ASIC

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P R I N C I P L E S
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To the field archaeologist the most obvious-an d often the most abundant - constitu. ent o f a site is d ir t. . . Dirt, properly called soil or sediment, is the subject matter o f sedimentology. . * . .
S C H IF F E R 1 9 8 7 :
2 0 0

ediments are com p osed variou sly o f particles o f disaggregated rock, dust from hatever source, bits o f dead anim als and plants, and chem ical precipitates. T h eir position on the surface o f the Earth or the bo tto m o f lakes and seas creates threeraensional sedim en tary b o d ies (deposits) w hich are subsequ en tly m o dified in aracteristic ways by the five spheres o f the clim ate system . In co m p an y w ith iro ck , sedim ents underlie the landform s on w h ich life processes occur. For ^archaeologists, sedim ents are the enclosing m edium and-the environm en t for the physical and chem ical rem ains that com p rise archaeological sites.

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

7 n contrast to the readiness w ith w hich archaeologists borrow geo m o rp h o lo gical

techniques for identification and description o f landform s, developm ents in petrographic techniques seem to be adopted slow ly and reluctantly by them . M eth ods for the technical description and interpretation o f sedim en ts and soils, particularly, need further developm ent and m ore intensive application in archaeology. A s w ith fish that cannot be expected to be aware o f water, archaeologists often take fo r,gran ted the

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BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

259

* m aterials w ith in w h ich their sites occur, rather than seeing them as problems and - interpretive o p p o rtu n ities. Skilled geoarchaeological w o rk rem ains, regrettably, a specialist d o m a in instead o f b ein g in co rp o rated as a m atter o f course in all field wori^ ' M in erals are in o rg a n ic ch em ical co m p o u n d s in crystalline, form ; rocks are com. j Ijjjat
and

pressure, as occurs d u rin g m ountain buildin g w hen rocks are folded and

vaulted. In such extrem e con dition s, both igneous and sedim en tary rocks are |^ dified by fo rm a tio n o f n ew crystal states that are stable at high tem peratures and '-pressures. po r exam p le, granite can be changed to gneiss, lim estone to m arble, silt-

p o sed p rim a rily o f m in erals, so m etim es acco m p an ied b y o rg a n ic detritus and chem. 1 jope to slate. ' . - _ ical p recipitates. M in eral m atter o f the regolith recirculates th ro u gh cycles of j Before there can be sedim en tary rocks there m ust be sedim ents, m asses o f un co n exposure, erosion , d ep o sitio n , an d b u ria l at the surface o f th e Earth. R ocks and sedi- 1 [dated particles o f m ineral o r biogenic materials. Sedim ents are always deposited m ents are disaggregated b y w eath ering; the resulting p articles re ero d ed and trans- J l l n geosphere surfaces, w hich m ay lie beneath air, water, o r ice, w ith o b vio u sly p o rted b y co m p o n en ts o f th e atm osp here, hydrosphere, cryosp here, a n d biosphere "1 d iffe r e n t con sequences fo r their archaeological relevance. Sedim ents ar fun dam en that rearran ge the su rfa ce o f the E arth and rem o d el lan dform s. Sedim ents form | f t l l y im p ortan t to archaeologists because they constitute the m atrix for arch aeolo giw hen p articles in transit are d eposited, as transport m edia lo se energy. T he condi- | |val remains, the en clo sin g m edium w hich keeps the rem ains in place and defines tions o f tra n sp o rt an d d e p o sitio n can o ften b e inferred fro m attributes o f the sedi- 1 P iie ir im m ediate physical and chem ical environm ent. Sedim ents constitute also the m ents, w h ich are im p o rta n t sources o f p ro x y data on fo rm e r en viron m en tal states. 3 pS{ntext o f arch aeolo gical rem ains and sites, lockin g them into stratigraph ic and T hese p o ten tials are discu ssed b e lo w u n d e r the headings o f L ithology, the study of rocks and m in erals, S ed im en ts as arch aeolo gical contexts, the stu d y o f sediments in sites, and Pedology, the stu d y o f soils. t~locational relation sh ips w ith other classes o f data. T he attention paid by e n v iro n m e n ta l archaeologists to this second characteristic o f sedim ents is w hat p rim arily distinguishes them from their non-environm ental archaeologist colleagues, w ho ;>may consider sedim ents no m ore than expendable dirt. The am ount o f arch aeologL ith o lo g y T h e prim eval ro ck o f th e plan et c o o led an d crystallized from a m olten state to form the co n tin en tal and o cea n ic crusts o f early geological tim e. Igneous rocks, cooled from the m olten state called m agm a, include such m aterials as gran ite, diorite, basalt, and obsidian . Ig n e o u s rock that flow ed o n the surface o f the Earth as lava is extru sive; th at w h ich in filtrated u n d e r pressure in to o r betw een bodies o f rock is called "intrusive. Igneous ro ck bodies m ay be very extensive; the m assive shield rocks that form th e sta b le an cien t cores o f the con tin en ts b elo n g to this class. In our ow n tim e vo lca n ic e ru p tio n s are co m m o n enough to rem ind us that m olten material con tin ues to em place n ew rock o n the crustal plates. T he extru sion o f lava a lo n g r ift zones beneath the oceans is p ro b ab ly n early constant if the rifts are considered as a whole. S e d im en ta ry rocks are co m p o se d o f m ineral m atter tran sp o rted by w ind, water, o r ice and co n so lid ated a fter d ep o sitio n . T h e con solidated m aterial m ay be m inerals w eathered from o ld er rocks, chem ical precipitates from water, o r detrital organic m aterials. Sedim en ts are con so lid ated and lithified (tran sfo rm ed in to rock) by cem en tation o r co m p actio n o r b o th , resulting in such rocks as sandstones, lime stones, a nd siltstones, all reflectin g in th eir nam es their sed im en tary origins. M e ta m o rp h ic rocks are m o d ificatio n s o f lithic m aterial from the other two gro up s that has been su bjected to great heat, as from con tact w ith m agm a, o r both S ed im en ts as a rch a e o lo g ica l co n texts _;In the absence o f sedim ents there can be no typical archaeological sites. Piles o f worked stones on bare bedrock can qualify by definition as archaeological sites but, : by providing the investigator w ith the utter m in im um o f in form ation ab ou t the piling event o r acco m p an yin g conditions, they lim it investigation to elem ents o f form; they are a rtifact aggregations, rather than sites. Sedim ents provide co n text and structure. Sedim en ts enclose artifacts and features, m aintain relationships a m o n g objects, and protect buried m aterials from a range o f disturbances. In their role as burial environm en ts, sedim ents m ay also disturb and dam age archaeological m a terials. A ddition ally, it is always w orth asking w hether or not the o rigin al depositional surface is preserved in the sedim ents. A rch aeological sites o ccu r in m ost kinds o f sedim ents. Sites in p rim a ry co n text may be buried by aeolian , alluvial, co llu vial, volcan ic, m arine, o r la cu strin e sed i ments. Redeposited artifacts, provided they survive tran sp o rtatio n , also o c c u r in a ; great variety o f sedim en ts, alth ou gh once m oved from their p rim a ry lo catio n s they .}Jse m uch o f their strictly archaeological in fo rm atio n and becom e a special class of. geological p h en o m en a. Each class presents its particular physical and chem ical ..ically relevant in fo rm atio n that can be w run g from the analysis o f sedim en ts is . 'limited o nly b y o u r skill, im agin atio n , and funding (Fritz and M oore 1988).

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S .

characteristics a nd in te rp re ta tio n a l p ro b lem s, each in tu rn re q u irin g a special set of analytical m eth ods. _ P e d o lo g y lolog) is the science o f soils - chem ically and m echanically altered terrestrial sedijjyjts. Soils fo rm on and b eneath the subaerial surfaces o f sedim ents that a re stable only slow ly aggrad in g. T h e fo rm ation o f a soil requires above all else tim e; there, a soil represents a p erio d in w h ich deposition occurred o n ly slo w ly i f at all - a ^positional h ia tu s and a tim e o f relative stability. A surface that is ra p id ly b u ild in g lirrapidly e ro d in g w ill n o t su p p o rt the form ation o f a soil. W hile the d ep o sitio n o f a . _ , is o f sed im en t m a y be th o u gh t o f as an event, w ith a beginning and an end, the nation o f a so il is always a process, and soils m ust be understood in processual juiis. T he p rocess has a b egin n in g, w hich is usually coincident w ith the fo rm a tion f a stable sed im en ta ry surface. H ow ever, it is n o t kn o w n that soil fo rm a tio n as a cess has an in h eren t en dp oin t; the process typ ically ceases w ith an en viro n m en tal nge that leads to b u rial o r rem oval o f the sedim ent su p p o rtin g the soil, H ays stu d y o f the F o o tp rin t T u f f in th e E ast A frica n L aeto lil B eds (R. L. Hay 1981^ irchaeological m aterials, even entire sites, o ccu r w ithin soils, but the relation sh ip o f o processes to a site o r an artifact m ust be independently determ ined in each case, fhe soil m a y have been fo rm ed before irch aeo lo gica l m aterials were deposited on or anit; it m ay have fo rm ed after the creation o f the site, o r it m ay have been d istu rb ed by Imman a ctiv ity and then co n tin u ed to develop w ith appropriate adjustm en t to the vironm ental chan ge. II ^ ^ to w a rd im p ro v in g gro w in g con dition s for econ om ically im p ortan t plants.

In o rder to un derstan d the cru cial relation sh ips betw een a site o r deposit o f facts and its en clo sin g m e d iu m , archaeologists n eed to k n o w as m u ch as possible ab ou t five characteristics o f sedim en ts: 1 the source o f the m a terial, w h eth e r it is residual o r derived, the n ature o f th ep a i*frock, and, i f derived, fro m w h ic h d irectio n a n d w h at distance; 2 the tran sp o rt m ed iu m w h ich m o v e d a n d d ep o sited it; 3 the depositional e n v iro n m e n t in w h ich it fa m e to rest;

4 an y subsequ en t n atu ral tra n sfo rm a tio n s o f the d ep o sit, in clu d in g mechanical or bio lo gical disturban ces and ch em ica l o r p hysical chan ges such as soil fonnatioi cem en tation, o r co m p a ctio n ; a n d 5 an y subsequent cu ltu ra l tra n sfo rm a tio n s. . ....................... ...

determining these five characteristics. T h e fa ct th a t he w as w o rk in g in Iithified sedim ents changes

P a rt I V C ase S tudy) exem p lifies th e k in d s o f data a n d lo g ic in vo lved in so m e o f the techniques, b u t n o t th e b asic research strategy. T h e so u rce (1) o f the vol canic ash that co m p rised the t u f f w as tra ced to th e e x tin ct vo lca n o Sadiman 6 observin g the slope o f th e bed s a n d b y m a tc h in g th e ch e m ica l co m p o sitio n o f the asL in the two locations. T h e tra n sp o rt m e d iu m (2) w as th e fo rce o f th e volcan ic explo sion, w ith subsequent fall th ro u gh air; after the in itial d e p o sitio n , th e ash was deter m in ed to have been d istu rbed o n ly b y rainw ater. T h ese co n clu sio n s w ere reached by o b servin g that the b e d d in g o f the d ry-seaso n tuffs w as a b o u t the sam e thickness across the m in o r relief o f the su rface, in d ica tin g that, u n like o th er ash-falls in the series, it had been o n ly ligh tly d istu rb ed b y w in d . T h e u p p e r t u ff sh o w ed som e redis trib u tio n from to p o g ra p h ic h igh s to lo w p o in ts, and w ater tra n sp o rt was suggested fo r that. T h e d epositional e n v iro n m e n t (3) fo r m o st o f the L aetolil Beds was inferred to b e a d ry savanna, on the basis o f th e in clu d ed fossils a n d s o m e w in d m ovem ent of the ash w hich indicated little vegetatio n to o ffe r o b stru ctio n ; the rainfall that dis turbed the upper layers o f th e F o o tp rin t T u ff w as interpreted as-seasonal. Natural transform ations 4) subsequ en t to d e p o sitio n in cluded the fo otp rin ts, subsurface disturbances by term ite c o lo n ie s an d roden ts, the fo rm ation o f a carb o n ate crust, the crack in g o f the crust b y the m o v e m e n t o f b u rro w in g anim als, an d , ultimately, lithification . N on e o f the in vestigators w h o have craw led o ver the F o o t p r i n t T uff in th e years since its reco gn ition have fo u n d a n y evid en ce o f cu ltu ral
tra n s fo rm a tio n s

