Chapter 1 Introduction to Cellular Mobile Systems 1.Introduction:What will computers look like in ten years?

As a general feature, most computers will certainly be portable. ow will users access networks with the help of computers or other communication de!ices. An e!er-increasing number without any wires, i.e., wireless. "any people will be mobile - already one of the key characteristics of today#s society. $hink, for e%ample, an aircraft with &'' seats. "odern aircraft already offer limited network access to passengers, and aircraft of the ne%t generation will offer easy Internet access. In this scenario, a mobile network mo!ing at high. (peed abo!e ground with a wireless link will be the only means of transporting data to and from passengers. $hink of cars with Internet access and billions of embedded processors that ha!e to communicate with, cameras, mobile phones, )* players, headsets, keyboards, intelligent traffic signs and sensors, etc. $hese applications show the great importance of mobile communication. +efore presenting more applications, the terms
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#mobile# and #wireless# should be defined. $here are two different kinds of mobility 1. User mobility 2. Device portability User mobility It refers to a user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication ser!ices at different places, i.e., the user can be mobile, and the ser!ices will follow him or her. Device portability $he communication de!ice mo!es ,with or without a user-. "any mechanisms in the network and inside the de!ice ha!e to make sure that communication is still possible while the de!ice is mo!ing. A typical e%ample for systems supporting de!ice portability is the mobile phone system, where the system itself hands the de!ice from one radio transmitter ,also called a base station- to the ne%t if the signal becomes too weak. A communication de!ice can thus e%hibit one of the following characteristics 1. Fixed and wired $his configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
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2. Mobile and wired "any of today#s laptops fall into this category/ users carry the laptop from one hotel to the ne%t, reconnecting to the company#s network !ia the telephone network and a modem. !. Fixed and wireless $his mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings to a!oid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup. ". Mobile and wireless $his is the most interesting case. 0o cable restricts the user, who can roam between different wireless networks. $oday#s most successful e%ample for this category is 1(" , 1lobal (ystem for "obile communications- with more than &'' million users. 2.#asic Cellular System A basic cellular system consists of three parts. 1. $ mobile Unit 2. $ cell site !. $ Mobile %elephone Switchin& '((ice )M%S'* 2ig. shows, with connections to link the three subsystems.
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1. Mobile units:-A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transcei!er, and an antenna system with !ideo display and a key pad. 2.Cell site +$he cell site pro!ides interface between the "$(4 and the mobile unit. It has a control unit, radio cabinets and antennas,base station-, a power plant, and data terminals. !. M%S' + $he switching office, the central coordinating element all cell sites, contains the cellular processor and cellular switch, it interfaces with telephone company 5one offices, controls call processing, and handles billing acti!ities. " Connections:-$he radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. 6ach mobile unit can only use one channel at a time for its communication link. +ut the channel is not fi%ed/ it can be any one in the entire band assigned by the ser!ing area, with each site ha!ing multi channel capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile units. $he "$(4 is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor pro!ides central coordination and cellular administration. $he switch which can be either analog or digital, switches calls to connect mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to the nationwide telephone network. It uses !oice trunks similar to telephone company interoffice !oice trunks. It also contains data links pro!iding super!ision links between the processor and the switch and between the cell sites and the processor. $he radio link carries 7!oice and signaling between mobile unit and cell site.. $he high-speed data links cannot be transmitted o!er the standard telephone trunks and therefore must use either microwa!e links or $-carriers ,wire lines-. "icrowa!e radio links or $-carriers carry both !oice and data between the cell site and the "$(4.

!. ,er(ormance Criteria +
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$here are three categories for specifying performance criteria. 1* -oice .uality 9oice :uality is !ery hard to ;udge without sub;ecti!e tests from users# opinions. In this technical area engineers cannot decide how to build a system without knowing the !oice :uality that will satisfy the users. In military communications, the situation differs: armed forces personnel must use the assigned e:uipment. 2or any gi!en commercial communications system, the !oice :uality will be based upon the following criterion: a set !alue % at which y percent of customers rate the system !oice :uality ,from transmitter to recei!er- as good or e%cellent, the top two circuit merits ,)"- of the fi!e listed below. Circuit Scor Merits e )"< < 6%cellent ,speech perfectly understandable)"8 )"3 8 3 1ood ,speech easily understandable, some noise2air ,speech understandable with a slight effort, occasional repetitions needed<

)". )"1

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=oor ,speech understandable only with considerable effort, fre:uent repetitions needed>nsatisfactory ,speech not understandable-

