Neurophysiology: Central Nervous System Brain and spinal cord Process information Peripheral Nervous System Everything else

Somatic (controls skeletal muscles) and Autonomous ( sympathetic and parasympathetic and controls cardiac and smooth muscles) Receives the information using afferent division (somatic, special and visceral senses) and performs the necessary action to stimuli using the efferent division ( somatic or autonous)

Organs Subtypes Function

Method of signal transmission Function

Types of cells in nervous system Glial Neurons Because they are not electrically excitable; the signal in Are electrically excitable; the signal is this are transmitted by calcium ion flux transmitted by action potential Insulation Communication Structural integrity In maintaining homeostasis Communication

Structural classification Functional Classification - Astrocytes - Microglia - Ependymal cells - Oligodendrocytes* - Schwann cells* - Satellite cells Underline: PNS And italics: CNS Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes are involved in the insulation of the cells by forming a myelin sheath on them prevents the leakage of ions therefore, enchancing the efficiency of signal being transmitted. One Schwann cells form only one myelin sheath and protect only one section of axon while one oligodendrocyte form multiple myelin sheaths and protect numerous sections axons Membrane Potential Factors affecting membrane potential

Bipolar Pseudo unipolar Multipolar (most common) Afferent neurons: take information from sensory receptors (sense changes in the external environment) and visceral receptors ( sense internal changes such as from baroreceptors) Interneurons: most of the neurons. These process information from afferent and send info via efferent neurons. Efferent neurons: take information from CNS and transmit to efferent organs.

Result of difference in ions across membranes. The movement of ions: ion conductance, which is affected by the factors Permeability (K> Na) and concentration of ions. The permeability affects the rate of inflow and outflow of ions, which is maintained by chemical and electrical force which either stimulate or oppose the flow of ions. This is also assisted by Na/K pumps, as they control the leak. Electrical force opposes chemical force. So when the cell becomes negative due to the outflow of potassium ions, the electrical force oppose this movement to bring back the

Equation used to measure this Types of membrane potential Types of gated channels that affect the movement. Type of changes in membrane potential Types of forces

membrane potential to resting - It is also affected by the leaky channels and opening and closing of the gated channel. Ernest equation: [61/z * log(ions out/ions in)]. Resting: the membrane potential at rest ( approx 70mV) Graded and Action Potential - Ligand gated: for graded potential - Voltage gated for action potential - Mechanical gated Hyperpolarization (due to opening of K channel) depolarization ( by opening of Na repolarization resting potential Chemical (diffusion force) and electrical force (opposing force to balance diffusion force) Action Potential Axon All or none response after threshold, always same curve (of same strength)

Parts of axon where it occurs Strength

Direction of change in the membrane potential Summation Refractory period Channel types involved Ions involved Duration Description

Graded potential Dendrites, cell body and sensory receptors Relatively weak decreases as it goes along cell body because of leaky channels because the ions spread and equilibrise, strength varies Can be depolarizing (excitory) or hyperpolarising(inhibitory) depending on stimulus Spatial and temporal None Leaky and ligand gated and mechanical gated K, cl, Na Few milliseconds to seconds Are called graded because it depends on the type of stimuli and can be hyper or de which depends on the channels that open and close

Always depolarizing

None Absolute and relative Voltage gated and leaky Na and K 1-2 msec If the graded potential is large enough to pass through the threshold, then the action potential occurs all or none response. Propagation: the AP initiated at axon hillock spreads to neighbouring causing a wave of depolarization the spread because during AP, that part of axon becomes +ve (depolarized) and the neighbouring section becomes attracted to it thereby spreading the current this AP moves only in one direction because the previous section is in the absolute refractive phase where Na channels are inactivated and are unaffected by the stimulus. . The reason the action potential occurs due to opening of sodium voltage channels Phases: Phase 1: Depolarization: after the summation to get to the threshold, the sudden increase in depolarization is due to opening of Na channels which causes the inward motion of sodium and membrane tries to reach the membrane potential