T he p rim a ry literature o n soils was developed w ith in agronom y an d is directed

G eo lo gists and geo m o rp h o lo gists, w ho also w ork in and around soils, have develsrop ed a literature that m eets their special needs. T he soils literature directed to the needs o f arch aeolo gists is lim ited (C orn w all 1958; H olliday 1990,1992; L im brey 1975;
e Is -

f Waters 1992) and is n ot sufficien tly detailed to be o f substantive help in local situa-

J -tions. A rch aeolo g ists, therefore, need to use the soils literature as it exists, and build jj on it in co n su ltatio n w ith local experts ( C h a p t e r s ) . T h ere are at least three w orkin g definitions o f the term soil," w hich can c o m p li cate co m m u n ica tio n . To agron om ists, soils are surficial materials that su p p o rt plant growth. A gro n o m ists ignore buried soils, even to the p oint o f not recogn izin g them , and tend to evaluate archaeological deposits (an th ro p og en ic soils) in term s o f their horticultural p otential. N evertheless, agron om ists can be helpful, p rovid ed full com m unication ab ou t analytical goals is established before analyses are undertaken. To co n stru ctio n engin eers, soil is all un con solidated materials that can b e d u g rather than blasted. T h e ir soils are o u r sedim ents and regolith; it is helpful fo r an archaeologist to k n o w this befo re try in g to interpret engineering d rillin g logs that may co n stitu te the o n ly p relim in ary glim pse o f subsurface sedim ents in urban areas.

(5). W h ile d isap p ointin g, this is n o t su rp risin g given the great age o f the tuff, which antedates b y o ver a m illion y ears a n y cu ltu ra l rem ains o r b e h a v io r k n o w n anywhere.

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SED IM E NT S AND SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

To geologists, so il is surficial sed im en t altered b y w eath ering, w hether buried 0r n ot. T his d efin itio n is closest to the a rch a e o lo g ical usage, and Q u atern ary geologists share w ith arch aeolo gists an en th u siasm fo r b u ried soils and their information content (H o llid a y et al. 1993). H ow ever, geo lo gists m a y include-archaeological deposits in th e ir co n cep t o f soil, fa ilin g to d istin gu ish them because geologists are trained to n o tice and in terp ret p h e n o m e n a at scales larger than those ty p ic a l o f" archaeology (Stein a n d L in se 1993). A rch a e o lo g ists, w h o m ust com m unicate within three gro up s o f specialists, sh o u ld be alert to the n eed for clear understanding o f the~ language in use in p a rtic u la r situ atio n s. ;

^ l^ lv e d b y field investigations. T h e discussion in this section is directed prin cipally Kjrtiiard the in vestigation o f sedim ents exclusive o f soils.

So u rces o f sed im en ts Ith respect to origin s, regolith (m ineral aggregates) is either residual or
riv e d . R esidual regolith (techn ically saproiite ) form ed in place b y disintegra-

T -0n o f u n d erlyin g b edro ck, w hile derived regolith (sedim ent) has been deposited after transport. W eath erin g products m ay be fragm ents o f rock, grains o f m ineral -alter, chem ical solution s, o r all three. T h e y are strongly determ ined b y the m ineral i m p o s i t i o n o f the p aren t m aterial and by the clim atic conditions and w eath ering Shanism s that o b tain ed d u rin g disintegration. For instance, granites subjected to m e s o f h eat and co ld in very d ry environm ents break up into their con stituent ^sneral grain s - quartz, feldspars, and m icas - and undergo no furth er disru ption . 3 m o i s t clim ates, how ever, granites are reduced to grains o f quartz and m ica, w hile - ^e feldspars w eath er into clays. If these residues are subjected to w ater transport, the ins o f m ica and to a lesser extent those o f quartz will be further reduced by a ttri tion; the clay w ill be carried o ff in suspension. T he original three m inerals, after nsport, m a y be d eposited in v e ry different locations u nder distinct h ydrodyn am ic imes, because o f their distinct specific gravities. W hile the m inerals are all igether, id en tifyin g them as the w eathering products o f a particular granite is fairly raightforw ard; once transported and separated, they cannot be traced to their

A lth o u g h sedim en ts o c c u r across th e e xten t o f th e g lo b e itself, and soils cover th?^ . continents, b o th sedim en ts a n d soils are h ig h ly variab le at the m icro- and m e P S scales. G en eralizatio n is d ifficu lt, since a rch a eolo g ists need to ap p ly soils analyses.^ prin cipally at th e lo cal and m icro-scale. T h e text that follow s here and in Chapter^' - constitutes the barest in tro d u ctio n to th e co m p le x w o rld o f surficial

sediments and: "

soils. Further read in g co u ld w ell begin w ith Soils in archaeology (H olliday 1992) and= Reconstructing Quaternary environm ents (L ow e and W alker 1984: C h . 3), progressing to chapters in sp ecialized texts such as Soils a n d geom orphology ( Birkeland 1984). T h e lj archaeological literature on soils analysis can be q u ite u n fo rg iv in g to neophytes, pre- 2 su m in g as it does a technical basic vo cabu lary. U ltim ately, jh e descriptive soil surveys^ published by m ost n ational g o v ern m e n ts p ro v id e the m ost detailed inform ation that is available ou tsid e o f the analytical la b o ra to ry fo r th e site and local scales.

S T U D Y T E C H N I Q U E S IN S E D IM E N T O L O G Y

brigins. Rocks o f m ore elaborate m ineral com p osition , particularly those co n tain in g minerals less co m m o n than quartz and clay, m ay be recognized as the sources o f

Sedim ents con stitute the co n text in w h ich a rch aeolo g ical m aterials are deposited and retained; their id en tificatio n and analysis can in fo rm abou t the history o f the m aterials and the site itself, a b o u t agents o f site burial, abou t the environm ent in w hich hum an b ehaviors that defin ed the site to o k place, and abou t chemical and physical co n d itio n s that determ in ed the p reservatio n o f rem ains. U n d e r s ta n d in g of these processes p ro p erly b egin s w ith an un d erstan d in g o f sedim en t source and history. Interpretation o f sedim en ts and soils requires an in fo rm ed com bin ation o f field and laboratory techniques. Field o b serva tio n s are crucial; sedim en tological consul tants w ho are sim p ly given bags o f m aterials for la b o rato ry analysis cann ot be as fully supportive o f archaeological in vestigatio n s as their m eth o d s and expertise ideally allow. Sedim ents and soils are th ree-d im en sio n al bodies, w hose horizon tal extents usually far exceed their vertical extent; th e y typ ica lly display variation in all direc tions. Variation necessarily raises issues o f sam p lin g ad equ acy that can only be

mineral associations even after displacem ent over long distances. Residua! deposits form in place as bedrock is disaggregated by w eath erin g agents

(sun, water, ice, w in d , salts, acids) attacking the inter-crystal bonds. If the loose material is n o t m oved by w ind, water, o r ice, plants will colonize it and soils w ill begin toform. W ith o u t disturban ce this process can continue, perhaps at slo w in g rates, to great depths. O rga n ic detritus form s sedim ents in place, norm ally settling from water. Derived sedim en ts constitute the largest class o f regolith, since the m ost likely tale of un con solidated m aterial is m ovem ent by w ind, water, ice, and the force ol gravity. Gravity, w hether o r not aided by ice and water, draws loose m atter from cliff faces to form talus slopes; from cave roofs to floors; dow nhill to form co llu viu m ; and tr o u g h w ater to form subaqueou s sedim ents in lakes and oceans. M o v in g ice carries materials on, in, and beneath it and deposits them as till. M o vin g w ater carries se d i ments aw ay from ice sheets and other sources; as w ater slows o r b ecom es o th erw ise

S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

265

o verlo ad ed , it drops its lo a d to fo rm an y o f a series o f diverse flu vial deposits currents m o v in g alon g th e shores o f lakes a n d o cea n s so rt an d deposit coarse m a p i als alon g beach es. C a rb o n ate-rich w ater b u b b lin g up in sp rin gs o r flow ing t h f o i ^ S lim eston e caves deposits calcareous tu fa o r tra vertin e that hardens into m o v in g w in d lifts and carries sand and silt-sized p articles, som etim es to disperses v o lc a n ic ash after it has b een exp lo d ed in to th e air. A rch a e o lo g ica l sites o ccu r in a ll these kin d s o f d ep o sit. In co rp o ra tio n ofarchaeS ' lo g ica l m aterials in to residual deposits occurs In th e co u rse o f soil formation and ch u rn in g o f sedim en ts b y o rgan ism s a n d ice. T h e m ech a n ism s o f incorporation v ario u s d eriv ed sedim ents are research p ro b lem s in each case; the challenge is to f learn w h ich o f a large b u t n o t in fin ite set o f agents a n d processes w as involved. K n o w in g th e source o f a sedim en t is a lo n g step to w ard k n o w in g its history. As granite exam p le above show s, tracin g sedim ents to th eir sources is n o t a simpleiU w ith a gu aran tee o f success. In cases w here h ig h ly characteristic o r unique s u ite w ^ m inerals su rvive transportation and deposition, th eir iden tification in a sediment can indicate the p robable source o r source area. It is self-eviden t that the source areaftt any sedim ents w ill be fo un d in the direction from w h ich the transportin g agent came upstream for w in d , water, and ice. T h is rule o f th u m b can greatly sim plify the taskasL lo n g as n o n -h u m a n agents are at issue. Identifying th e source o f ro ck fragments; which by definition constitute a suite o f m inerals, is m u ch m o re straightforw ard than is sourcing disaggregated m inerals. Petrograph ic m eth o d s such as thin-section micros copy, X -ray diffraction o f clay m inerals, neutron activation for trace elements, and the set o f sp ectroscop ic m ethods all give g o o d results w hen p rop erly chosen. Many of . these techniques are used by archaeom etricians tracin g the raw m aterials o f lithic arti facts and clays; th e principles and m eth o d s are the sam e for rocks in natural deposits. O rg a n ic sed im en ts com p o sed o f m acrofossils, s u ch as p eats, gen erally accumu late w here the p lan ts grew, o r in d ep o sitio n al b asins v e ry close by; vegetative detritus does n ot travel w ell. H ow ever, w ith the in terven tion o f h u m an agents, such materials (e.g., peat, lign ite, and coal) m ay be tran sp o rted for use over great distances. In such cases, so u rcin g is possible o n ly w hen the m aterial is clearly exo tic and the original plant a sso ciatio n is o bvious, as m igh t be the case fo r m o n ta n e forest plants carried into a desert. S u b a q u e o u s sedim en ts co m p o se d o f m icrofo ssils such as diatomites and fo ram in iferal oozes can be traced o n ly by id e n tify in g the characteristics o f water bodies in w h ich th e y form ed, and in the case o f an cien t rocks, the k n o w n ages o f the fossils. W h ile such in fo rm atio n m ay o n o ccasio n co n trib u te to a r c h a e o lo g ic a l inves tigation s, e sp ecially in subm erged sites, it is m ain ly lim n o lo g ists an d
p a le o c lim a to lo -

|l l 1 Velocity o f transporting agents and sizes of particles moved (selected)

^transport velocity (miles per hour) Sedimentary particles moved clay fine sand gravel up to pea size gravel up to thumb size gravel up to size o f hens egg

great <jpr

tances, d e p o sitin g them in dunes a n d san d sheets o r in beds o f loess.. Wind?