As the percentage of customers choosing )"8 and )"< increases, the cost of building the system rises. $he a!erage of the )" scores obtained from all the listeners is called mean opinion score ,"4(-. >sually the toll-:uality !oice is around M'S / 0 ". 2* Service .uality $hree items are re:uired for ser!ice :uality. 1. Covera&e. $he system should ser!e an area as large as possible. With radio co!erage, howe!er, because of irregular terrain,region- configurations, it is usually not practical to co!er 1'' percent of the area for two reasons: a. $he transmitted power would ha!e to be !ery high to illuminate weak spots with sufficient reception, causing a significant increase cost factor ,in!estment-. b. $he higher the transmitted power, the harder it becomes to control interference. $herefore, systems usually try to co!er ?' percent of
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an area in flat terrain,region- and A< percent of an area in hilly terrain,hill station area-. $he combined !oice :uality and co!erage criteria cellular systems state that A< percent of users rate the !oice :uality between good and e%cellent in ?' percent of the ser!ed area, which is generally flat terrain ,plane region due to disturbance like buildings,trees etc-. $he !oice :uality and co!erage criteria would be ad;usted as per decided !arious terrain conditions. In hilly terrain, ?' percent of users must rate !oice :uality good or e%cellent in @' percent of the ser!ed area. A system operator can lower the percentage !alues stated abo!e for a low-performance and lowcost system. 2. 1e.uired &rade o( service. 2or a normal start-up system the grade of ser!ice is specified for a blocking probability of '.'. for initiating calls at the busy hour. $his is an a!erage !alue. owe!er, the blocking probability at each cell site will be different. At the busy hour, near freeways, automobile traffic is usually hea!y, so the blocking probability at certain cell sites may be higher than . percent, especially when car accidents occur. $o decrease the blocking probability re:uires a good system plan and a sufficient number of radio channels. !. 2umber o( dropped calls. *uring B calls in an
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hour, if a call is dropped and B C 1 call are completed, then the call drop rate is 1DB. $his drop rate must be kept low. A high drop rate could be caused by either co!erage problems or handoff problems related to inade:uate channel a!ailability. ow to estimate the number of dropped calls will be described in )hap. ?. !* Special (eatures + A system would like to pro!ide as many special features as possible, such as call forwarding, call waiting, !oice stored ,9(E- bo%,!oice mail bo%-, automatic roaming, or na!igation ser!ices like bearer ser!ices. owe!er, sometimes the customers may not be willing to pay e%tra charges for these special ser!ices. ". 'peration o( Cellular Systems $his section briefly describes the operation of the cellular mobile system from a customer#s perception without touching on the design parameters. $he operation can be di!ided into four parts and a handoff procedure. 1* Mobile unit initiali3ation. When a user sitting in a car acti!ates the recei!er of the mobile unit, the recei!er scans .1 set-up channels,for e%ample- which
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are designated among the 81@ channels,for e%ample-. It then selects the strongest and locks on for a certain time. (ince each site is assigned a different set-up channel, locking onto the strongest set-up channel usually means selecting the nearest cell site. $his self-location scheme is used in the idle stage and is user-independent. It has a great ad!antage because it eliminates the load on the transmission at the cell site for locating the mobile unit. $he disad!antage of the self-location scheme is that no location information of idle mobile units appears at each cell site. $herefore, when the call initiates from the land line to a mobile unit, the paging process is longer. (ince a large percentage of calls originate at the mobile unit, the use of self-location schemes is ;ustified. After @' s,,in case of 1(" '.< s- the self-location procedure is repeated. In the future, when land-line originated calls increase, a feature called FregistrationF can be used. 2* Mobile ori&inated call. $he user places the called number into an originating register in the mobile unit, checks to see that the number is correct, and pushes the FsendF button. A re:uest for ser!ice is sent on a selected set-up channel obtained from a self-location scheme. $he cell site recei!es it, and in directional cell sites, selects the best directi!e antenna for the !oice channel to use. At the same time the cell site
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sends a re:uest to the mobile telephone switching office ,"$(4- !ia a high-speed data link. $he "$(4 selects an appropriate !oice channel for the call, and the cell site acts on it through the best directi!e antenna to link the mobile unit. $he "$(4 also connects the wire-line party through the telephone company 5one office. !* 2etwor4 ori&inated call. A land-line party dials a mobile unit number. $he telephone company 5one office recogni5es that the number is mobile and forwards the call to the "$(4. $he "$(4 sends a paging message to certain cell sites based on the mobile unit number and the search algorithm. 6ach cell site transmits the page on its own set-up channel. $he mobile unit recogni5es its own identification on a strong set-up channel, locks onto it, and responds to the cell site. $he mobile unit also follows the instruction to tune to an assigned !oice channel and initiate user alert. A trunk is established between mobile user and land line party and communication is completed. "* Call termination +$here are two types of call termination, first one manual transmission and second one forcefully transmission. When the mobile user turns off the transmitter, a particular signal ,message- transmits to the cell site, and both sides free the !oice channel. $his is called manual
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call termination. 2orcefully call termination occurs if there is no channel a!ailable in cell sites or handoff procedure. 5* 6ando(( procedure. *uring the call, two parties are on a !oice channel. When the mobile unit mo!es out of the co!erage area of a particular cell site, the reception becomes weak. $he present cell site re:uests a handoff. $he system switches the call to a new fre:uency channel in a new cell site without either interrupting the call or alerting the user. $he call continues as long as the user is talking. $he user does not notice the handoff occurrences. andoff was first used by the A"=( system, then renamed hando!er by the 6uropean systems because the different meanings in 6nglish 6nglish and American 6nglish. 5. ,lannin& a Cellular System 6ow to start plannin& Assume that the construction permit for a cellular system in a particular market area is granted. $he planning stage becomes critical. A great deal of money can be spent and yet poor ser!ice may be pro!ided if we do not know how to create a good plan. 2irst, we ha!e to determine two elements: re&ulations and the mar4et situation.
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1e&ulations. $he federal regulations administered by the 2)) are the same throughout the >nited (tates. $he state regulations may be different from state to state, and each city and town may ha!e its own building codes and 5oning laws. +ecome familiar with the rules and regulations. (ometimes wai!ers need to be applied for ahead of time. +e sure that the plan is workable. Mar4et situation. $here are three tasks to be handled by the marketing department. 1. ,rediction o( &ross income. We ha!e to determine the population, a!erage income, business types, and business 5ones so that the gross income can be predicted. 2. Understandin& competitors. We also need to know the competitor#s situation, co!erage, system performance, and number of customers. Any system should pro!ide a uni:ue and outstanding ser!ice to o!ercome the competition. !. Decision o( &eo&raphic covera&e. What general area should ultimately be co!ered? What near-term ser!ice can be pro!ided in a limited area? $hese :uestions should be answered and the decisions passed on to the engineering department. %he 7n&ineer8s role $he engineers follow the market decisions by
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1. Initiating a cellular mobile ser!ice in a gi!en area by creating a plan that uses a minimum number of cell sites to co!er the whole area. It is easy for marketing to re:uest but hard for the engineers to fulfill. .. )hecking the areas that marketing indicated were important re!enue areas. $he number of radios ,number of !oice channels- re:uired to handle the traffic load at the busy hours should be determined. 3. (tudying the interference problems, such as cochannel and ad;acent channel interference, and the intermodulation products generated at the cell sites, and finding ways to reduce them. 8. (tudying the blocking probability of each call at each cell site, and trying to minimi5e it. <. =lanning to absorb more new customers. $he rate at which new customers subscribe to a system can !ary depending on the ser!ice charges, system performance, and seasons of the year. 6ngineering has to try to de!elop new technologies to utili5e fully the limited spectrum assigned to the cellular system. $he analysis of spectrum efficiency due to the natural limitations may lead to a re:uest for a larger
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spectrum. Findin& solutions "any practical design tools, methods of reducing interference, and ways of sol!ing the blocking probability of call initiation can be used for finding the solutions. 5.$nalo& Cellular Systems)2ot important* 1* Cellular systems in the United States $here are 1<' ma;or market areas in the >nited (tates where licenses for cellular systems can be granted by the 2)). $hey ha!e been classified by their populations into fi!e groups. 6ach group has 3' cities. 1. $op 3' markets C!ery large cities .. $op 31 to @' markets Clarge-si5ed cities 3. $op @1 to ?' markets Cmedium-si5ed cities 8. $op ?1 to 1.' markets Cbelow medium-si5ed cities <. $op 1.1 to 1<' markets Csmall-si5ed cities 6ach market area is planned to ha!e two systems. $he status of each system in each area of groups 1 to 3 as of *ecember 1?&<. $here are 3'< "(As ,metropolitan statistical areas- and 8&. E(As ,rural statistical areas-. 2* Cellular systems outside the United States 9apan. 0ippon $elegraph and $elephone )orporation ,0$$- de!eloped an &''-" 5 land mobile telephone system and put it into ser!ice in the $okyo area in 1?A?. $he general system operation is similar to the A"=( system. It accesses appro%imately 8',''' subscribers in <'' cities. It
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co!ers A< percent of all Gapanese cities, .< percent of inhabitable areas, and @' percent of the population. In Gapan, ? automobile switching centers ,A()s-, <1 mobile control stations ,")(s-, 8@< mobile base stations ,"+(s-, and 3?,''' mobile subscriber stations ,"((s- were in operation as of 2ebruary 1?&<.

