on the copper, use 7ary sharp %nife to cut round the pattern carefully and remo7e the paper corresponding to the re6uired copper pattern areas! "hen apply the resist solution clean outlines as for as possible! 3hile the board is drying to test all components! $efore going to the

next stage, chec% the whole pattern and cross chec% against the circuit diagram chec% for any foreign matter on the copper! "he etching bath should be in a glass or enamel dis%! Cf using crystal of ferric chloride these should be thoroughly dissol7ed in water to the proportion suggested! "here should be &!. Lt! )f water for '(. gm of crystal! "he board is then immersed in >eCl* solution for '( hours, in this process only the non hidden copper portion is etched out by the solution! 8FeCl: * 8B8? * :Cu 0 :CuCl8 * 8Fe (?B) 8 3aste li6uid should be thoroughly diluted and buried in water land ne7er pour down the drain! "o pre7ent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate the solutions carefully by gently twisting or roc%ing the tray! "he board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to remo7e Gust the right amount of cooper! Cn spite of there being a resist coating, there is no protection against etching away through exposed copper edges5 this leads to o7er etching! Da7e running water ready so that the etched board can be remo7ed properly and rinsed5 this will halt etching immediate! #ow the paint is washed out by the petrol! #ow the copper layout on MC$ is rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the oxide layers o7er the Cu is remo7ed! #ow the holes are drilled at the respecti7e places, according to component layout as shown in figure! Drilling is one of those operation that

calls for great care, because most of the holes will be made and 7ary small drill! >or most purpose a no! /& drill all holes with this si:e first those that need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the appropriate large si:e!

C?>,?7/7T @SS/>!%C
"here should be no damage, such as hair line crac% in the copper on MC$ that could ha7e a serious effect on the operational ability of the completed assembly holes! Cf there are, than they can and should be repaired first, by soldering a short lin% of bare copper wire o7er the affected part! "he most popular method of holding all the items is to bend the wires further apart after they ha7e been inserted in the appropriate holes! "his will hold the component in position ready for soldering! ;ome component will be considerably larger than others, occupying and possibly partly obscuring component! $ecause of this, it is best to start by mounting the smallest first and progressing through to the largest, before starting, ma%es certain that no further drilling is li%ely to be necessary, because access may be impossible later! 3hen filling each group of components, mar% off each one on the components list as it is fitted and, if we ha7e to lea7e the Gob, we will %now where to recommence!

Blthough transistors and integrated circuits are small items, there are good reasons for lea7ing the soldering of these until the last step! "he main point is that these components are 7arying sensiti7e to heat and if subGected to prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be internally damaged! Bll the components before mounting are rubbed with sand paper so that oxide layer is remo7ed iron their tips! #ow they are mounted according to the components layout!

Soldering +uide
How to Solder First a fe safet- precautions$

7ever touch the element or tip of the soldering iron4 "hey are 7ery hot (about ,&&TC and will gi7e you a nasty burn! Ta&e great care to avoid touching the mains fle) ith the tip of the iron4 "he iron should ha7e a heatproof flex for extra protection! Bn ordinary plastic flex will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious ris% of burns and electric shoc%! @l a-s return the soldering iron to its stand hen not in use4 #e7er put it down on your wor%bench, e7en for a momentH #or& in a ell-ventilated area4 "he smo%e formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and 6uite irritating! B7oid breathing it by %eeping you head to the side of, not abo7e, your wor%! #ash -our hands after using solder4 ;older contains lead which is a poisonous metal!

,reparing the soldering iron$

,lace the soldering iron in its stand and plug in4 "he iron will ta%e a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about ,&&TC!

'ampen the sponge in the stand4 "he best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a moment, then s6uee:e to remo7e excess water! Ct should be damp, not dripping wet! #ait a fe minutes for the soldering iron to arm up4 +ou can chec% if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip! #ipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge4 "his will clean the tip! >elt a little solder on the tip of the iron4 "his is called JtinningJ and it will help the heat to flow from the ironJs tip to the Goint! Ct only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on the sponge!

Cou are no read- to start soldering$

Bold the soldering iron li&e a pen1 near the base of the handle4 Cmagine you are going to write your nameH Remember to ne7er touch the hot element or tip! Touch the soldering iron onto the Doint to be made4 8a%e sure it touches both the component lead and the trac%! Dold the tip there for a few seconds and!!! Feed a little solder onto the Doint4 Ct should flow smoothly onto the lead and trac% to form a 7olcano shape as shown in the diagram! Bpply the solder to the Goint, not the iron! Remove the solder1 then the iron1 hile &eeping the Doint still4

Bllow the Goint a few seconds to cool before you mo7e the circuit board! "nspect the Doint closel-4 Ct should loo% shiny and ha7e a J7olcanoJ shape! Cf not, you will need to reheat it and feed in a little more solder! "his time ensure that both

Crocodile clip
the lead and trac% are heated fully before applying solder!