3transport
i

velocity (m eters per second)

Diameter of grains suspended (m m )

0. 04 0. 08 0.41

0.81
WSource: H unt 1974:141.

ninations are m ade on th e basis o f assum ed analogies w ith the m odern habis o f organism s clo sely related to th e fossil form s.

T ra n sp o rt m e d ia Ifeter, w ind, and ice tra n sp o rt sed im en tary m aterials m ore o r less parallel to the face w ith in characteristic ranges o f distance. T hese several m edia sort m aterials size and shape, a cco rd in g to the en ergy in the system (Table 11.1). T h e coarsest Ipnaterials are m o ved b y h ig h -en erg y system s such as glacial ice, fast-m o vin g w ater as

jiriversin flo o d an d storm

waves a lo n g a beach , w in d in tornados and o th er cyclo n ic

ptorm s. T he finest grad es o f m aterials, silt and clay-sized particles, m ay be carried by -||wind a n d w a ter for great distances, from the centers o f continents to the deep oceans. ^ G rav ity can be the agent o f vertical transportation through characteristically short .distances in vo lvin g the settling o f particles in place, o r falling from a c liff o r cave roof. ^Gravity a ctin g alon e does n ot sort particles, affectin g all in discrim inately as G alileo

gists w h o need to k n o w ab ou t the tem p eratu re an d salin ity o f w ater bodies. Such

^dem onstrated at the L eanin g Tower. |and secon darily in the stru ctu re (bedding) o f sedim ents, because o f the close relajtionship betw een the energy in the system and its capacity for so rtin g the particles

g:- Transport m edia are reflected prim arily in the texture (particle size and sorting)

266

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S I S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

207

carried. In h igh-energy systems, in ad d ition to so rtin g there m ay also be sig n ifie d attrition o f particles during transport, furth er reducin g their size. T he m ill-l^ actio n o f glaciers, w hich can reduce ro ck to fine flour, is the extrem e example, but given enough tim e m edia such as p article-load ed w ater and w in d cari w ork similar transform ations. U nsorted and unstratified m ixtures o f coarse and fine particles may be difficu lt to interpret in term s o f transp ort m edia. T h e y are classed as diamicton unless there is som e additional evidence in dicatin g their origin as glacial till, landslid es, o r m udflow s - all in volvin g a sign ifican t co m p o n en t o f gravity. Although no m em bers o f this confusing class o f sedim ents are g o o d preservers o f archaeological sites, enough claim s have been m ade fo r sites in and un der such deposits that archae o logists need to be alerted to their characteristics and the potential confusions they b rin g (e.g., Shlem on and B udinger [1990]; see selected references in D incauze [1984]). A llu v iu m , sedim ent m oved b y and deposited from rivers, is characteristically grad ed, w hich m eans that the sedim ents deposited are sorted accordin g to the speed o f the water. Slow ing w ater drops coarse m aterials first. C oarse m aterials typically ini tiate a graded depositional sequence, the characteristic finin g upw ard signature of o verb an k floodw aters with finer m aterials tow ard the top. Such graded sequences m ay be repeatedly deposited as stratified sedim ents. A eolian deposits (sand particles in dun es and silts in loesses) are usually w ell sorted by w in d speed (Pye 1987; Pye and Tsoar 1990). D u ne sands m ay show the characteristic cross-bedded structure. B o th the topograph y and internal stru ctu re o f sed im en tary bodies provide evi dence o f the transport m edia that deposited them . Term inal m oraines, river terraces, and du n es n orm ally testily by their scale and form to deposition from ice, water, and w in d , respectively. T h e sorting and g rad in g that are typical o f variable speeds of tra n sp o rt b y w in d and water result in bed d ed (stratified) sedim ents, the individual beds o f w hich m ay be internally co m p lex, thus p ro vid in g a n u m b er o f analytical cri teria fo r discrim in ation o f the tran sp o rt m ed iu m (Fig. 11.1). A lign m en t o f particles w ith in a sedim ent bo d y is also indicative, b ein g best developed in
w a te r -la id

FEATURES Parallel bedding planes Horizontal

TYPE

Massive

Cross Non-parallel bedding planes

Cross-laminated Graded

Marker horizon (layer of ash)

Horizontally laminated Massive, with lens of gravel Deformed (folding, faulting, loading)

Undulating bedding plane

4 cm
2 0
.

figure 11.1

Terminology for stratification and bedding structures. The cross-bedding struc

ture forms as wind or water deposits sediments over ripples and down the farther slopes, with the ripples moving downstream. (After Waters 199;: Fig. 2.12.) understand the en viron m en ts o f the m aterials o r sites. In this section, w e address the environments o f deposition , related essentially to sedim ents themselves. For a rch a eo logical in terp retation s, depositional en viron m en ts are o n ly part o f the story, since w e ' also need to un derstan d th e environments o f incorporation - h o w the a rchaeological ^materials c a m e to be associated w ith the sedim ents a nd the environm ents o f burial. Those issues are developed in C h ap ter 12. M aterials m o bilized by ice, water, o r w ind are carried as long as the tran sp o rtin g agent m ain tain s sufficient en ergy to m ove them . D ep ositio n , therefore, represents a change o f en v iro n m en t for both the m aterials and the transporting m edium . T h is change is record ed, m ore o r less clearly, in the stru ctu re o f the deposit itself, w hether stratified, grad ed , sorted , o r not. Variation in physical characteristics w ith in sed i ment b o d ies, in e ith er the vertical o r horizon tal dim en sion , indicates variation in the

materi*

als w here elongated particles tend to align w ith the axis o f m ovem ent. Magnetic,, a lign m en ts are best developed
in

p articles settling from still water, as in deep lakes.

U n con solidated sedim ents m oved d o w n slo p e un der the force of grav ity (colluviation, so liflu ctio n , gelifluction ) are p o o rly stratified, if at all, blit m ay be roughly aligned.

D e p o s itio n a l e n v iro n m en ts W h en sedim en tary bodies enclose o r bracket archaeological m aterials,

in fe re n c e s -

m imediate en viro n m en ts o f deposition. Vertical differences reveal the stratification f a sed im en t m ass, expressing chan ge in tim e. H o rizo n tal differences in sed im en t bodies (fa d e s ) reveal e nvironm en tal differences in space.

m ade a b o u t the p aleoen viron m ental co n d itio n s at their deposition can be used to

S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

D e p o sitio n a l environm en ts are interp reted p rim a rily fro m structural evi<j

K. fiBidertaken w ith in fo rm ed ca u tio n (C la rk 1988; W ashburn 1980).- A ctive perigal environm ents are characterized by geliflu ction and subsurface disturbances ted to perm afrost, b y w in d e rosion and deposition, and b y seasonal fluvial action ^typically overloaded, braided stream s; all o f these have characteristic sedim ento
f s t r u c tures

seco n d arily from textural characteristics. Stru ctural evidence includes both sedT m e n ta ry structures and landform s. S ed im en to logical con cep ts im p ortan t here art b e d d in g , the vertical contrasts in sed im en t bodies th at defin e stratificati ' ' ~ on>W ; - ' l face, th e co n fo rm able con tact surface b etw een tw o d ifferen t beds; and unco:,J U m ity, an erosional surface betw een tw o beds. Particle surface textures that inf0 . a b o u t tra n sp o rt agents are also relevan t fo r depo sitio n al contexts, as are qualities o f sedim ents such as s o rtin g a n d grad ing. T h e d egree o f particle r m easu red as th e freq u en cy o f in terstitial air spaces in a deposit, can also b e infbntp; tive a b o u t sedim ent history. .. - ^ a j a

(C h o rle y et al. 1984; Siim m erfield 1991; W ashburn 1980). D ram atic

ndary sed im en ta ry structu res such as ice and san d w edges, soil in volutions, and Auction lobes (Fig. 11.2) m a y b e encountered b y archaeologists w orkin g far from ; Arctic. In terpretation o f such features requires the involvem ent o f experts w h o ^scrupulously evaluate th e ir relevance for any associated archaeological rem ains outside o f the A rctic, m ay p ostdate them b y large spans o f time. Strong p eriglacial w in d s that lift the finer grades o f sedim ent from exp osed ih and till dep o sits ca rry silt-sized m aterials far d ow nw ind from the periglacial onm ents them selves, to dep o sit them as loess in the co o l, usually dry, steppe fd grassland en viro n m en ts o f con tin en tal interiors. Loesses are typically m assive isits w ith stro n gly vertical stru ctu re and w ith bed d in g rare or only subtly devel ed. Because p o llen is un reliably preserved in calcareous loesses, terrestrial gastroconstitute the m ajor source o f in corp orated evidence about clim ate and ;etation. B u ried soils m ark d ep o sitio n al in terrup tion s and provide evidence fo r perature and p recip ita tio n cycles. Sequences o f buried soils in m id -co n tin en tal es have been show n to correlate w ell w ith the glaciaW n terglacial cycles ntified in deep -sea sedim en t cores (Kukla and A n 1989). f Temperate sed im en tary environm en ts, on the other hand, are dom in ated by

S ed im en tary structures (bed d in g, lenses) in corp orate evidence abou t the sca ; frequen cy, and rates o f depositional a n d erosion al events. T h e m a jo r determinant of sed im en ta ry accu m u latio n rates everyw h ere is clim ate: the scale and seasonal d b jp f b u tio n o f precipitation and the fre q u en cy o f storm s determ in e th e prevailing depositl l tio n a l agents, th e stability o f sed im en ta ry system s, a n d the frequen cy and amplitude' ? o f in terru p tio n s. For these reasons, sed im en ta ry landform s are em plo yed as climate

p ro xies. It is crucial to realize, how ever, th a t the stability o f a la n d fo rm o r sediment ^ b o d y is a fu n ctio n n ot o n ly o f th e stren gth s and frequen cy o f external perturbations b u t also o f the internal state and c o n d itio n o f the system . T h e internal characteristics " co n tro l response rates and the en ergy available for response to stim uli. Even when s p e rtu rb in g factors are sim ilar, responses in o n e system (e.g., a fluvial basin) maybedifferen t from those in other systems.