Mechanism

Spatial and temporal summation of graded potentials generate the action, if they pass the threshold. Spatial: when many little graded potential generate the action potential While temporal: when one graded

potential is large enough to generate the action potential stronger longer- lasting graded potential produce more APs

of sodium ions Phase 2: Repolarization: after cell reaches the membrane potential of sodium ions, the sodium gated channels close (inactivate) and potassium channels open without delay, which bring the membrane potential close to Vm of potassium. Phase 3: After hyperpolarization: The prolonged hyperpolarization period is due to slow closing of potassium channels brings the membrane potential back to resting potential. Refratory period: the period during and after AP absolute vs relative refractory. Absolute refractory period is during repolarization occurs due to inactivation of sodium gated channel therefore, any graded potential (stimulus) does not affect this as another AP cannot be generated Relative Refractory period: is near end of repolariztion and hyperpolazition in this, stimulus does not affect, because greater than usual graded potential is required to generate the AP due to opened K channel and to generate the AP, the Na inflow needs to be greater than K outflow The diameter of the axon: this is because in a greater diameter, Na has more pathways and less resistance pathway therefore the APs occurs faster and the signal transfers faster The myelin sheath increases the passing of current by decreasing the leak of the charge: which is why we have saltatory conduction of signal along the myelinated axons. This is because along the nodes of ranvier, the axon is unmylineatd therefore, signal passes slower in that area which is why it appears to be jumping from one node of ranvier to another. The reason, the conduction is faster in the myleinated regions is because of the greater distance between K and Na ions, and the attraction is less strong therefore the ions dont leak out in the mylienated regions. Additionally, in the mylieanted regions the ions are more spread out, therefore, action potential occur faster and less ions need to move in and move out. . However, nodes of ranvier are important because they are concentrated with ions and produce enough current to bring next node to threshold. Therefore, the benefits of mylienated sheath: higher conduction velocity, saves space, less energy required because ions dont leak out, therefore, the pumps are not required to bring the ions in to generate potential

Factors affecting the potential

Synapses: two types excitatory and inhibitory

- Synpses transmission: 1. Electrical and 2. Chemical 1. Electrical: the post and pre synaptic membranes are attached; and there is direct transmission of neurons between the membranes. The transmission of neurotransmitters occurs through gap junctions. E.g. in cardiac and smooth muscles but not common in CNS 2. Chemical: there is a gap between the post and pre- synaptic membrane this gap is called synaptic cleft. Description + mechanism Electrical Pre and post membranes are attached and there is direct transmission of neurotransmitters. Chemical Gap exists between pre and post membrane this gap is called synaptic cleft. AP arrives at axon terminal (pre-synaptic membrane) Ca channel open and inflow of Ca ions conformation change (SNARE protein) and both synaptic vessel and the pre synaptic membrane converge - Neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft binds to receptor in the post synaptic membrane response by changes in concentration of K, Na and Ca ions response may be then terminated to reduce the postsynaptic response by removal/ degradation of NT by enzymes/ diffusion as enzymes allow NT are uptaken by pre-synaptic membrane to be degraded or diffusion of NT from synaptic cleft may occur Through synaptic cleft

Transmission through Examples Advantages

Through gap junction -

Disadvantages

In smooth and In CNS cardiac muscles Faster and synch - Unidirectional activity of muscles - Efficient amplication Can be inhibitory and excitatory in the same synapse Bidirectional - Slow communication - High cost No amplification less efficient

Neurotransmitters: Are of 6 types: some can bind to slow receptor or fast receptors Unique neurotransmitters do not exit via exocytosis and are not stored in vesicles Ach PNS and amino acids NT CNS Factors affecting its`s release (Pre-synaptic inhibition): o AP frequency o Autoreceptors on presynaptic may prevent release o Persynaptic facilitation or inhition inhibition by an axon blocking the pre-synaptic axon from releasing the neurotransmitter Post- synaptic inhibition: o Densensitization: Heterologous (receptor doesn`t bind at all) vs homologous ( receptor has a higher affinity to binding to something else) o Internalization or down regulation:

NT receptors: Type of receptor Velocity of response Description Ionotropic Channel linked Fast NT binds to receptor channel opens and allows for ion movement Metabotropic G-coupled Slow Two types: Direct: NT bind to metatropic receptor activates G protein opens the channel 2nd messenger: NT binds to metabotropic receptor activates G protein activates protein activates 2nd messenger produces response or open the channel NT binding to receptor G protein activation phosphates adenylate cyclise produces 2nd messenger (cAMP) activates enzyme (Protein kinase A) closes K channel by phosphorylating it GABAB does the same thing same process as the excitatory response

Example Mechanism for excitatory response

Mechanism for inhibitory synapses: reduces the probab of AP occurrence in postsynaptic cell by keeping the Vm below threshold by closing Na channel, opening K and Cl channels

Ach in muscles NT opens the channel and bring the Vm to AP threshold by opening receptors that are selective to both Na and K this results in the depolarization excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) By GABAA receptors on the post synaptic membrane binding to NT makes Cl- permeable causes hyperpolarization of the cell.