2sing a heat sin&

;ome components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sin% clipped to the lead between the Goint and the component body! +ou can buy a special tool, but a standard crocodile clip wor%s Gust as well and is cheaper! ;oldering Bd7ice for Components Ct is 7ery tempting to start soldering components onto the circuit board straight away, but please ta%e time to identify all the parts first! +ou are much less li%ely to ma%e a mista%e if you do thisH

'! Stic& all the components onto a sheet of paper using stic&- tape4 (! "dentif- each component and write its name or 7alue beside it! *! @dd the code (R11 R81 C1 etc4) if necessar-4

,! 8any proGects from boo%s and maga:ines label the components with codes (R', R(, C', D' etc! and you should use the proGectJs parts list to find these codes if they are gi7en! .! Resistor values can be found using the resistor colour code which is explained on our Resistors page! +ou can print out and ma%e your own Resistor Colour Code Calculator to help you! /! Capacitor values can be difficult to find because there are many types with different labelling systemsH "he 7arious systems are explained on our Capacitors page! ;ome components re6uire special care when soldering! 8any must be placed the correct way round and a few are easily damaged by the heat from soldering! Bppropriate warnings are gi7en in the table below, together with other ad7ice which may be useful when soldering! >or most proGects it is best to put the components onto the board in the order gi7en below:

Components
Chip Bolders

,ictures

Reminders #arnings

and

' (DCL soc%ets ( Resistors

Small value

Connect the correct around by ma%ing sure the notch is at the correct end! Do #)" put the CCs (chips in yet! #o special precautions are needed with resistors!

* (usually less than 'F>

capacitors

"hese may be connected either way round! "a%e care with polystyrene capacitors because they are easily damaged by heat! Connect the correct around4 "hey will be mar%ed with a A or - near one lead! Connect the correct around4 "a%e care with germanium

/lectrol-tic capacitors ('F> and greater

. 'iodes

diodes (e!g! )B4' because they are easily damaged by heat! Connect the correct around4 "he diagram may be labelled a or * for anode and & or - for cathode5 yes, it really is %, not c, for cathodeH "he cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs! Connect the correct around4 "ransistors ha7e * JlegsJ (leads so extra care is needed to ensure the connections are correct! Easily damaged by heat! Ise single core wire5 this is one solid wire which is plasticcoated! Cf there is no danger of touching other parts you can use tinned copper wire, this has no plastic coating and loo%s Gust li%e solder but it is stiffer! Connect the correct round4 a-

/ %/'s

1 Transistors

2 on the circuit board!

#ire %in&s between points

single core wire

!atter- clips, buzzers and other parts with their own wires

#ires to parts off the circuit board, including rela-s, '& s itches, variable resistors and stranded wire loudspea&ers!

+ou should use stranded wire which is flexible and plasticcoated! Do not use single core wire because this will brea% when it is repeatedly flexed! Connect the correct around4 >an- "Cs are static sensitive4

'' "Cs (chips)

Lea7e CCs in their antistatic pac%aging until you need them, then earth your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before touching the CCs! Carefull- insert "Cs in their holders: ma%e sure all the pins are lined up with the soc%et then push down firmly with your thumb!

#hat is solderE

Reels of solder
;older is an alloy (mixture of tin and lead, typically /&@ tin and ,&@ lead! Ct melts at a temperature of about (&&TC! Coating a surface with solder is called JtinningJ because of the tin content of solder! Lead is poisonous and you should always wash your hands after using solder! ;older for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, li%e the wires inside a mains flex! "he flux is corrosi7e, li%e an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts! "his is why you must melt the solder actually on the Goint, not on the iron tip! 3ithout flux most Goints would fail because metals 6uic%ly oxidi:e and the solder itself will not flow properly onto a dirty, oxidi:ed, metal surface! "he best si:e of solder for electronics is ((swg (swg 9 standard wire gauge !

'esoldering
Bt some stage you will probably need to desolder a Goint to remo7e or reposition a wire or component! "here are two ways to remo7e the solder:

14 #ith a desoldering pump (solder suc&er)

;et the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it loc%s! Bpply both the pump no::le and the tip of your soldering iron to the Goint! 3ait a second or two for the solder to melt! "hen press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suc% the molten solder into the tool! Repeat if necessary to remo7e as much solder as possible! "he pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the no::le! ith solder remover ic& (copper braid)

84

Bpply both the end of the wic% and the tip of your soldering iron to the Goint! Bs the solder melts most of it will flow onto the wic%, away from the Goint! Remo7e the wic% first, then the soldering iron! Cut off and discard the end of the wic% coated with solder!