$he Gapanese mobile telephone ser!ice network configuration is shown in 2ig. 1.13. In the metropolitan $okyo area, about 3',''' subscribers are being ser!ed. $he 1?&< system operated o!er a spectrum of 3' " 5. $he total number of channels was @'', and the channel bandwidth was .< k 5. $his system comprised an automobile switching center ,A()-, a mobile control station ,")(-, a mobile base station ,"+(-, and a mobile subscriber station ,"((-. At present there is no competiti!e situation set up by the
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go!ernment. owe!er, the Gapanese "inistry of =ost# and $elecommunication ,"2$- is considering pro!iding a dual com-. petiti!e situation similar to that in the >nited (tates. United :in&dom. In Gune 1?&. the go!ernment of the >nited Hingdom announced two competing national cellular radio networks. $he/ >H system is called $A1( ,$otal Access )ommunications (ystem-. $he total number of channels was 1''', with a channel bandwidth of .< k 5 per channel. Among them, @'' channels are assigned and 8'' are reser!ed. $wo competing cellular network operators, )ellnet and 9odafone, are operating in the >nited Hingdom. 6ach network system has only 3'' spectral channels. $he )ellnet system started operating in Ganuary 1?&<. )ellnet has o!er .'' cell sites, co!ering &. percent of the >nited Hingdom. 9odaphone, though, which started operations late, has ser!ed the same areas as )ellnet. Canadian system. In 1?A&, a system called A>E4EA was designed for the Alberta go!ernment telephone ,A1$-. $he system pro!ides pro!ince wide mobile telephone ser!ice at 8'' " 5. 4ngoing de!elopmental work on the A>E4EA is underway at &'' " 5. $U1'1$ ";; system. It is aimed at 8',''' subscribers li!ing in an area appro%imately 1?.' km
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% ?@' km. $he A>E4EA 8'' system initially has 8' channels and is e%pected to add an additional .' channels with fre:uency reuse and a se!en-cell cluster plan. A fully implemented system has 1.' cells. $he 8''-" 5 system does not ha!e a handoff capability. $U1'1$ <;; system. $he A>E4EA &'' system is truly fre:uency-transparent. +y repackaging the radio fre:uency ,E2- sections on the cell site, the mobile unit can be operated on any mobile E2 band up to &'' " 5. $he handoff capability will be implemented in this system. 2ordic system. $his system was built mostly by (candina!ian countries ,*enmark, 0orway, (weden, and 2inland- in cooperation with (audi Arabia and (pain and is called the 0"$ network. It is currently I, a 8<'-" 5 system, but an &''-" 5 system will be implemented soon since the fre:uency-transparent concept as the A>E4EA &'' system/. is used to con!ert the 8<'-" 5 system to the &''-" 5 system. $he total bandwidth is 1' " 5, which has .'' channels with a I bandwidth of .< k 5 per channel. $his system does ha!e handoff and roaming capabilities. It also uses repeaters to increase the co!erage a low traffic area. $he total number of subscribers is around 1'','''.
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7uropean cellular systems. All the present generation of 6uropean cellular networks is totally lacking in cross-border compatibility. +esides the >nited Hingdom and 0"$ networks, the others include the following. #enelux+country networ4. $he 0etherlands ser!ed on their A$2. network ,the same as the 0"$ 8<' network- at the beginning of 1?&<. It has a nationwide co!erage using <' cell sites with two different cell si5es, .'- and <-km radii. $he capacity of the present system is 1<,''' to .',''' subscribers. *utch =$I$ is using a single 6ricsson AJ61' switch/ Ku%embourg came on air in August 1?&<. In 1?&@, +elgium ;oined the network. It operates at 8<' " 5. $he network is compatible among the three countries. France. A direct-dial car telephone operating at 1@' " 5 can access the system in 1' regional areas. $he network ser!es 1',''' subscribers. +y the end of 1?&8, 8<' " 5 was in operation. In the meantime Eadicom .''' ,digital signaling- was introduced, operating at .'' " 5 but with no handoff feature. Spain. It uses an 0"$ 8<'-" 5 cellular network introduced in 1?&.. It was the first cellular system in 6urope. $he number of cells in ser!ice is 13. $here
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are three separate networks operating 1'8 channels. 6ach channel bandwidth is .< k 5. $ustria. A new 0"$ cellular network called Autotelefonnet5 ) has two mobile switching e%changes and has enough capacity for 3',''' subscribers. $he Austrian =$I$ has allocated ... duple% channels in ranges 8<1.3 to 8<<.A " 5 and 8@1.3 to 8@<.A " 5, with a channel bandwidth of .' k 5. Although both Austria and (pain are using 0"$ 8<' systems, their i systems are not compatible because of different fre:uency allocations,/ channel spacings ,bandwidth-, and protocols by different =$I$s. =ermany. A full national co!erage, including West +erlin, using a )-; 8<' cellular system was installed in (eptember 1?&< with 1'' cell I sites. Another A< cell sites were completed in mid-1?&@. Also, 1er-I many and 2rance are working on cross-border compatibility in cellularL radio systems and ha!e proposed a )*-?'' digital system. Swit3erland. (wiss =$I$ decided to install an 0"$ ?''-" 5 cellu lar network that had a capacity of 1.,''' subscribers. A pilot scheme with .' transmitters ,cell sites- was installed in the Murich area late 1?&@. Cellular systems in the rest o( the world. Australia is installing a syst using 6ricsson#s AJ6-1'
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switching network and will operate at " 5 with 1. sites concentrated in three big cities. :uwait8s cellular system uses 06)#s switches and pro!ides 1. sites. It operates at &'' " 5. 6on& :on& has three systems. $he >nited Hingdom#s $A1( system is installed with "otorola switches. $he >nited (tates# A"=( system and Gapanese 06) systems were also installed in ong Hong. It is a !ery competiti!e market. All systems are penetrating the markets of both portable sets and car sets.