ifluvial erosion and depo sitio n b y perennial stream s (Table 11.2). Terrestrial fluvial Subaerial deposits Sedim en ts deposited in glacial and periglacial.en viron m ents d o m in ate m ajor por tio n s o f the n orthern hem isphere, b u t th eir direct relevance to a r c h a e o lo g ic a l sites is lim ited . O bvio u sly, no archaeological sites are co n tem p o rary w ith the deposition of till o r glacio flu vial (outw ash) deposits. Sites associated w ith such deposits are centu ries o r m ore older o r yo u n ger than the fo rm a tio n s them selves, a n d by their very exis ten ce reflect less extrem e e nvironm ents. Periglacial deposits, on the o th er han d, m ay be in tim ately involved w ith human settlem en t a nd activities, n o w as in the p ast, but they have never been e n v ir o n m e n ts co n d u civ e to large con cen tration s o f h u m an beings. M odern periglacial areas, where large-scale freeze-th aw processes are stu d ied , are m ainly far rem oved in time and space fro m the ice age p eriglacial en viro n m en ts occu p ied by P aleolithic commu nities in the O ld and N ew W orlds and are likely to be sign ifican tly different in the details o f th eir seasonality and tem p eratu re ranges. T herefore, p aleoclim atic and p aleo en viron m en ta l studies based o n p eriglacial characteristics in s e d im e n t s must deposits are ty p ica lly local in scale and therefore b o th highly sensitive to local c o n d i tions and variable in tim e and space. Unless disturbed, abundant vegetation in tem|perate en viron m en ts reduces the effectiveness o f erosional forces, m aintainin g relatively stable sed im en t bodies. W h en surfaces o r slopes are destabilized, either by "denudation o f vegetation o r by w ater saturation , sedim ents m ay m ove quickly, t forming co llu vial deposits o r alluvial fans, m akin g their particles available for * further fluvial transport. O th erw ise, period ic deposition on floodplains is the sedi

S * rmentary : en viro n m en t m ost typical o f tem perate zones. A rch aeological sites oriented
toward rivers and stream s m a y b e preserved w ithin o r u n d erflo od p la in deposits. The co m p lex ity characteristic o f fluvial d eposits challenges generalization. Responses to chan ged co n d itio n s v a ry a cco rd in g to th e state o f the system involved; they m ay b e co m p lex o r sim p le, m assive o r ve ry lim ited in area. A chan ge in either climate o r base level can evoke cyclical erosional and depositional responses in a

i stream netw ork, va ryin g in space and tim e (C h ap ter 9). Since archaeological scales o f
observation are essentially finer than geological scales, the co m p lexity o f fluvial

If

2/0

S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

j j 2 Flow words -following related words are based on -luv-, a root meaning flowing, derived from Latin fluere, %w p h eprefixes change the meaning in obvious ways. The adjectival form is given for regularity. luvial ~ fluvial: flowing in rivers, or pertaining to a river S s luvial
after thawing
frost crack stones sliding from domed centre to marginal furrow

alluvial: of sediments deposited by rivers (flowed to) colluvial: o f sediments sliding down hill, usually lubricated by water (hill flow) eluvial: o f solutes and fines removed by water in suspension or solution. The A r or E zone o f a soil (flowed out) lluvial: o f solutes and fines precipitated or deposited by groundwater in the B zone o f a soil (flowed in) pluvial: o f abundant rain; a rainy season or period

luvial luvial luvial luvial

large erosion al and depositional events, as w ell as to large-scale aeolian activity

J or pocket downward injection inclined ice

- g and d ep o sitin g sedim ents. A rid subtropical fluvial sedim ents are typically "rly sorted, as in alluvial fans and gravel spreads on pedim ents and in arroyos pter 9). F in e-grain ed sedim ents at the dow nstream limits o f fans and arroyos 'de m aterial to w inds, that carry aw ay sands, silts, and dust. W in ds rem ovin g and silts leave behind lag deposits fo rm in g gravelly desert pavem ents, emeral sh allow bodies o f water dissolve salts and carbonates from the dust sited in them and, on dryin g, leave m ineral-rich crusts on the surface o f playas lake beds). -Jn rainy tro p ical environm en ts, dense vegetation stabilizes slopes and retards sion o f sedim en ts. In such clim ates, chem ical w eathering dom inates and chem ierosion and elu viation o f the finest sedim en tary particles are characteristic.'

Figure 11.2

Schematic of the formation and form o f selected periglacial sedimentological

nsequently, slopes and elevated surfaces are deeply m antled w ith residual regolEpisodically, the loose material becom es unstable, usually w hen saturated, and nps or slides d o w n slo p e w here it becom es accessible to m obilization by rivers, pical rivers ca rry m ainly clay-sized particles in suspension and colloids and ions P solution. Broad tlood plains are seasonally inundated and typically sw am py ifetween floods. A rch aeological sites in the tropics tend to be situated on the m ore tfable, raised lan d fo rm s, but they are subject to burial under colluvium and dense,

features: ice wedges, sorted polygons, and involutions. The ice wedges contribute the polygonal cracking patterns that may result in polygons. In volutions sliding downslope complicate solifluction structures. Note that, to the unwary, each structure can resemble archaeological features such as postholes, hearth circles, and stratigraphy. (AfterCatt 1988: Figs. 2.49,2.51, a n d 2.52.)

systems c a n seriously m islead arch aeolo gical efforts at un d erstan d in g o f deposition and the triggers o f chan ge.. E xtrapolation from

e n v iro n m e n ts

r -rich allu vium . %D eposits in caves and rockshelters vary w ith the sp ecific co n d itio n s and cli tes o f th eir h ost lan dform s. Strin gen tly localized , sp eleological deposits are ^vertheless an esp ecially diverse group . T h e op en fronts o f caves and c liff shelters ive p articu lates from ru n n in g w ater that p o n d s inside and from w in d s that are kd there. A llu via l and aeolian sedim en ts create a m ixed record o f very local

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l-s c a le

observations o f fluvial deposits to regio n al processes is not recom m ended. Sedim ents in subtropical arid en v iro n m en ts reflect the special processes and landform s o f those areas. Precipitation is stro n g ly seasonal and episodic; vegetation cover is co n sequen tly sparse. T h e se circu m stan ces are co n d u civ e to episodic floods

S E D I M E N T S A N D S OI LS

BASIC P S ! N r ii'LES

sequ en ces o f c h a n g in g d e p o sitio n al e n v iro n m en ts related to extern al c o n d itio n C aves and shelters fo rm b y the loss o f ro ck m ass fro m cliffs a n d ro o fs; their f]00r5 -accu m u late ro c k sh a tter (clasts) a n d fin er p articles fro m th o se so u rces. o f shattered r o c k is e p iso d ic, p a rtly reflectin g c y clic e xtre m e s o f

e r tis e ,

b u t the p rin cip les fo r th eir stu d y are n ovel o n ly in scale. T h e flo o rs o f

jjg o o n s, estuaries, and coastal p o n d s are m ixtures o f alluvial, organic, and m arine

Deposition atmospheric temperature, o r m o istu re , p a r tly re sp o n d in g to co n d itio n s o n th e su rface o f the rock m ass itself. F o r a lo n g tim e th e degrees o f so rtin g an d o f a n g u la r ity o f rock waste in lim e sto n e caves w a s in terp reted a s d irect p ro x ie s o f clim a tes, especially of

Isjirrent deposits, reflectin g the e n ergy levels o f the local aquatic systems. O ffshore, Sjnundated terrestrial a n d coastal lan d fo rm s m ay com plicate matters at the landw ard Idge o f co n tin en tal shelves. P ostglacial m arine transgression oyer the shelves typijfy planed o f f preexistin g sed im en tary landform s and deposited a broad sand sheet t h e su rf zo n e m o ved lan d w ard (B elkn ap and K raft 1981).

g la cia l-in te rg la cia l cycles. T h e h isto ry o f such d e p o sits is n o w re co g n ize d as being

surficial areas called sp eleo th e m s (stalactites, stalagm ites, a n d travertin e), w h ic h c o n tr ib u te essentially to th e sp ecial stran gen ess o f these in te rio r spaces as w e ll as to th e preservation of
far m o re co m p le x (B u tz e r 1981b; Straus 1990). L im esto n e caves, th e o f u n d e rg ro u n d d rain ag e system s, are ch a ra cterized b y c a rb o n a te dep o sits diverse m aterials d e p o sited o n the flo o rs and su b seq u en tly sea led u n d e r crystal-lize d crusts. B ecau se th e y lie u n d ern ea th a stretch o f su rfa ce, caves a n d shelters m a y also receive g ro u n d w a te r fro m crack s o r o p en in g s in th e ir

Organic inclusions w Plant and a n im a l rem ains in clu d ed in sedim ents are a m o n g the richest e viden ce for ^ p o sition al e n v iro n m en ts p ro v id ed th e y are in terpreted w ith care and in form ed
im a g in a t io n . In clu sio n s can ran ge in size from the bo n es o f whales o r m a m m o th s to

grains o f p o llen . N o t all o rg an ic m aterials relate to depositional environm en ts. T h e bulk o f the in clu sio n s m a y d erive fro m anim als and plants livin g in o r on the se d i ments subsequ en t to d e p o sitio n (rem n an t), w h ile others m ay be elem ents o f co m ^ munities that w ere carried alon g w ith the sedim ents, finally com in g to rest far from their native habitats (red ep osited ). T h e distin ction is, o f course, crucial to the inters pretation o f en viro n m en ts relevan t to an y archaeological m aterials in volved, w h ich

roofs

and back

w alls. W ater co m in g th u s fro m o u tsid e m ay e ith er ero d e o r d e p o s it sedim ent on the flo ors o f enclosures.

Subaqueous deposits

_______ -

^ m u s t them selves be evaluated fo r their status as rem n an t o r redeposited m aterials.

, Lake an d p o n d deposits con stitute special classes o f o rg a n ic sedim en ts. T h e ir impor tance in p aleo en viron m en tal recon struction (see B e rglu n d 1986) gives them a role far in excess o f th eir fre q u en cy on th e face o f the Earth. B ein g su b aq u eo u s, lake and p o n d sedim ents d o n o t fo rm soils an d do n o t su p p o rt a rch aeolo g ical sites, although they m a y in co rp o rate archaeological m aterials. T h e ir im p o rtan ce to archaeologists lies in their ce n tra lity for p aleo en viron m en tal and p alep clim atic reco n stru ctio n s uti lizin g th e o rgan ic p articles such as pollen , diatom s, and m acrofossils in cluded in them . Ponds an d lakes o f tem p erate zon es collect h eavily b io g e n ic sedim ents in typical postglacial sequ en ces ru n n in g up w ard from a b io tic clay to g y ttja ( a lg a l- r ic h o rg an ic detrital m u d ) and/or m ud, and fin ally peat, as the w a te r b o d y is filled b y sed im ents and plants. In basins so deep that they lack oxygen at th e base o f the water co lu m n , and thus d o n o t su p p o rt life in their depths, sedim ents m a y s h o w strongly seasonal variation in textu re o r color, fo rm in g sequences o f an n u al dep o sits ( v a r v e s o r rh yth m ites) that m a y b e co u n ted like tree rings (C h ap ter 5). Large deep lakes in tecto n ically active areas are p rized fo r their thick, stratified, clim a tically inform ative sed im en t bo dies. S h allo w salin e lakes in a r id lands fo rm less diverse paleoclim atic records, and h ave less arch aeolo gical relevance. N ear-shore m arin e sedim en ts are o f interest to archaeologists as the location s o f in u n d ated terrestrial landscapes o r as p latform s for shipw recks. T h e y m erit special