Bfter remo7ing most of the solder from the Goint(s you may be able to remo7e the wire or component lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool ! Cf the Goint will not come apart easily apply your soldering iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at the same time as pulling the Goint apart, ta%ing care to a7oid burning yourself!

First @id for !urns

8ost burns from soldering are li%ely to be minor and treatment is simple: "mmediatel- cool the affected area under gentl- running cold ater4 <eep the burn in the cold water for at least . minutes ('. minutes is recommended ! Cf ice is readily a7ailable this can be helpful too, but do not delay the initial cooling with cold water! 'o not appl- an- creams or ointments4 "he burn will heal better without them! B dry dressing, such as a clean hand%erchief, may be applied if you wish to protect the area from dirt!

See& medical attention if the burn covers an area bigger than -our hand4

"o reduce the ris% of burns: Blways return your soldering iron to its stand immediately after use! Bllow Goints and components a minute or so to cool down before you touch them! #e7er touch the element or tip of a soldering iron unless you are certain it is cold!

%><<< T">/R "he ... timer CC is an integrated circuit (chip used in a 7ariety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications! "he ... can be used to pro7ide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element! Deri7ati7es pro7ide up to four timing circuits in one pac%age! Cntroduced in '41( by ;ignetics, the ... is still in widespread use,

than%s to its ease of use, low price, and good stability! Ct is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in lowpower C8); types! Bs of (&&*, it was estimated that ' billion units are manufactured e7ery year!

"he CC was designed in '41' by Dans Camen:ind under contract to ;ignetics, which was later ac6uired by Mhilips! Depending on the manufacturer, the standard ... pac%age includes (. transistors, ( diodes and '. resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 2-pin mini dual-in-line pac%age (DCM-2 !S(U 0ariants a7ailable include the ../ (a ',-pin DCM combining two ...s on one chip , and the two ..2 V ..4s (both a '/-pin DCM combining four slightly modified ...s with DC; V "DR connected internally, and "R is falling edge sensiti7e instead of le7el sensiti7e ! "he #E... parts were commercial temperature range, & TC to A1& TC, and the ;E... part number designated the military temperature

range, were metal

W.. can

TC

to in ("

A'(. pac%age full ;E...0, and ;E..."!

TC!

"hese and numbers

a7ailable

both high-reliability plastic (0 pac%age part Ct has been

inexpensi7e were

epoxy #E...",

pac%ages! "hus the #E...0,

hypothesi:ed that the ... got its name from the three . %X resistors used within,S*U but Dans Camen:ind has stated that the number was arbitrary! Low-power 7ersions of the ... are also a7ailable, such as the 1... and C8); "LC...!S,U "he 1... is designed to cause less supply noise than the classic ... and the manufacturer claims that it usually does not re6uire a YcontrolY capacitor and in many cases does not re6uire a decoupling capacitor on the power supply! ;uch a practice should ne7ertheless be a7oided, because noise produced by the timer or 7ariation in power supply 7oltage might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence its threshold 7oltages!

,ins

Minout diagram "he connection of the pins for a DCM pac%age is as follows:

,in 7ame ,urpose ' ( -#D "RC-round reference 7oltage, low le7el (& 0 "he )I" pin goes high and a timing inter7al starts when this input falls below 'Q( of C"RL 7oltage (which is typically 'Q* of ! C C , when C"RL is open ! * )I" "his output is dri7en to approximately '!10 below A ! C C or -#D! B timing inter7al may be reset by dri7ing this input to -#D, , RE;E" but the timing does not begin again until RE;E" rises abo7e approximately &!1 7olts! )7errides "RC- which o7errides "DR! . / 1 2 C"RL "DR DC; !CC Mro7ides YcontrolY access to the internal 7oltage di7ider (by default, (Q* ! C C ! "he timing ()I" high inter7al ends when the 7oltage at "DR is greater than that at C"RL! )pen collector output which may discharge a capacitor between inter7als! Cn phase with output! Mositi7e supply 7oltage, which is usually between * and '. 0

depending on the 7ariation! Min . is also sometimes called the C)#"R)L 0)L"B-E pin! $y applying a 7oltage to the C)#"R)L 0)L"B-E input one can alter the timing characteristics of the de7ice! Cn most applications, the C)#"R)L 0)L"B-E input is not used! Ct is usual to connect a '& n> capacitor between pin . and & 0 to pre7ent interference! "he C)#"R)L 0)L"B-E input can be used to build an astable with a fre6uency modulated output! >odes

"he ... has three operating modes:

>onostable mode: Cn this mode, the ... functions as a YoneshotY pulse generator! Bpplications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, fre6uency di7ider, capacitance mode: "he measurement, pulse-width ... lamp can operate as modulation (M38 and so on!