2 .Wireless Communication 1.1 $pplications Although many applications can benefit from wireless networks and mobile communications, particular application en!ironments seem to be predestined for their use. $he following sections will enumerate some of them .it is left to you to imagine more. 1.1.1 -ehicles $oday#s cars already comprise some, but tomorrow#s cars will comprise many wireless communication systems and mobility aware applications. "usic, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information are recei!ed !ia Di&ital $udio #roadcastin& )D$#* with 1.5 Mbit>s. 2or personal communication, a Universal Mobile %elecommunications System )UM%S* phone might
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be a!ailable offering !oice and data connecti!ity with !<" 4bit>s. 2or remote areas, Satellite Communication can be used, while the current position of the car is determined !ia the =lobal ,ositionin& System )=,S*. )ars dri!ing in the same area build a local ad+hoc network for the fast e%change of information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police and ambulance ser!ice will be informed !ia an emergency call to a ser!ice pro!ider. )ars with this technology are already a!ailable. In the future, cars will also inform other cars about accidents !ia the ad+hoc networ4 to help them slow down in time, e!en before a dri!er can recogni5e an accident. +uses, trucks, and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic information to their home base, which helps to impro!e organi5ation ,fleet management-, and sa!es time and money. 1.1.2 7mer&encies Gust imagine the possibilities of an ambulance with a high-:uality wireless connection to a hospital. 9ital information about in;ured persons can be sent to the hospital from the scene of the accident. All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis. ?ireless networ4s are the only means of communication in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or earth.ua4es. In the worst cases, only decentrali5ed, wireless ad-hoc networks sur!i!e. $he breakdown of all cabling not only implies the failure of the standard wired telephone system, but also the crash of all mobile phone systems re:uiring base stations. 1.1.! #usiness
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A tra!eling salesman today needs instant access to the company#s database: to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all acti!ities of their tra!eling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient and powerful synchroni5ation mechanisms are needed to ensure data consistency. 2igure 1.. illustrates what may happen when employees try to communicate off base. At home, the laptop connects !ia a ?@$2 or @$2 and DS@ to the Internet. Kea!ing home re:uires a hando!er to another technology, e.g., to an enhanced !ersion of 1(", as soon as the WKA0 co!erage ends. $rains already offer support for wireless connecti!ity. (e!eral more hando!ers to different technologies might be necessary before reaching the office. 0o matter when and where, mobile communications should always offer as good connecti!ity as possible to the internet, the company#s intranet, or the telephone network. 1.1." 1eplacement o( wired networ4s In some cases, wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. *ue to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather forecasts, earth:uake detection, or to pro!ide
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en!ironmental information. Wireless connections, e.g., !ia satellite, can help in this situation. $radeshows need a highly dynamic infrastructure, but cabling takes a long time and fre:uently pro!es to be too infle%ible. "any computer fairs use WKA0s as a replacement for cabling. 4ther cases for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in historical buildings, where e%cess cabling may destroy !aluable walls or floors. Wireless access points in a corner of the room can represent a solution. 1.1.5 In(otainment and more Imagine a tra!el guide for a city. (tatic information might be loaded !ia )*-E4", *9*, or e!en at home !ia the Internet. +ut wireless networks can pro!ide up-to-date information at any appropriate location. $he tra!el guide might tell you something about the history of a building ,knowing !ia 1=(, contact to a local base stationdownloading information about a concert in the building at the same e!ening !ia a local wireless network. Nou may choose a seat, pay !ia electronic cash, and send this information to a ser!ice pro!ider. Another growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together. 1.1.A @ocation dependent services In many cases, it is important for an application to #know# something about the location or the user might need location information for further acti!ities. (e!eral
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ser!ices that might depend on the actual location can be distinguished: Follow+on services + $he function of forwarding calls to the current user location is well known from the good old telephone system. Where!er you are, ;ust transmit your temporary phone number to your phone and it redirects incoming calls.. >sing mobile computers, a follow-on ser!ice could offer, for instance, the same desktop en!ironment where!er, you are in the world. All e-mail would automatically be forwarded and all changes to your desktop and documents would be stored at a central location at your company. If someone wanted to reach you using a multimedia conferencing system, this call would be forwarded to your current location. @ocation aware services + Imagine you wanted to print a document sitting in the lobby of a hotel using your laptop. If you drop the document o!er the printer icon, where would you e%pect the document to be printed? )ertainly not by the printer in your officeL owe!er, without additional information about the capabilities of your en!ironment, this might be the only thing you can do. 2or instance, there could be a ser!ice in the hotel announcing that a standard laser printer is a!ailable in the lobby or a color printer in a hotel meeting room etc. Nour computer might then transmit your personal profile to your hotel which then charges you with the printing costs.
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,rivacy - $he two ser!ice classes listed abo!e immediately raise the :uestion of pri!acy. Nou might not want !ideo calls following you to dinner, but maybe you would want important e-mails to be forwarded. $here might be locations andDor times when you want to e%clude certain ser!ices from reaching you and you do not want to be disturbed. Nou want to utili5e location dependent ser!ices, but you might not want the en!ironment to know e%actly who you are. Imagine a hotel monitoring -all guests and selling these profiles to companies for ad!ertisements. In(ormation services + While walking around in a city you could always use your wireless tra!el guide to #pull# information from a ser!ice, e.g., #Where is the nearest "e%ican restaurant?# owe!er, a ser!ice could also acti!ely #push# information on your tra!el guide, e.g., the "e%ican restaurant ;ust around the corner has a special taco offer. Support services - "any small additional mechanisms can be integrated to support a mobile de!ice. Intermediate results of calculations, state information, or cache contents could #follow# the mobile node through the fi%ed network. As soon as the mobile node reconnects, all information is a!ailable again. $his helps to reduce access delay and traffic within the fi%ed network. )aching of data on the mobile de!ice ,standard for all desktop systems- is often not possible
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due to limited memory capacity. $he alternati!e would be a central location for user information and a user accessing this information through the ,possibly large and congested- network all the time as it is often done today.
1.1.B Mobile and wireless devices 6!en though many mobile and wireless de!ices are a!ailable, there will be many more in the future. $here is no precise classification of such de!ices, by si5e, shape, weight, or computing power. )urrently, laptops are considered the upper end of the mobile de!ice range. $he following list gi!es some e%amples of mobile and wireless de!ices graded by increasing performance ,)=>, memory, display, input de!ices etc.-. C Sensor A !ery simple wireless de!ice is represented by a sensor transmitting state information. 4ne e%ample could be a switch sensing the office door. If the door is closed, the switch transmits this to the mobile phone inside the office which will not accept incoming calls. Without user interaction, the semantics of a closed door is applied to phone calls. C 7mbedded controllers "any appliances already contain a simple or sometimes more comple% controller. Heyboards, mice, headsets, washing machines, coffee machines, hair dryers and $9 sets are ;ust some e%amples. Why not ha!e the hair dryer as a simple mobile and wireless de!ice ,from a communication point of !iew- that is able to communicate with the mobile phone? $hen the dryer would switch off as soon as the phone starts ringing that would be a nice applicationL C ,a&er As a !ery simple recei!er, a pager can only display short te%t mesr sages, has a tiny display, and cannot send any messages. =agers can e!en be integrated into watches. $he tremendous success of mobile phones, has made the pager !irtually redundant in many countries. (hort messages ha!e replaced paging. $he situation is somewhat different for emergency ser!ices where it may be necessary to page a larger number of users reliably within short time. C Mobile phones $he traditional mobile phone only had a simple black and white te%t display and could sendDrecei!e !oice or short messages. $oday, mobile phones migrate more and more toward =*As. "obile phones with full color graphic display, touch screen, and Internet browser are easily a!ailable. C ,ersonal di&ital assistant =*As typically accompany a user and offer simple !ersions of office software ,calendar, note-pad, mail-. $he typical input de!ice is a pen, with built-in character recognition translating handwriting into characters. Web browsers and many other software packages are a!ailable for these de!ices. C ,oc4et computer $he ne%t steps toward full computers are pocket computers offering tiny keyboards, color displays, and simple !ersions of programs found on desktop computers ,te%t processing, spreadsheets etc.-. C 2oteboo4>laptop 2inally, laptops offer more or less the same performance as standard desktop computers/ they use the same software - the only technical difference being si5e, weight, and the ability to run on a battery. If operated
.@