2 Remnant (a u to ch th o n o u s) fossils are p roblem atic as to their tim e o f in tro d u ctio n

into a b o d y o f sedim en t, b e lo n g in g n o rm a lly to tim es follow in g the subaerial d ep o sitiona) event itself. T h e ir e n v iro n m en tal signals m ust be evaluated for their ch ro n ological relation sh ips to the depo sitio n al event and to the archaeological events under investigation. N a tu ra lly redeposited (a llo ch th o n o u s) m aterials b e lo n g to earlier tim es a n d distan t space in relation to a ny deposit that contains them . A s e le m ents o f sed im en ta ry history, they represent environm en tal co n d itio n s at their source. T h e y m ay, con sequently, eith er co m p lem en t o r con trad ict the a u to ch th o n ous evidence. H o w m u ch tim e and space separates them from the deposit itself is to be determ in ed in each case; it is never irrelevant to interpretation o f the deposit. O rganic m aterials in tro d u ced to a d eposit by p eop le m ay be exceptions to both these relational rules. Bogs, fens, m arshes, and sw am ps, as depositional environm ents, are in term ediate between subaerial and su baqu eo u s environm en ts - m ore am bigu o u s even than fluvial deposits. A globally- useful ty p o lo g y o f w etlands is provided by Retallack (1990:213-214). W etlands attract peop le, n ot as co m fo rtab le places to be, but because o f their rich b io tic resources. A rch aeolo g ical sites were rarely form ed o n such s u r faces; m ore often they are un dern eath them , having been incorporated by w etlands exp andin g b eyo n d their m argins. O ccasio n ally sites were built above them , as in the

27 4

SED IM ENTS A ND SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

cases o f trackw ays, refuge villages, and ritual sites, fam o u s fo r their degree o f 0 preservation. Because the sedim en ts enclosing such m aterials are composed*35*" d o m in an tly o f vegetation, th e y are d iscussed in P art V I.

isample sizes depends on the research questions to be addressed and therefore the SCjs o f analyses that are an ticip ated (C att and W eir 1976; C o u rty et al. 1989; Stein
S a m p lin g

o f inaccessible sedim ents by corin g presents a special range o f tech-

K jp ro b le m s a nd challenges. S edim en t sam pling and analysis is distinct fro m sam F ield m th o d s ' ' |g fo r p articu lar kinds o f archaeological data; it should be pursued b y lith o lo gica l iods (e.g., A a b y and D ig rfeld t 1986; G ale and H oare 1991; R eineck an d Singh O b se rv atio n o f sedim en ts in th e field depend s u p o n v isu a l access, w h ich is aciuevW-' b y seekin g o u t n atural exp o su res o f subsurface m aterials (scarps, eroded surfacgp l b y creating exposures (u su ally vertica l) excavated fo r the p u rp o se, o r by u ^ g li special equ ip m en t to pull cores fro m beneath a su rface th a t is n o t m ore direclfrv accessible. For geo lo gical a n d a rch aeolo g ical in vestigation s, the vertical exposur e ^ sectio n o r p rofile, is p referred sin c e it m in im ize s d isto rtio n and provides good tw o -d im en sio n a l access. T h e la rger th e exp osure, the b e tte r the" investigatory observe spatial variatio n in th e sed im en t body. .. .. ^ Stein 1987)S'
L Lithostratigraphy -~

stratigraphic sectio n , in terru p tio n s in texture, structure, o r m in eralo gy o f the je n t co lu m n are the criteria for defining sedim entary b ed d in g units,

mparisons w ith sed im en tary sequences beyon d the im m ediate lo ca lity are *d by reference to a fo rm a lly defined hierarchy o f lithostratigraph ic units, ^stratigraphic units ( form ation s, mem bers, and beds" in"declining o rder o f j) are defin ed and described at type localities that are standards for co m p arison formal n am in g. T h e local scale o f archaeological sites places them m ost directly m em ber o r b e d o f a regional lithostratigrphical sequence. Deposits at archaeojical sites o f H o lo cen e age are rarely classified into form al lithostratigraphic units, being m erely im plied b y the surficial deposits involved (e.g., allu viu m , loess), ^assignment o f older sites to their correct lithostratigraphic m em ber o r form acan be a difficult endeavor but rew arding for chronological clarity (e.g., the tolil case stu d y). H ence, archaeologists should be aware o f the form alities o f ostratigraphic classification. A lth o u gh not needed everyday, the rules o f strati p phic n om en clatu re and classification are im portan t for com parison and correla> n o f deposits at regional and larger scales. T h e intricacies o f the form al system ire well defined and accessible to non-experts in sources such as A ger (1993), Catt .1986: C h . 4), Farrand (1984), Stein (1987), and Waters (1991: 60-88). T h e official iternational standards and n om enclature are set o u t in the p eriod ically revised 'orts o f the N orth A m erican C om m ission on Stratigraphic N o m en clature 1983). i p f Lithostratigraphic analysis and interpretation require scrupulous distinction Wjietween description and interpretation o f observed phenom ena (Stein 1990; see also lin k e r !993J. In the field, descrip tion should be as precise and in terp retation -neutral IP p o s s ib le . Such care will keep the d escription useful as interpretive hyp oth eses are Subsequently tested against analytical data. W hen interpretation is kept separate Jrom descrip tion , m ultiple analytical techniques and their different kin d s o f data can

Particles that com p rise a sed im en t m ay vary in c o m p o sitio n , size, shape.orient; tio n , sorting, grading, p ack in g, and cem en tation. In co m b in a tio n , these characte tics create the texture and stru ctu re o f the sedim en t. T exture is defined by co m b in ed attributes o f p article size, shape, and so rtin g , w h ich togeth er determin w hether a sedim ent is fine o r coarse grain ed, h o m o g e n e o u s o r heterogeneous Structure, on the other hand, is the result o f the m an n er o f tran sp o rt and deposition _ o f the particles co n stitu tin g a sed im en t and its stra tifica tion , and m ay also reflect 1 subsequent tran sform ation processes. M aterials d ep o sited from w ind, moving^ water, still water, ice, o r o th er agents v a r y in characteristic arran gem en ts o f partides 4 w ith in the sedim ent in their o rie n ta tio n , p acking, and size grad in g . Postdepositional 3 disturbance o f sedim ents b y ice, p lan ts, o r anim als w ill be recorded in structural 5? attributes. Structural and stratigraph ic o bservation s in the field a r e essential precon- 7 d itio n s to adequate sam pling, since sam ples m ust be o b tain ed from each discrete stratigraph ic unit. 4

D escrip tion o fse d im e n ts in th efield m ust be un dertaken w ith a w a r e n e s s that sed im ents are both m atrix and co n text. T h erefo re, descrip tio n o f observed materials and structures should be acco m pan ied b y active q u estio n in g an d hypothesis formulation, to collect data for alternative in terpretation s. O n ce the n u m b er and boundar ies o f lithostratigraph ic units in a stu d y section have been defin ed , each unit m ayb e sam pled. Sam pling lo catio n s sh o u ld be selected to represen t the full
d iv e rs ity o f

the

sedim ents, and each sam ple sh o u ld n o rm a lly in clude m aterial from o n l y one unit. If the full diversity cann ot be sam pled a lo n g a single transect, addition al s a m p le location s should be selected as co m p lem e n ts (Fig. 5.2). S ed im en tary samples from exposures m ay be taken in bags, tubes, o r sam plin g boxes; the ch o ice o f con tain er j

j|ftore effectively be brou ght to bear on problem s. O n ly the sim plest o f historical estions is likely to be answ ered definitively b y a single analytical tech n iqu e. T h e

76

S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

d istin ctio n betw een field d escrip tio n and in terp retatio n is cle a rly dem onstrated in F igu re 11.3, a d ia gram fro m a co m p lex E nglish site o f M id d le P le isto ce n e age. 1 0 L a b o r a to r y m e th o d s fo r d e te rm in in g c o m p o s it io n a n d s tr u c tu r e T h e re is n o id eal o r requ ired list o f la b o ra to ry analyses th a t c a n b e me.
.
03 > CO

o a > o c :
tO
d

~0

03

C -O CD O a }c
E
o d

i_ *-

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C Oc
o
03

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in vo ked to satisfy the dem an ds o f a scien tific app roach . T h e m e th o d s select th e results o b ta in ed sh o u ld have direct relevance fo r research q u e stio n s, es] th o se th at arise d u rin g field e xa m in atio n o f sedim ents. N o an a ly sis c a n b e any th a n th e q a lity an d appropriateness o f the sam ples available a n d th e re se a rch q u lp tio n s asked. A rch aeo lo g ists m ust, therefore, ensure that th e re is e ffe ctiv e communi- ^ ca tio n and co o rd in a tio n betw een person n el in the field a n d i n th e . laboral th e b est situ atio n is for sed im en to lo gical con su ltan ts to b e in v o lv e d in b oth p. (R app 1975). T h e p hysical and chem ical p rop erties o f sedim en ts an d p a r tic le s are info] a b o u t the sources and tran sp o rt m edia o f particles and the d e p o sitio n a l.e n v ir m ents and subsequ en t histories o f the sedim ents. T h e m e th o d s c ite d here are; illustrative p u rp o ses only; th e y are d efin itely n o t exh austive. A n y o n e p lan nin g to Z 5." u n dertake o r to u tilize such analyses sh o u ld o b tain th e n ece ssa ry in form ation in stru ctio n fro m qualified practition ers. T h ere is a w ide ran ge o f ch o ice ami m eth ods, even fo r a p articu lar class o f in fo rm atio n ; the ch o ice w ill v a r y w ith ^ in form ation required, the n ature o f the sam ple, the re so lu tio n d e sired , and the7" e qu ip m en t available (H o llid ay and Stein 1989). A p p lica tio n s o f these m e th o d s will referenced in discussions that fo llo w in this and later chaptrs. F u ller discussiorLof these m eth o d s a n d their lim itation s, and references to the p rim a ry literatu re, maybe fo u n d in G ale an d H oare (1991). ..... . ~o c 03 C D
CO

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classification, lithostratigraphic description, with the field

Lodge,

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chem ical and m in eralo gical techniques, startin g w ith sim p le ch e m ica l tests for a key elem ent. T h e ch o ice a m o n g m in eralogical techniques, such as e x a m in a tio n o f thin section s u n d e r p o la rized light, ato m ic absorption sp ectro m etry, e le ctro n microprobe, X -ra y fluorescen ce, and X -ray d iffraction , w ill d e p e n d o n w h eth e r heavy m inerals o r clay m in erals ar involved, and w h eth er in fo rm atio n on m in era l concen tration s is needed. A nalysis o f the o rg an ic con ten t o f sedim en ts is tra d itio n a lly done by co m b u stio n an d rew eigh ing, but w et m eth o d s m a y be b etter ch o ice s in some instances (e.g., L ow e and W alker 1984: 93; W aters 1992: Ch. 2). Q u a n tita tiv e descrip tion o f sedim ents in term s o f p article size (g ra n u lo m e try ), im p o rta n t fo r a variety of in terpretive issues, is d o n e by d ry o r w et sievin g, hydrom eter, p ip ette, sedim entation co lu m n (G ale and H oare 1991; G o u d ie 1981: Pt. 3), o r one o f the n e w e r electronic . g. ^

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Se d im en tary particles an d cem en tin g m inerals ca n be id e n tified b y a variety of

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al. 1992: Fig. 3.1, with permission; original caption, the Trustees of the

2 /8

SED IMENTS AND SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

Table 11.'3 Particle size classes: the W entworth scale and phi
Wentworth scale Boulder Cobble Pebble Granule Very coarse sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Coarse silt Medium silt Fine silt Very fine silt Clay Colloid phi (< f> ) units

(< f> )

units
mm equivalents ~~

sam ples o f sedim en ts retain the fragile three-dim ensional relationships -g the m in eral, air, an d w ater contents o f a sedim ent. M easurem ents o f mass, 'ty, porosity, and m o isture con ten t, quickly and reliably achieved, m ay refine O p tio n an d in terp retation o f the sedim ent. Analyses o f the fabric o f a seditinvolve m easurem en ts o f the preferred orientation and dip o f m ajor p article and o f the p ro p o rtio n an d distribution o f air spaces (packing ) a m o n g the iles. O rie n ta tio n studies, tra d itio n a lly im p o rtan t in the analysis o f glacial ~~ts, are also relevan t to th e stu d y o f alluvial m aterial, in w hich con text these -es m ay have archaeological applications. W idely applicable in sed im en to lo gy
,2

8.0 and larger 6 .Qto 8,0 - 2.0 t o - 6.0 - 1.0 t o - 2.0 0.0 t o - 1.0 1.0 to 0.0 2 .0 to 1.0 3.0 to 2.0 4.0 to 3.0 5.0 to 4.0 6.0 to 5.0 7.0 to 6.0 8.0 to 7.0 8.0 to 12.0

> 256.0, 64.0 t 256.0 5 3 | 4.0 to 64.0 2.0 to 4.0

1.0 to 2.0

.0.5 to 1.0 0.25 to 0.5 0.125 to 0.25 0.0625 to 0 .175 ;g g 0.0312 toO.Q625j3 0.0156 to O.OiUzr 0.0078 to0.015 0.0039 to 0.007g ~ 0.00024 to 0.0039

un derutilized in arch aeology, is X -rad io grap h y (Butler 1992). R adiographs tte even sm all structures in aqueous and aeolian deposits, such as ripples that te the d irectio n an d ve lo city o f the transporting water or w ind, as w ell as a r o f in clusions. -Thin sectio n s o f im pregnated sedim ents studied un der ication reveal fine details o f structure and content not otherw ise visible Jlock et al. 1985; C a tt 1986:180-181; C o u r ty et al. 1989).