@stable (free-running an oscillator! Ises

include LED and

flashers,

pulse

generation, logic cloc%s, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on! "he ... can be used as a simple BDC, con7erting an analog 7alue to a pulse length! E!g! selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the ... in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature! "he use of a microprocessor based circuit can then con7ert the pulse period to temperature, lineari:e it and e7en pro7ide calibration means!

!istable mode or ;chmitt trigger: "he ... can operate as a flip-flop, if the DC; pin is not connected and no capacitor is used! Ises include bounce-free latched switches!

?perational amplifier %>:<=

Bn operational amplifier (op-amp is a DC-coupled highgain electronic 7oltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output! Bn op-amp produces an output 7oltage that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the 7oltage difference between its input terminals! )perational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to do mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear and fre6uency-dependent circuits!

Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by external components with little dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing 7ariations in the op-amp itself, which ma%es opamps popular building bloc%s for circuit design! )p-amps are among the most widely used electronic de7ices today, being used in a 7ast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific de7ices! 8any standard CC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production 7olume5 howe7er some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost o7er Z'&& I; in small 6uantities! )pamps may be pac%aged as components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits! "he op-amp is one type of differential amplifier ! )ther types of differential amplifier to the include op-amp, the fully but with differential two outputs , amplifier (similar

the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps , the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode 7oltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp , and negati7e feedbac% amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and a resisti7e feedbac% networ% ! "he circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:

! A : non-in7erting input ! W : in7erting input ! o u t : output ! ; A : positi7e power supply ! ; W : negati7e power supply

"he power supply pins ( ! ; A and ! ; W can be labeled in different ways! )ften these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit!

%> :<=
Low Mower Dual )perational Bmplifiers +eneral 'escription "he L8'.2 series consists of two independent, high gain, internally fre6uency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply o7er a wide range of also power is 7oltages! possible supply independent )peration supplies and of power areas the current is low drain the supply include from split power

magnitude of the 7oltage! Bpplication transducer

amplifiers, dc

gain bloc%s and all the con7entional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems! >or example, the L8'.2 series can be directly operated off of the standard A.0 power supply 7oltage which is used in digital systems and will easily pro7ide the re6uired interface electronics without re6uiring the additional ?'.0 power supplies! "he L8*.2 and L8(4&, are a7ailable in a chip si:ed pac%age (2$ump micro ;8D using #ationalEs micro ;8D pac%age technology! 2niFue Characteristics Cn the linear mode the input common-mode 7oltage range includes ground and the output 7oltage can also swing to ground, e7en though operated from only a single power supply 7oltage! "he unity gain cross fre6uency is temperature compensated! "he input bias current is also temperature compensated!

@dvantages
"wo internally compensated op amps Eliminates need for dual supplies Bllows direct sensing near -#D and 0)I" also goes to -#D Compatible with all forms of logic Mower drain suitable for battery operation

Features
B7ailable in 2-$ump micro ;8D chip si:ed pac%age, Cnternally fre6uency compensated for unity gain Large dc 7oltage gain: '&& d$

 3ide

bandwidth

(unity

gain :

'

8D:

(temperature

compensated 3ide power supply range: [ ;ingle supply: *0 to *(0 [ or dual supplies: ?'!.0 to ?'/0 0ery low supply current drain (.&& FB [ essentially independent of supply 7oltage Low input offset 7oltage: ( m0 Cnput common-mode 7oltage range includes ground Differential input 7oltage range e6ual to the power supply 7oltage Large output 7oltage swing

?ther applications

audio- and 7ideo-fre6uency pre-amplifiers and buffers differential amplifiers differentiators and integrators filters precision rectifiers precision pea% detectors 7oltage and current regulators analog calculators analog-to-digital con7erters digital-to-analog con7erters

7oltage clamps oscillators and wa7eform generators

8ost single, dual and 6uad op-amps a7ailable ha7e a standardi:ed pin-out which permits one type to be substituted for another without wiring changes! B specific op-amp may be chosen for its open loop gain, bandwidth, noise performance, input impedance, power consumption, or a compromise between any of these factors!