mainly !ia a sensiti!e display ,touch sensiti!e or electromagnetic-, the de!ices are also known as notepads or tablet =)s. $ mar4et (or mobile communication Although the growth in wireless and mobile communication systems has slowed down, these technologies ha!e still a huge market potential. "ore and more people use mobile phones, wireless technology is built into many cars, wireless data ser!ices are a!ailable in many regions, and wireless local area networks are used in many places. 2igure 1.8 shows the increasing number of subscribers to mobile phone ser!ices worldwide ,1(" World, .''.-. $his figure shows the tremendous growth rates up to .'''. $hat growth continues today, mainly due to )hina that has the largest number of users. 2igure 1.< shows the cellular subscribers per region ,1(" World, .''.-. While the shares of 6urope and )hina are almost e:ual, the market in 6urope is saturated with second-generation 1(" systems ,mobile penetration is about A' per cent-. )ountries such as 1ermany and 2rance e%hibited growth rates of 8' per cent or more in 1??&. 6urope#s share will decrease compared to )hina, the Americas, and Africa.

.A

1." Some open research topics We are only at the beginning of wireless and mobile networking. $he differences between wired, fi%ed networks and wireless networks open up !arious topics. Inter(erence Eadio transmission cannot be protected against interference using shielding ,plastic insulated co!er-as this is done in coa%ial cable or shielded twisted pair. 2or e%ample, electrical engines and lightning cause se!ere interference and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates respecti!ely. 1e&ulations and spectrum+. 2re:uencies ha!e to be coordinated, and unfortunately, only a !ery limited amount of fre:uencies are a!ailable ,due to technical and political reasons-. 4ne research topic in!ol!es determining how to use a!ailable fre:uencies more efficiently, 2urther impro!ements are new air interfaces, power aware ad-hoc networks, smart antennas, and software defined radios ,(*E-. $he latter allow for software definable air interfaces but re:uire high computing power. @ow bandwidth Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still !ery low for wireless de!ices compared to desktop systems. Kocal wireless systems reach some "bitDs while wide area systems only offer some 1' kbitDs,for wireless KA0 near about &3'kbps- . 4ne task would in!ol!e adapting applications used with high-bandwidth connections to this new en!ironment so that the user can continue using the same application when mo!ing from the desktop outside the building. 6i&h delaysD lar&e delay variation A serious problem for communication protocols used in today#s Internet ,$)=DI=- is the big !ariation in link characteristics. In wireless systems, delays of se!eral seconds can occur, and depending on the direction to and from the wireless de!ice-. Applications must be tolerant and use robust protocols. @ower securityD simpler to attac4 0ot only can portable de!ices be stolen more easily, but the radio interface is also prone to the dangers of ea!esdropping. Wireless access must always include encryption,
.&

authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to use. Shared medium Eadio access is always reali5ed !ia a shared medium. As it is impossible to ha!e a separate wire between a sender and each recei!er, different competitors ha!e to #fight# for the medium. Although different medium access schemes ha!e been de!eloped, many :uestions are still unanswered, for e%ample how to pro!ide :uality of ser!ice efficiently with different combinations of access, coding, and multiple%ing schemes $d+hoc networ4in& Wireless and mobile computing allows for spontaneous networking with prior set-up of an infrastructure. owe!er, this raises many new :uestions for research: routing on the networking and application layer, ser!ice disco!ery, network scalability, reliability, and stability etc. 1.5 $ simpli(ied re(erence model 2igure shows a personal digital assistant ,=*A- which pro!ides an e%ample for a wireless and portable de!ice. $his =*A communicates with a base station in the middle of the picture. $he base station consists of a radio transcei!er ,sender and recei!er- and an interworking unit connecting the wireless link with the fi%ed link. $he communication partner of the =*A, a con!entional computer, is shown on the right-hand side. >nderneath each network element ,such as =*A, interworking unit, computer-, the figure shows the protocol stack implemented in the system according to the reference model. 6nd-systems, such as the =*A and computer in the e%ample, need a full protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer. Applications on the end-systems communicate with each other using the lower layer ser!ices. Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do not necessarily need all of the layers. 2igure only shows the network, data link, and physical layers. As ,according to the basic reference model- only entities at the same le!el communicate with each other ,i.e., transport with transport, network with network- the end-system applications do not notice the intermediate system directly in this scenario. $he following paragraphs e%plain the functions of each layer in more detail in a wireless and mobile en!ironment. ,hysical layer $his is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for the con!ersion of a stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on the sender side. $he physical layer of the recei!er then transforms the signals back into a bit stream. 2or wireless communication, the physical layer is responsible for fre:uency selection, generation of the carrier fre:uency, signal detection ,although hea!y interference may disturb the signal-, modulation of data onto a carrier fre:uency and ,depending on the transmission scheme- encryption. Data lin4 layer $he main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium, multiple%ing of different data streams, correction of transmission errors, and synchroni5ation ,i.e., detection of a data frame-. Altogether, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point-to-point connection between two de!ices or a point-to-multipoint connection between one sender and se!eral recei!ers. 2etwor4 layer $his third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network or establishing a connection between two entities o!er many other intermediate systems. Important topics are addressing, routing, de!ice location, and hando!er between different networks. %ransport layer $his layer is used in the reference model to establish an end-to-end connection. $opics like :uality of ser!ice, flow and congestion
.?

control are rele!ant, especially if the transport protocols known from the Internet, $)= and >*=, are to be used o!er a wireless link. $pplication layer 2inally, the applications ,complemented by additional layers that can support applications- are situated on top of all transmissionoriented layers. $opics of interest in this conte%t are ser!ice location, support for multimedia applications, adapti!e applications that can handle the large !ariations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access to the world wide web using a portable de!ice. 9ery demanding applications are !ideo ,high data rate- and interacti!e gaming ,low ;itter, low latency-.