P E D O G E N E S IS A N D D IA G E N E S IS

Atore:The W entworth scale is quantified in m m units (3rd colum n); the categories granule to cobble are isubdivisions o f gravel. The phi scale is logarithm ic, based on 0 = I mm. The conversion is logjof the -_diam eter in mm; the advantage i-S that the scale is then based on whole num bers. Negative numbers repre sent particle classes larger than coarse sand; positive num bers represent the progressively finer categories. Sources: Adapted from Lincoln fetal. 1982, Lowe and Walker 1984, and Waters 1992.

. Soil is never truly in equilibrium with its environment although we often assume an "equilibrium state in order to develop an understanding of processes.
w ild

19 9 3 : 90

ehave seen that rocks at the ju n ctio n o f geosphere and atm osphere are m odified by .cathering. Sim ilar chem ical and physical changes m odify sedim ents after deposisensing devices e m p lo yin g laser beam s. P article size defin ition can b e accomplished by direct m easurem ent o r by reticules used w ith m icroscopes, except for the small size ranges (Table u.3). T h e analysis o f particle shape is m ore p ro b lem atic than that o f size, since methods for rapid and Objective determ in ation o f shape classes are still being developed. In cases w here particle shape is a critical elem ent for interpretation o f sediments (u ncom m on in archaeology), it is best to con su lt som eon e w orkin g actively on this subject. T h e surface textures o f sed im en tary particles them selves contain useful inform ation about the transport and depositional environm ents o f particles. Viewed under high m agnification in a scan n in g electron m icroscope (SHiVl), q u artz grains, especially, display a wide range o f surface textures and m ic r o to p o g r a p h y developed in different environm ents (K rinsley a nd D o o rn k a m p 1973). W hile the interpretation of these form s is less than direct and o b v io u s (B ro w n 1973), th ere a re o c c a s io n s when this m ethod in the hands o f an experienced researcher can distinguish between otherwise am biguous possibilities: e.g., the d istin ctio n betw een beach and dun e sands. N atu ral tra n s fo rm a tio n n ea r the su rfa ce edogenesis is a co n tin u o u s, reversible, and interactive process. It w orks progressively om the surface dow n into un derlying sedim ents. O rgan ic m atter collectin g on the rface releases acid co m p o u n d s that, carried dow n in water, begin the chem ical ;n, during p eriod s o f relative stability. G roun dw ater acidified by carbon dioxide dissolves and redeposits sa lts and oxides to b e g in the lo n g process o f diagenesis toning sedim ents in to rock. P hysical ch u rn in g and chem ical changes in duced by lnt and a n im a l life on and in deposits, aided b y m oisture and tem perature changes, gin almost im m ed iately to form soils, a process called pedogenesis. H um ans, also, lltevebeen active agents in soil fo rm ation and degradation for a very lo n g tim e. T h e
iJrSverriding d ifferen ce betw een diagenesis and pedogenesis is that the latter process is

dependent u p o n livin g organism s; o rgan ic m atter and biological a ctiv ity are essen tial to the tran sform ation o f m ineral deposits into soil.

S E D IM E N T S A N D SO ILS

tran sfo rm atio n o f m ineral m atter throu gh differential leaching and de C lassic d efin itions o f pedogenesis reco gn ize five so il-fo rm in g factors (J e n n y i^ ,^ clim ate bio ta to p o g ra p h y p aren t m aterial tim e. W ith in each facto r m an y different processes react w ith sedim ents to produeesojjpl th a t v a r y stro n g ly b u t system atically in space an d tim e (B rad y 1990; C att i Johnson et al. 1990). Because the five facto rs ca n n o t b e quantified , re n o t inde den t, m a y v a r y th rou gh tim e, an d o p erate at differen t scales, soils scientists^ ra th er em barrassed b y them (B irkelan d 1984:162-168). H ow ever, th ey com prist-p! usefu l m n em o n ic fo r the m ajor co n trib u to rs to pedogen esis and the environmental co n stituen ts that m a y be studied th ro u gh soils. T h e clim ate o f any p articu lar p lace is a p ro d u c t in itia lly o f the m oisture and tem perature ranges defined by a tm o sp h e ric circu latio n in teracting w ith the elevation*: slope, a nd asp ect o f lan dform s (Fig. 11.4). Extrem e clim a tic co m p o n en ts interrupt or_ delay p edogen esis. For exam ple, w et sedim en ts slide d o w n slo p e, interrupting pedo genesis. Sedim en ts b elo w the w ater table resist the n orm al o x id izin g reactions that ty p ify active soils. Perm an en tly frozen sedim en ts do n o t form soils, although they develop characteristic structural features that record environm ental conditions (W ashbu rn 1980). V ery arid clim ates delay soil d evelop m en t and produce typical desert soil characteristics, such as subsurface ca rb o n ate concentrations. In temper ate clim ates, on level to m o d erately slo p in g g ro u n d , vegetation stron gly influences bo th tem p eratu re and m oisture at the g ro u n d surface. H igh tem peratures in the tropics accelerate o xidation and leachin g, cau sin g soils to m atu re rapidly. B iota in life an d death co n trib u te the essential o rg a n ic m atter from w hich pedo- gen ic ch em ica ls are derived. T h e p hysical c h u rn in g o f sedim en ts and soils caused b y an im als a n d p lan ts is co llectiv ely term ed b io tu rb a tio n (d istu rban ce by living th in gs). T h e soil is clickin g, tu rn in g , a n d ch a n g in g w ith the energies o f a fantastic va rie ty o f o ccu p a n ts ( J. Hay 1981:38). B acteria, a nd a n im a ls o n a scale from minute m o llu sks th ro u g h ants, earth w o rm s, and larvae to in sectivores, rodents, and lagom o rp h s (rabbits, hares), live w ith in o r a ctu a lly d e riv e their fo od from the soflS o m e p re y u p o n each other, en tirely u n d e rg ro u n d . In th e co u rse o f th e ir daily rou tines, so m e o f these an im als d isp lace o r d igest sig n ifica n t m asses o f sedim en t, so m e o f w h ich is then redeposited o n th e su rface. P lants, w h ich w e tend to think o f a5 static creatu res, d isru p t th e soil that su p p o rts and n ou rish es them as they expandm ' >

-o c n~

C O

o MV 3 E S
Q_ C /3

o !h = 10 2
Q_ GO

< co

Diagrammatic transect through North America from southwest to northeast, showing pedogenesis varying with vegetation Figure , M

j= o

O co

ai m to g
Q
00

and dimate. (After Hunt 1974; Fg- 6 6 .)

282

S E D IM E N T S AND SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

283'

size a n d in crease in n u m b ers, p ry in g a p a rt th e sed im en ts to m ake space for their roots! W h en ro o ts d ie a n d ro t, sed im en t d rop s in to the h o llo w spaces left. Trees, w h e n m a tu re .or aged, m a y be to p p led b y storm s o r th e ir o w n failin g strength; root m asses tear o u t sedim en t w h ic h then g ra d u a lly falls b a ck , d estroyin g the origina] stru ctu re. ' ___ -_ js

Jable 11 -4

Soil horizon nom enclature0

I f {aster horizons recorded in field studies

| p horizon (.horizon

Organic material accumulated on the surface. : Humified organic m atter mixed with mineral substrate near surface; typically dark-colored. Light-colored mineral horizon from which oxides, days, and organic matter have been chemically leached (eluviationzone). Mineral horizon underlying O, A, or E horizon with little evidence of original sediment structure. May be zone o f accumulation (illuviation) o f sesquioxides, carbonates, and/or clays. Typically red in color. Subsurface horizon impregnated with carbonate so that carbonate dominates the structure. Typical o f soils in arid climates. Parent material o f the soil, only minimally transformed by pedogenesis, underlying A and B horizons. May show some evidence of weathering. Hard bedrock.

T o p o g ra p h y s influence o n soil fo rm a tion derives fro m the effects o f slope, relief levation, and aspect. A n y slo p e at all p erm its m o vem en t o f unconsolidated materi- als to lo w e r elevations. T h e steeper th e slope, th e th in n e r is soil likely to

be because of

the sh o rter residence tim e o f particles in an y one place. E levation and aspect in flu en ce m icroclim ate, a n d thus the b io lo g ica l a ctiv ity in sedim ents. Even slopes o n th e sam e parent m aterial w ill su p p o rt soil differences directio n faced an d solar energy received.

adjacent according to the'

--

Parent m aterial is sim p ly the o rig in a l deposit o f sedim en t, w hich determines::: som e o f the so ils potential fo r d evelo p m en t in term s o f chem istry, grain sizes, com p actio n o r p erm eability, an d o th e r characteristics that set param eters fo r interac tions w ith groun dw ater an d air. O ve r tim e, so il-fo rm in g processes w ill m odify all such characteristics b y the cu m u lative effects o f ch em ical action and physical churn ing (W ild in g et al. 1983). D espite the diversity o f factors and co m p o n en ts, so m e basic processes character- 4 ize all soil developm ent. R ainw ater is acid ified by ca rb o n ic acid and h u m ic acid, the latter from the deco m po sitio n o f o rg an ic m atter. A cid ic w ater leaches salts, oxides, and clays from th e u pper range o f sed im en t, the elu via l zon e, and carries the solutes and fine particles deeper into the sed im en t co lu m n w here they m ay be deposited in the llu v ia l zo n e (Table 11.2). T h e su b tra ctio n o f fin e m aterials from the top and their deposition b e lo w create soil h o rizo n s w ith in the sed im en t body: contrastive zones parallel to the surface. In vertical sectio n , such bands con stitute a soil profile (Table 11.4; Fig. 11.5). T h e color, texture, and p ro p erties o f successive zones are changed by the p ed o g en ic processes acting in place, progressively deep er w ith time. Soil h o rizo n s are form ed b y chan ge in situ, subsequ en t to the deposition o f sedi m ent. T h e y are n o t lithostratigraph ic un its, not layers, beds, o r strata. In fact, the co lo r and textural changes o f h o rizo n atio n even tu ally destroy original stratification by h o m o g en iza tion and chem ical m o d ificatio n . T h erefo re, soil h o r i z o n s are not stratigraphic markers. A lth o u gh they are o cca sio n a lly so used in archaeological w ork, such usage seriously distorts the co n cep t o f stratification and m ay any clear un derstan din g o f depositional events at a site. A ll the soil factors p lay out their roles, h a rm o n io u sly o r com petitively, as long as a sedim en t b o d y rem ains in place. T h e relative in flu en ce o f any factor varies with con ditions, an d the others adjust in turn. Soils a re ecosystem s; pedogenesis is nothing if
fie ld