Inhibitory Synapses: Reduces the probability of AP occurrence in post synaptic cell: keeps Vm from AP threshold o By NT binding to receptor causes hyperpolarization via the opening of K channels and closing of Na channels Function Connect cerebal cortex with the lower part of the brain and the spinal cord Connect two areas of cerebral cortex of the same side of the brain Connect same cortical region of the two sides of the brain Hub for commissural fibres For motor and balance Integration centre Integration centre, process info from nerves For sensory functions. Metabolism, neurotic control, thermoregulation Emotion, memory, learning, behaviour

Parts of the brain Projection fibres Association fibres Commissural fibres Corpus callosum Cerebellum Cerebral cortex Brainstem Thalamus Hypothalamus Limbhic system

Learning and Memory: repetition fixes something in your memory, because repetitive synapse, increases its strength of synaptic concentration synaptic plasticity. Modulation of memory: Catecholamines: NE or E release enhances retention: E release stimulates PNS releases NE enhances plasma glucose and glucogenesis Glucocorticods: ACTH and glucorticod release enchances memory storage Exercise: increases memory retention: increases O2 levels in brain (glucose) release of cortisol stimulates neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity enhances and stimulates the release and synthesis of neurotransmitter.

Declarative: associating Non- Declarative: includes procedural memory, includes skills and habits memory with your own previous experiences Associative learning: Non associative learning: the effect of one event on associating one event with response probability another Classical conditioning: Sensitization: Habituation: Dis-habituation: association of stimuli with increase in repeated stimulus bring back the stimuli that elicits response response due to decreases response habituated response by the for example, ringing bell the decreases the presentation of release of NT presentation of meaning food, therefore the single another strong food, meaning that strong stimuli signal salvating (stimuli), bell ring *In habituation (stimuli that elicits response Short term: and sensitization: increase in NT alteration in pre release synaptic while in IN A1 activates classical conditioning, release of alternation in both serotonin increases the ca pre and post ions increase synaptic in post synaptic response Long term: alteration in protein synthesis Autonomic Nervous System: Two types: PNSN and SNS Takes information from peripherial and chemical receptor in the afferent organs and delivers response through cholinergic and adrenergic receptors to efferent organs Efferent signals delivered by which neurons Parasympathetic Nervous System (PSNS) - Vagus nerves - Carlia nerves - Pelvis nerves Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) - Spinal nerves

Location of PreGanglion Fibres Location of Autonomic Ganglia Location of Post Ganglion Fibres NT receptor on post ganglia Type of neuron transmission from pre to post NT receptor on efferent organ Type of neuron transmission from post to efferent Final neurotransmitter Location of synaptic cleft along the axon Active during which periods Control on different system Receptors: Subtypes Location of receptors Function of these receptors

In spinal cord and brain stem In the PSNS organ

In spinal cord Sympathetic chain

In the efferent organ Nicotinic Chemical Murcarnic Chemical Always Ach Varicosity region Rest or digest; Inhibits circulatory, controls digestive

In the efferent organ Nicotinic (cholinergic receptor) Electrical Alpha or beta (adrenergic receptor) Chemical NE Varicosity region Flight or fight Stimulates circulatory

Cholinergic - Nicotinic - Muscarnic In post in PSNS and SNS and efferent organ in PSNS Receives info from pre in PSNS and SNS and receives info in post in PSNS Ach

Adrenergic - Alpha: a1 and a2 (only one that inhibits cAMP) - Beta: B1, B2 (only inhibitory), and B3 In efferent organ of SNS

Peripherial receptor - Baroreceptors - Chemoreceptors - Thermoreceptors BR & CR: aortic arch and carotid sinus in heart TR: various location in body BR: detect changes in BP lvls CR: detect changes in gases and pH in blood TR: detects changes in temperature in body Afferent

Receives information from post ganglia in SNS

Type of NT Afferent or Efferent efferent Mechanism

NE or E Efferent

Activation of a1: results in vasocontriction PLC (Phopholipase C IP3 increases Ca PLC DAG produces protein kinase C Activation of a2: results in vasoconstriction Gi (g-protein inhibit) adnelayse cataylse inhibits cAMP Activation of b2: increase in cardiac output Gs AC increases cAMP

BR and CR relay info to brain via glassopharyngeal nerve TR: Cold activates C fibres (unmylinated)and Ay (lightly myelinated) Hot activates C fibres Both relay info to brain via sensory neurons activate intraspinal neurons