1irwalkar (.A.

"obile )ommunication

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Chapter ! Medium $ccess Control Motivation (or a speciali3ed M$C *ata link layer deals with error detection , error correction and synchroni5ation. *ata link layer consist of two sub layer. 1- logical link layer .- "A) layer. (o let# us consider carrier sense multiple access with collision detectionD )CSM$>CD* which works as follows. A sender senses the medium ,a wire or coa%ial cable- to see if it is free. If the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the medium is free, the sender starts transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the sender detects a collision while sending, it stops at once and sends a ;amming signal. Why does this scheme fail in wireless networks? CSM$>CD is not really interested in collisions at the sender, but rather in those at the recei!er. $he signal should reach the recei!er without collisions. +ut the
31

sender is the one who is detecting collisions. $his is not a problem using a wire, as more or less the same signal strength can be assumed all o!er the wire if the length of the wire stays within certain often standardi5ed, limits. If a collision occurs somewhere in the wire e!erybody will notice it. It does not matter if a sender listens into the medium to detect a collision at its own location while in reality is waiting to detect a possible collision at the recei!er. $he situation is different in wireless networks. $he strength of a signal decrease proportionally to the s:uare of the, distance to the sender. 4bstacles attenuate the signal e!en further. $he sender may now apply )arrier sense and detect an idle medium. $he sender starts sending - but a collision happens at the recei!er due to a second sender. $he same can happen to the collision detection. $he sender detects no collision and assumes that the data has been transmitted without errors, but a collision might actually ha!e destroyed the data at the recei!er. )ollision detection is !ery difficult in wireless scenarios as the transmission power in the area of the transmitting antenna is se!eral magnitudes higher than the recei!ing power. (o, this !ery common "A) scheme from wired network fails in a wireless scenario. $he following sections show some more scenarios where schemes known from fi%ed networks fail.
3.

!.1.1 6idden and exposed terminals )onsider the scenario with three mobile phones as shown in 2igure 3.1. $he transmission range of A reaches +, but not ) ,the detection range does not reach ) either-. $he transmission range of ) reaches +, but not A. 2inally, the transmission range of + reaches A and ), i.e., A cannot detect ) and !ice !ersa. A starts sending to +, ) does not recei!e this transmission. ) also wants to send something to + and senses the medium. $he medium appears to be free, the carrier sense fails. ) also starts ending causing a collision at +. +ut A cannot detect collision at + and continues with its transmission. A is hidden for ) and !ice !ersa. While hidden terminals may cause collision, the ne%t effect only causes unnecessary delay. 0ow consider the situation that + sends something to A and ) wants to transmit data to some other mobile phone outside the interference ranges of A and +. ) senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy ,+#s signal-. ) postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again. +ut as A is outside the interference range of ), waiting is not necessary. )ausing a #collision# at + does not matter because the collision is too weak to propagate to A. In this situation, ) is e%posed to +.
33

idden and 6%posed terminals !.1.2 2ear and (ar terminals )onsider the situation as shown in 2igure 3... A and + are both sending with the same transmission power. As the signal strength decreases proportionally to the s:uare of the distance, +#s signal drowns out A#s signal. As a result, ) cannot recei!e A#s transmission. 0ow think of ) as being an arbiter for sending rights ,e.g., ) acts as a base station coordinating media access-. In this case, terminal + would already drown out terminal A on the physical layer. ) in return would ha!e no chance of applying a fair scheme as it would only hear +. $he nearDfar effect is a se!ere problem of wireless networks using )4". All signals should arri!e at the recei!er with more or less the same strength. 4therwise ,referring again to the party e%ample of chapter .- a person standing closer to somebody could always speak louder than a person further
38

away. 6!en if the senders were separated by code, the closest one would simply drown out the others. =recise power control is needed to recei!e all senders with the same strength at a recei!er.

0ear and 2ar terminals !.2 SDM$ Space Division Multiple $ccess )SDM$* is used for allocating a separated space to users in wireless networks. A typical application in!ol!es assigning an optimal base station to a mobile phone user. $he mobile phone may recei!e se!eral base stations with different :uality. A "A) algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into account which fre:uencies ,2*"-, time slots ,$*"- or code ,)4"- are still a!ailable ,depending on the technology-. $ypically, (*"A is ne!er used in isolation but always in combination with one or more other schemes. $he basis for the (*"A algorithm is formed by cells and sectori5ed antennas which constitute the infrastructure implementing space
3<

di!ision multiple%ing ,(*"-. A new application of (*"A comes up together with beam forming antenna arrays. (ingle users are separated in space by indi!idual beams. $his can impro!e the o!erall capacity of a cell tremendously. !.! FDM$ Fre.uency division multiple access )FDM$* comprises all algorithms allocating fre:uencies to transmission channels according to the fre:uency di!ision multiple%ing ,2*"- scheme. Allocation can either be fi%ed ,as for radio stations or the general planning and regulation of fre:uencies- or dynamic ,i.e., demand dri!en-. )hannels can be assigned to the same fre:uency at all times, i.e., pure 2*"A, or change fre:uencies according to a certain pattern, i.e., 2*"A combined with $*"A. $he latter e%ample is the common practice for many wireless systems to circum!ent narrowband interference at certain fre:uencies, known as fre:uency hopping. (ender and recei!er ha!e to agree on a hopping pattern, otherwise the recei!er could not tune to the right, fre:uency. opping patterns are typically fi%ed, at least for a longer period. $he fact that it is lot possible to arbitrarily ;ump in the fre:uency space ,i.e., the recei!er must be able to tune to the right fre:uency- is one of the main differences between 2*" schemes and $*" schemes. 2urthermore, 2*" is often used for simultaneous access to the
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medium by base station and mobile station in cellular networks: ere the two partners typically establish a duple% channel, i.e. a channel that allows for simultaneous, transmission in both directions. $he two directions, mobile station to base station and !ice !ersa are now separated using different fre:uencies. $his scheme is then called (re.uency division duplex )FDD*. Again, both partners ha!e to know the fre:uencies in ad!ance/ they cannot ;ust listen into the medium. $he two fre:uencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station to base station from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, from base station to mobile station or from satellite to ground control. As for e%ample 2*" and 2**, 2igure 3.3 shows the situation in a mobile phone network based on the 1(" standard for ?'' " 5. $he basic fre:uency allocation scheme for 1(" is fi%ed and regulated national authorities. All uplinks use the band between &?'.. and ?1< " 5, all downlinks use ?3<.. to ?@' " 5. According to 2*"A, the +ase station shown on the right side, allocates ascertain fre:uency for up and downlink to establish a duple% channel with a mobile phone. >p and downlink ha!e a fi%ed relation. If the uplink fre:uency is fu O &?' " 5 P n.'.. " 5, the downlink fre:uency is fd O fu P 8< " 5, i.e., fd O ?3< " 5 P n-'.. " 5 for a certain channel n. $he
3A

base station selects the channel. 6ach channel ,uplink and downlink- has a bandwidth of .'' k 5. $his illustrates the use of 2*" for multiple access ,1.8 channels per direction are a!ailable at ?BB7" 5and duple% according to a predetermined scheme.