Note'" Soils nom enclature, even for horizons, is m ore detailed than this, and varies geographically. Source: Adapted and simplified from Birkeland (1984:7), which see for details.

fnot dynam ic. O v e r tim e, b arrin g interference, a soil develops from rawness to a pm aturity,that su p p o rts a richly diverse biota w ithin and above the soil. Soils are con sidered im m ature o r m ature, accordin g to the extent to w hich they 'i$L inhibit o r p erm it the full clim atic potential o f vegetation. However, m atu rity is not xtasis; soils co n tin u e to change until they are destroyed. Pedogenesis is reversible, usually by burial o r clim ate change, but soils can also be exhausted by vegetation ;J demands. Eventually, the natural perm eability o f any soil is com p rom ised by I# increasing clay co n cen tratio n , co m p actio n at depth, o r developm ent o f ca rb o n aceous o r m ineral hardpans, depen d in g 011 the type o f soil. The am o u n t o f tim e required for such degradation varies w ith everyth in g that influences pedogenesis, j and so cann ot be predicted closely ( Johnson et al. 1990). Birkeland (1984: 204-220) suggests that an o rgan ic A h o rizo n develops to a steady state w ithin a cen tu ry o r so, whereas a B h o rizo n takes thousands o f years. Local factors w ill override these gen er alities, and it is w orth n otin g that soils utilized for farm in g or grazin g do not have natural histories. O ld u n bu ried soils, called relict soils, co n tin u e to evolve and g,- change as lo n g as they rem ain at the surface; their histories are p artly recorded in I" their chem ical and physical co m p osition s. T he B h o rizo n s o f soils are the m ost d yn am ic areas in profiles. Soils taxon om ies I offer a large set o f labels for different kinds o f B h o rizo n s (e.g., H o llid ay 1990), the

p r e c lu d e

S ED IM ENTS AND SOILS BA S IC 'P R IN C IP L E S

Typical acid profile of humid region

3

eking o f su n -d ried m udflats is a fam iliar sm all-scale exam ple o f such activity.

i>nate con cen tration s in soils range from fine thread-like features to m assive, ot-like seco n d ary deposits called caliche. D iscussions o f B horizon s p articu |!ijsefu l for archaeologists are fo u n d in the volum e by Retallack (1990:264-276).

[ C u ltu ra l t ra n s fo rm a tio n s o f soils 1 activities stro n gly in flu en ce soil d evelopm ent by disturbing superficial sed i s a n d b y ch an gin g their chem ical com p osition . H um ans are m ajor bio tu rb ato rs

sand agents o f d eposition. T h e ir dom in an ce today relates to sheer n u m b ers as s to the efficacy o f their to o ls fo r digging, transporting, and depositing (Schiffer ). Plow zon es are such ubiquitous p henom ena that they have a soil h o rizo n desiion o f th eir o w n (A p). In the U S soil taxonom y, surficial horizons ch em ically bed b y h u m an wastes and fo o d debris have been given a special taxon: iropic ep ip ed o n . E p ip ed o n is the technical nam e for horizons near the surface A ,E ,B ); the m ean in g o f an th ro p ic sh ould be self-evident. A rchaeologists speak ganthrosols, b u t this term has n o t established itself in soil science. It is o n ly a iter o f tim e befo re it m ust be recogn ized as another class o f azonal soils (C h ap ter lA n throsols are characterized by physical disturbance, high organic con ten t, and S p o sp h ate e n rich m en t typically d u e to high concentrations o f anim al wastes (Eidt 5). Exotic sed im en tary particles (e.g., artifacts) are diagnostic o f anthrosols o n ly g|icom pany w ith chem ical and structural changes. ^Analysis o f an cien t agricu ltu ral soils is a developing m ethodology. C h em ica l |||nialyses and m icro m o rp h o lo gica l (thin -section ) m ethods have been m ost success: Soluble constituents lost
Soil horizons under tw o different clim atic regim es. (After H u n t 1974: Fig. 6.4.)

lin identifyin g the changes in soil ch em istry and structure attendant upon longi p low in g, fertilizatio n , and irrigation (A rtzy and Hillel 1988; G ro en m an -van pfeateringe and R obin son 1988; San d o r 1992). Less attention has been paid to h oe ;horticulture and agricu ltu re w ith o u t anim al wastes as those affect soils, but interest

Figure 11.5

m ost used o f w hich are Bt fo r cla y a ccu m u la tio n s and B k for calcareous concentra tions. T h e form er are typical o f soils in m o ist environm en ts; the latter, in arid cli m ates. B oth clays and ca rb o n ates a ccu m u la te in soils from tw o sources: chemical changes w ithin sedim ents d u e to w ea th erin g , o r the a d d itio n o f fine particles from airborn e dust. In both cases, th e fine p articles accu m u late in the B zo n e where they m ay u ltim ately dom in ate c o m p lete ly o v e r o rig in a l con stituents. Soils w ith very high clay contents, from either o rig in a l d e p o sitio n o r illu viatio n , sh rin k w hen drying and sw ell on w etting (Vertisols). T h e d eep c rack s that ca n fo rm w hen su ch materials dry o u t cause slu m p in g and the in tro d u ctio n o f surficial m aterials at depths. The intri-

rjan d a literature are gro w in g (e.g., D enevan et al. 1987). Paleolim nology also has provided insights into the scale o f soils transform ation and disruption due to hand cult i l;# ation (B in ford et al. 1987; D eevey et al. 1979; O Hara et al. 1993).

T ra n s fo rm a tio n s at d ep th

In the C h o rizo n , belo w the surface levels at w hich soils are form ing, sedim ents m ay be com pacted, cem en ted, ch u rn ed, and chem ically changed by processes in vo lvin g

acids and ion s carried in groundw ater. Such subsurface processes collectively are I termed diagenesis, and alth ou gh they resem ble som e o f the processes that form soils,

S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

BASIC P R I N C I P L E S

th eir distinctiven ess is im p o rtan t to archaeologists because th e y in dicate diff asp ects o f subsurface environm en ts in w h ich archaeological r *** B ecau se m a n y d iagen etic processes take p lace at the w ater table o r b T b e usefta] in d icato rs o f th e w ater tables dyn am ics O x id e , g ro u n d w a te r tend to b e deposited at the w ater table Iron n sin g ly o r in sets, as w av y red lines that sup erficially resemble ge n u in e soil h o rizo n s, but are very different fro m both. T h is red c d o r n S S co n fu se d w ith b u rn in g; H ydrated m anganese an d iron co m p o u n d s m a y tin ctive g ray colors to sedim ents at depth, crea tin g m o ttlin g o r the m o ^ p e ^ a

P :' ^ dSCUSSOn- A s w ith the Phi' scale o f Particle size l rab,e n '3) p H 3 S3* IoSa n th m such that the h iSher the hydrogen con cen tra-

**

' 0313 * e " n3 fr m * M 7 S n e U tr 1, num bers Carried j j g g g g & in g ea sin g ly acidic, and h igh er num bers are increasingly alkaline. In h igh ly acid

m3Cr foSS!S are ^ de^ Y ed >how ever>the in h ibition o f oxygen bacteria in such soils results in g o o d preservation conditions fo r p o llen grains. ,3s w ith h ig h p H are p o o r environm en ts fo r the preservation o f p ollen , b u t are 'ent for p reservin g b on e and shell. Consequently, carbonate crusts in archaeogjcal sedim ents are w orth a close look; they m ay contain, im p ortan t organ ic terials. .Water-saturated soils effectively exclude oxygen and thus preserve from decom _ :rs otherw ise fragile o rgan ic matter, in clu d in g artifact classes rare in other envignments (C oles 1984). D a m p o r w et soils have another p ro p erty significant fo r archaeological m aterials: th e y su p p o rt the transfer o f ions betw een bu ried o rgan ic

g ty in g that can p u zzle the u n in fo rm ed b y suggestive resem blan ce to buried soil xid es d ep o sited fro m gro u n d w ater have been involved in m a n y disp u ted a r c h lo g ica l in terp retation s. M assive a ccu m u latio n s o f oxides a n d c a r b o n a ^ f h ard p an s, cem en ted rock-like layers that have no h isto ry related to~sur exp osure.

C lays leach ed from surficial zon es o f soils and redeposited at d epth resemble hitS i f l S ^ tprials and th eir soils m atrices. T he resultant chem ical changes, tending o f stratification . N odules o f clay o r oxides resem bling sm all stones m a y fc'mfwiffimr "i i i lfeward h o m o g en ization , com p licate chem ical analyses o f archaeological m aterials sedim en ts at depths determ in ed by groun dw ater; their presence m u st n o t be i n t ^ S ^ ^ L m b e r t et al. 1984; W hite and H annus 1983). C h em ical analyses can be useful co m preted as a ston y layer indicative o f stratification . The grad u al settling and com^zi^^^^^^enients to other environm en tal study o f soils form ation and history, helpin g to test p actio n u n d er pressure o f overburden exp erien ced by w ater-saturated"sedinien t ^ ^ ^ ^ B l ternative interpretations (M cB ride 1994). such as p o n d m ud s and peat deposits is an aspect o f diagenesis w ith special implica tions fo r an y in cluded archaeological m aterials. So ils fo rm e d o rig in a lly at the surface m a y be later buried. A fte r b u rial these paleosols cease to develop as soils and becom e subject to subsurface m odification s by any .v3t e . P e d o gen esis a n d the a rch a e o lo g ica l record

K i^ T h e dynam ism o f pedogenesis has im plication s tor archaeology and

o f the processes active at their location . T h e y m ay undergo elu via tio n , illuviation, '3 jl p k > n o f archaeological sites that are o n ly recently bein g appropriately exp oite cem en tatio n , co m p actio n , o r o th er processes that chan ge th eir characteristics (R etallack 1990). B uried soils retain for som e tim e the attributes a n d inclusions they acquired w h ile at the surface and, as a class, are a m o n g the m o st valu ed repositories o f p aleo en viron m en ta l data. A t th e tim e o f burial they cease to be
o r g a n ic a lly

^ P e d o g e n e sis as a process a ffectin g the en viron m en t o f burial is progressive, con tin u|bus, variable, and reversible. Because soil, as m atrix and environm en t o f burial, Sects w hat is available for archaeological study and the integrity o f observed associf ations, as w ell as the co n d itio n in w hich m aterials are recovered, a basic awareness o f pedogenesis is essential to successful field work. Postdepositional disturban ce o f sedim ents and soils by the ch u rn in g actions o f organisins and/or ice has dism ayed m any observant archaeologists. A rtifact associa tions and features un dergroun d can be disaggregated o r rearranged by such m echa-

active

and thus, unless tru ncated, m ay be m ore readily dated by ra d io ca rb o n than their equ ivalen ts at the surface, w hich actively in co rp o rate new o rg an ic m atter through out the zo n e o f b io tu rbatio n . In tim e, o rg an ic m aterials and the A zo n e are lost to d iagen etic chan ges that transform soils p rop erties ( Brady 1990).