!." %DM$ )ompared to 2*"A, time division multiple access )%DM$* offers a much more fle%ible scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocate certain time slot for communication, i.e. controlling %DM. 0ow tuning in to a certain fre:uency is not necessary, i.e., the recei!er can stay at the same fre:uency the whole time. >sing only one fre:uency, and thus !ery simple recei!ers and transmitters, many different algorithms e%ist to control medium access. As already mentioned, listening to different fre:uencies at the same time is :uite difficult, but listening to many
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channels separated in time at the same fre:uency is simple. Almost all M$C schemes for wired networks work according to this principle, e.g., 6thernet, $oken Eing, A$" etc. 0ow synchroni5ation between sender and recei!er has to be achie!ed in the time domain. Again this can be done by using a (ixed pattern similar to FDM$ techni:ues, i.e., allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or by using a dynamic allocation scheme. $he fallowing sections present se!eral e%amples for fi%ed and dynamic schemes as used for wireless transmission. $ypically, those schemes can be combined with 2*"A to achie!e e!en greater fle%ibility and transmission capacity. !.".1 Fixed %DM $he simplest algorithm for using %DM is allocating time slots for channels in a fi%ed pattern. $his results in a fi%ed bandwidth and is the typical solution for wireless phone systems. "A) is :uite simple, as the only crucial factor is accessing the reser!ed time slot at the right moment. If this synchroni5ation is assured, each mobile station knows its turn and no interference will happen. $he fi%ed pattern can be assigned by the base station, where competition between different mobile stations that want to access the medium is sol!ed. 2i%ed access patterns fit perfectly well for connections with a fi%ed bandwidth. 2urthermore,
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these patterns guarantee a fi%ed delay one can transmit, e.g., e!ery 1' ms as this is the case for standard D7C% systems. $*"A schemes with fi%ed access patterns are used for many digital mobile phone systems like I(-<8, I(-13@, 1(", *6)$, = (, and =A)(. 2igure 3.8 shows how these fi%ed $*" patterns are used to implement multiple access and a duple% channel between a base station and mobile station. Assigning different slots for uplink and# downlink using the same fre:uency is called time division duplex )%DD*. As shown in the figure, the base station uses one out of 12 slots for the downlin4, whereas the mobile station uses one out of 1. different slots for the uplin4. >plink and downlink are separated in time. >p to 1. different mobile stations can use the same fre:uency without interference using this scheme. 6ach connection is allotted its own up- and downlink pair. In the e%ample below, which is the standard case for $he D7C% cordless phone system, the pattern is repeated e!ery 1' ms, i.e., each slot has duration of 81A us. $his repetition guarantees access to the medium e!ery 1' ms, independent of any other connections.

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!.".2 Classical $loha As mentioned abo!e, $*"A comprises all mechanisms controlling medium access according $*". +ut what happens if $*" is applied without controlling access? $his is e%actly what the classical Aloha scheme does a scheme which was in!ented at the University o( 6awaii and was used in the AK4 A06$ for wireless connection of se!eral stations. Aloha neither coordinates medium Access nor does it resol!e contention on the "A) layer. Instead, each station can access the medium as shown in 2igure 3.<. $his is a random access scheme, without a central arbiter controlling access and without coordination among the stations. If two or more stations access the medium at the same time, a collision occurs and the transmitted data is destroyed. Eesol!ing this problem is left to higher layers ,e.g., retransmission of data-. $he simple Aloha works fine
81

for a light load and does not re:uire any complicated access mechanisms. 4n the classical assumption that data packet arri!al follows a =oisson distribution, ma%imum throughput is achie!ed for an 1& per cent load.

)lassical Aloha !.".! Slotted $loha $he first refinement of the classical Aloha scheme is pro!ided by the introduction of time slots ,slotted Aloha-. In this case, all senders ha!e to be synchroni5ed/ transmission can only start at the beginning of a time slot as shown in 2igure 3.@. (till, access is not coordinated. >nder the assumption stated abo!e, the introduction of slots raises the throughput from 1& per cent to 3@ per cent, i.e., slotting doubles the throughput. As we will see in the following sections, both basic Aloha principles occur in many systems that implement distributed access to a medium? Aloha systems work perfectly well under a light load ,as most schemes do-, but they cannot gi!e any hard transmission guarantees, such as ma%imum delay
8.

before accessing the medium, or minimum throughput. ere one needs additional mechanisms, e.g., combining fi%ed schemes and Aloha schemes. owe!er, e!en new mobile communication systems like >"$( ha!e to rely on slotted Aloha for medium access in certain situations ,random access for initial connection set-up-.

(lotted Aloha !.!." Carrier sense multiple access 4ne impro!ement to the basic Aloha is sensing the carrier before accessing the medium. $his is what carrier sense multiple access )CSM$* schemes generally do. (ensing the carrier and accessing the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases the probability of a collision. +ut, as already mentioned in the introduction, hidden terminals cannot be detected, so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the same time as another sender, a collision might occur at the recei!er. $his basic scheme is still used in most wireless KA0s. (e!eral !ersions of )("A e%ist. In non+persistent CSM$, stations sense the carrier and start sending immediately if the medium is idle. If the
83

medium is busy, the station pauses a random amount of time before sensing the medium again and repeating this pattern. In p+persistent CSM$ systems nodes also sense the medium, but only transmit with a probability of p, with the station deferring to the ne%t slot with the probability 1-p, i.e., access is slotted in addition. In 1+persistent CSM$ systems, all stations wishing to transmit access the medium at the same time, as soon as it becomes idle. $his will cause many collisions if many stations wish to send and block each other. $o create some fairness for stations waiting for a longer time, back off algorithms can be introduced, which are sensiti!e to waiting time as this is done for standard 6thernet. CSM$ with collision avoidance )CSM$>C$* is one of the access schemes used in wireless KA0s following the standard I777 <;2.11. ere sensing the carrier is combined with a back-off scheme in case of a busy medium to achie!e some fairness among competing stations. Another, !ery elaborate scheme is elimination yield non preeemptive multiple access )7E+2M,$* used in the I=6EKA0 specification. ere se!eral phases of sensing the medium and accessing the medium for contention resolution are interlea!ed before one FwinnerF can finally access the medium for data transmission. ere, priority schemes can be included
88