I j msms, elim in atin g parts o f the record and creatin g false associations ( Johnson and
So ils c h e m is try T h e d estructiveness o f soils acids has long been recognized as lim itin g preservation w ith in the arch aeolo gical record. Such recogn ition has established the notation of soil p H (h yd rogen ion co n cen tratio n ) as a standard item 11 archaeological fie^ I W atson-Stegner 1990; W ood and Johnson 1978). Such destructiveness is inherent in

1*5 ; Pedogenesis; it is n early u b iq u ito u s and m ust be anticipated b y responsible archaeolg*sts fBarker 1993). Regrettably for archaeologists, archaeological sites are not exem pt from the f t ' natural processes o f erosion an d depo sitio n that ceaselessly reshape the surface o f the

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28 <

'- -.:r ."d iM p Earth. E rosion al processes destroy lan d fo rm s and d isp lace e ve ry th in g on them. \vjjj? each loss, the fab ric o f ancient landscapes is torn . D e p o sitio n a l processes bury s ^ f faces, subjectin g th em to com pression , d e fo rm atio n , an d diagenesis un dergroun d O verb u rd en n o t o n ly changes the en viro n m en t o f sed im en ts, it also introduced m echanical stresses th at result in co m p actio n , disp lacem en t, an d particulate sortin w ith in them . Pedogenesis a n d diagenesis, erosion a n d d e p o sitio n , all restructure ^ arch aeolo gical a n d p aleo en viron m en tal records, re q u irin g o f
jjjs and surfaces.

C aten as are sequences o f soils profiles varyin g dow nslope. A t the

j o f a slope soils are ty p ica lly w ell drained, but subject to erosion and therefore jtively thin . A t in term ediate elevations slopes m a y be m ore gentle and soils opment deeper. A t the fo o t o f a slope, sedim ents accum ulate; soils m ay be deep, any drain age lim itation s w ill d irecd y affect the soils on such landform s. jjnoiphologists e xp loit catenas to s tu d y the subtle diversity o f landform histories [die co m p lex p la y o f the s o ils-fo rm in g factors (Birkeland 1984: 238-254; D aniels [Hammer 1992; G errard 1992; K n u ep fer and M cFadden 1990).
S ta n d a r d analytical m eth o d s th at p ro vid e clues to soils histories include the con -

interpreters precis^

th o u g h tfu l o b serva tio n an d app lication o f in fo rm e d im a g in a tio n (Schiffer 1987). r s :

SOIL SCIEN CE

ltional ch e m ica l spectra, grain -size analysis (gran u lom etry), and percentage o f anics (e.g., H o llid a y 1990; M a cp h ail 1987: 361-363), w hich provide in fo rm atio n

T h e re are m a n y reason s w h y archaeologists m ust k n o w so m eth in g ab ou t soil science; in fact, the m o re the better. H ow ever, it is a d iscip lin e o f its o w n , n o t som ething one" can p ic k up as a sideline. H ere, w ith the em phasis o n p aleo en viron m en tal

out the p aren t m aterial and the transform ations it has experienced. T h e transforitions re so m etim es in terp retable in term s o f the so il-fo rm in g factors that d o m iited in the past. A n alysis o f the relative degree o f elu viation and illuviation am on gst jrizons p ro vid es in fo rm atio n a b o u t relative ages o f soils and the co n trib u tio n s o f e five factors o f soil fo rm a tion . Soil thin -sections reveal evidence for disturban ces
jd m icrostructures in th e soil th at are d irecd y relevant to environm en tal h isto ry

recon

stru ctio n , a few m atters are presented w ith the h o p e that th e y ca n ease readers into the som etim es arcane literature o f an im p o rtan t d iscip lin e (F ann in g and Fanning 1989). . T h e analytical lan guage o f soil science is p ro b a b ly the m a jo r obstacle to its us in archaeology. C o n te m p la tin g the form al soil tax o n o m y used in th e UnitedStates and in creasin gly elsew here, B irkeland notes (1984:42) th a t it carries su ch exotic combi n ations o f L atin and G reek as C ryaq u ep tic H a p la q u o li, A q u ic Ustochrept, and N atraqualfic M azaquerts. N o m atter; fo r the arch aeolo gist th e real p ro b lem with the U S soil ta x o n o m y is th at the criteria fo r classifying soils d o n o t in clude historical (gen etic) co n cep ts (G u th rie an d W itty 1982; H allb erg 1985; So il S u rve y Staff 1975). F urth erm ore, a n d perhaps fo r this reason, in p ractice the soil un its sh o w n on localscale soils m aps b e a r o n ly a ten uous relation ship w ith the geo lo g ica l sedim ents o f the p aren t m aterials. T h e C a n ad ia n system includes m o re gen etic in fo rm atio n and is therefore m ore im m ed iately applicable to archaeological an d paleoenvironm ental uses (C an ad a S o il Survey C o m m ittee 1978). M ost in d u strialized coun tries have a system o f their o w n (e.g., A very (1980) for Britain, Stace e t al. [1968 J for Australia). U N E S C O is d evelop in g international co n ven tio n s fo r soils m aps
( F itz p a tr ic k

ullock et al. 1985; G o ld b erg 1992; L im b re y 1992). -P aleoen viro n m en talin fo rm ation is derivable from soils o nce one learns to elicit it lalytically. In a v o lu m e addressed to p aleo p ed o lo gy at geological scales, Retallack ~u99o) presents p articu larly clear discussions o f the p otentials and lim its o f soils for .-^paleoenvironmental inferences. F ine resolution is rarely possible, but if, say, the redmate d u rin g soil fo rm a tion d iffered sign ifican tly from that at the tim e o f observa;tion, som e evid en ce o f th at differen ce m a y survive. C h an ges in the height o f the Itw ater table ca n b e read in so m e subsoils. Resolving the differences in term s o f tim e, gjhowever, is d ifficult. Soils con tain b io lo gica l residues such as pollen , charcoal, and g? m icroorganism s th at serve as clim ate proxies w hen th e y can be dated. B uried soils p are the best sources o f p aleo en viron m en tal data; w hen the tim e o f burial can be K specified, th ey can b e eloquen t. A p ro m isin g tech nique fo r reading past e n v iro n m en tal states d irectly from stable ca rb o n isotopes in soils is based on the differences in j?-carbon m etabo lism betw een tropical grasses a nd o th er vegetation ( C 4/C , ratios). In . suitable areas, vegetation c o m m u n ity successions, interpreted as changes in m icroj climates, have been tracked b y ca rb o n -iso to p e ratios in o rgan ic residues in soils (Ambrose an d Sikes 1991). B io lo gical data derived from soils are considered furth er as in Parts V I an d V II. T here is a gro w in g , tan talizing literature on direct d a tin g o f soils (A n dersen 1986; 13 M atthews 1993; Scharpenseel an d B ecker-H eidm an n 1992). A rch aeolo gists ca n n o t help but be attracted, even tem p ted , by the p relim in ary results and claim s.

'

j----------- :--------

1980),

b u t in the sh o rt ru n , archaeologists m ust fam iliarize them selves w ith the system in use locally, and learn the lim its o f its reliability and a p p lica b ility (e.g., C att 1986; fu rth er discussion in C h a p t e r s ) . Beyond that, active co lla b o ra tio n w ith a s o il scien tist is the best app roach. B ecau se o f the w a y that they form , soils o n co n tig u o u s l a n d f o r m surfaces vary w ith th e topograph y, vegetatio n , parent m aterial, an d m icroclim ates. Soils, there fore, p ro vid e in fo rm a tio n 011 the d evelop m en t and e n v iro n m en tal h isto ry o f land-

290

S E D I M E N T S A N D SOILS

N evertheless, this subject m ust be ap p ro ach ed w ith critical awareness. O re^ P . m atter is certain ly available in soils and can be extracted fo r dating. The d ifficu lt?! in k n o w in g w h ich o rgan ic m atter is equ ivalen t in age to the archaeological evejjtjEsI b e dated. Soils develop m en t is a tim e-tran sgressive process. O rg a n ic matter c y S J I a n d o u t o f so il th ro u g h o u t th e active life o f the soil; roots a n d burrow ing a n i| |l p en etrate d eep ly in to the B zon e. B u lk sam p lin g o f soil carbon in the A zone wiUJIIj ages averaged o ver the d u ratio n o f the soil w ith bias tow ard the yo u th fu l side; te<3jl
ra lly , w h a t is d ated is the average residen ce tim e o f the o rg an ic m atter sarnp||j|

N o w th at A M S d a tin g p erm its th e selection o f d efin able co m p o n en ts o f soil (c3

co al fragm ents, hu m ates), sam ple selection w ill define the age determ ined. S oI | h u m ates tend to b e yo u n ger than b u lk charcoal, b u t th ey m ay som etim es be o ld | D a tin g o f close-in terval sam ples th ro u g h a sequen ce o f soil h o rizo n s often demon.-; strates that soils are frequen tly ch u rn ed , alth ou gh th e progressive translocation'ojB o ld er ca rb o n co m p o u n d s in to the B zo n e m a y im p art som e sem blance o f strati-1 g rap h ic o rder to the sam ple ages. Soils w ith a rch aeolo gical m aterials include organic! m atter both y o u n ger and o ld er than the a n th ro p o gen ic m aterials. Soils processes are,J co n tin u o u s; a rchaeological d e p o sitio n is episo dic. g

C H A E O L O G I C A L

M A T R I C E S

excavators aim should be to explain the origin of every layer and feature he encounters w hether it be structural or natural; made by man, animal or insect, accidental or purposeful.
barker

1982: 68

surface on w hich h u m an s lay foot o r artifact is a potential archaeological site, o n ly that subsequ en t processes not dislodge and transport the surficial

CODA

O f course, disturban ce o f surficial sedim ents o f every kind is the norm al This vu ln erab ility ensures that archaeological sites are neither ubiquitous nor

Sedim ents and soils are the essential con texts o f field archaeology; on their appropri ate in terpretation rests all u n d erstan d in g o f the relationships a m o n g artifacts and aspects o f environm en ts, p ast a n d p resent, as w ell as un derstan din g o f relative ages. T h e results o f pedogenesis m u st be co rrectly distinguished from variation in sedi m ents. T h e stru ctu ral p rio rity o f sedim en ts over soils developed in them is a funda m ental tenet o f analysis. T h e fie ld relatio n sh ip s o f sedim en ts and soils must be dem onstrated co n vin cin g ly befo re in terpretation o f included archaeological
M E S S A G E S IN T H E M A T R I X

The focus o f this chapter is on sedim ents and soils as matrices o f archaeological at local and m icro-scales. W e o ccasion ally lift o u r eyes to regional-scale phe______as in co n sid erin g the in fo rm atio n potentials o f w idespread deposits o f loess or volcanic ash, but we p ay no attention here to the mega- and m acro-scales o f p h e nomena o r to region al-scale interpretations.

rem ains can begin.

Sedimentological analyses are u n dertaken to learn about the sources, tran sp o rtatio n agents, depositional and transform ational history o f the materials co m p risin g deposits (C h ap ter 11). A lth o u gh archaeologists typically treat that in fo rm atio n as background, environm en tal a rch aeolo g y must begin with the environ m en ts in which m aterials, w hether cultural o r natural sedim en tary particles, w ere b ro u gh t to a site, deposited, and affected by p ostdepositional processes including p edogen esis and diagenesis. T h e en clo sin g m atrix is th e fundam ental source o f in fo rm atio n about all the processes essential to un derstan din g the context o f hum an b eh avio r at a site. Not all evid en ce is visible, and n ot all is extractable by techniques cu rren tly

291