to assure preference of certain stations with more important data. !.".5 Demand assi&ned multiple access A general impro!ement of Aloha access systems can also be achie!ed by reser!ation mechanisms and combinations with someDfi%ed- $*" patterns. $hese schemes typically ha!e a reser!ation period followed by a transmission period. *uring the reser!ation period, stations can reser!e future slots in the transmission period. While, depending on the scheme, collisions may occur during the reser!ation period, the transmission period can then be accessed without collision, alternati!ely, the transmission period can be split into periods with and without collision. In general, these schemes cause higher delay under a light load ,first the reser!ation has to take place-, but allow higher throughput due to less collisions. 4ne basic scheme is demand assi&ned multiple access )D$M$* also called reservation $loha, a scheme typical for satellite systems. *A"A, as shown in 2igure 3.A has two modes. *uring a contention phase following the slotted Aloha scheme, all stations can try to reser!e future slot. 2or e%ample, different stations on earth try to reser!e access time for satellite transmission. )ollisions using the reser!ation phase do not destroy data transmission, but only the short re:uests for data transmission. If successful, a time slot in the future is
8<

reser!ed, and no other station is allowed to transmit during this slot. $herefore, the satellite collects all successful re:uests ,the others are destroyed- and sends# back a reser!ation list indicating access rights for future, slots. All ground stations ha!e obey this list. $o maintain the fi%ed $*" pattern of reser!ation and transmission the stations ha!e to be synchroni5ed from time to time. *A"A is an explicit reservation scheme. 6ach transmission slot has to be reser!ed e%plicitly.

!.".A ,1M$ pac4et reservation multiple access An e%ample for an implicit reser!ation scheme is packet reser!ation multiple access ,=E"A-. ere, slots can be reser!ed implicitly according to the following scheme. A certain number of slots forms a frame ,2igure 3.& shows eight slots in a frame-. $he frame is repeated in time ,forming frames one to fi!e in the e%ample-, i.e., a fi%ed $*" pattern is applied. A base station, which could be a satellite, now broadcasts the status of each slot ,as shown on the left side of the figure- to all mobile stations. All stations recei!ing this !ector will then know which slot is occupied and which slot is currently free. In
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the illustration, a successful transmission of data is indicated by the station#s name ,A to 2-. In the e%ample, the base station broadcasts the reser!ation states 8$CD$#$+F8 to all stations, here A to 2. $his means that slots one to si% and eight are occupied, but slot se!en is free in the following transmission. All stations wishing to transmit can now compete for this free slot in Aloha fashion. $he already occupied slots are not touched. In the e%ample shown, more than one station wants to access this slot, so a collision occurs. $he base station returns the reser!ation status 8$CD$#$+F8, indicating that the reser!ation of slot se!en failed ,still indicated as free- and that nothing has changed for the other slots. Again, stations can compete for this slot. Additionally, station * has stopped sending in slot three and station 2 in slot eight. $his is noticed by the base station after the second frame.

8A

+efore the third frame starts, the base station indicates that slots three and eight are now idle. (tation 2 has succeeded in reser!ing slot se!en as also indicated by the base station. =E"A constitutes yet another combination of fi%ed and random $*" schemes with reser!ation compared to the pre!ious schemes. As soon as a station has succeeded with a reser!ation, all future slots are implicitly reser!ed for this station. $his ensures transmission with a guaranteed data rate. $he slotted aloha scheme is used for idle slots only, data transmission is not destroyed by collision. !.".B 1eservation %DM$ An e!en more fi%ed pattern that still allows some random access is e%hibited by reser!ation $*"A ,see 2igure 3.?-. In a fi%ed $*" scheme 0 mini-slots followed by 0-k data-slots form a frame that is repeated. 6ach station is allotted its own mini-slot and can use it to reser!e up to k data-slots. $his guarantees each station a certain bandwidth and a fi%ed delay. 4ther stations can now send data in unused data-slots as shown. >sing these free slots can be based on a simple round-robin scheme or can be uncoordinated using an Aloha scheme. $his scheme allows for the combination of, e.g., isochronous traffic with fi%ed bit-rates arid best-effort traffic without any guarantees.
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!.".< Multiple access with collision avoidance Ket us go back to one of the initial problems: hidden terminals. ow do the pre!ious access schemes sol!e this? $o all schemes with central base stations assigning $*" patterns, the problem of hidden terminals is unknown. If the terminal is hidden for the base station it cannot communicate anyway. +ut as mentioned abo!e, more or less fi%ed access patterns are not as fle%ible as Aloha schemes. What happens when no base station e%ists at all? $his is the case in so-called ad-hoc networks. Multiple access with collision avoidance )M$C$* presents a simple scheme that sol!es the hidden terminal problem, does not need a base station, and is still a random access Aloha scheme - but with dynamic reser!ation. 2igure 3.1' shows the same scenario as 2igure 3.1

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with the hidden terminals. Eemember, A and ) both want to send to +. A has already started the transmission, but is hidden for )/ ) also starts with its transmission, thereby causing a collision at +. With "A)A, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends a re.uest to send )1%S* first. + recei!es the E$( that contains the name of sender and recei!er, as well as the length of the future transmission. $his E$( is not heard by ), but triggers an acknowledgement from +, called clear to send ,)$(-. $he )$( again contains the names of sender ,A- and recei!er ,+- of the user data, and the length of the future transmission. $his )$( is now heard by ) and the medium for future use by A is now reser!ed for the duration of the transmission. After recei!ing a )$(, ) is not allowed to send anything for the duration indicated in the )$( toward +. A collision cannot occur at + during data transmission, and the hidden terminal problem is sol!ed - pro!ided that the transmission conditions remain the same.
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,Another station could mo!e into the transmission range of + after the transmission of )$(.(till, collisions can occur during the sending of an E$(. +oth A and ) could send an E$( that collides at +. E$( is !ery small compared to the data transmission, so the probability of a collision is much lower. + resol!es this contention and acknowledges only one station in the )$( ,if it was able to reco!er the E$( at all-. 0o transmission is allow without an appropriate )$(. $his is one of the medium access schemes that is optionally used in the standard I777 <;2.11. )an "A)A also help to sol!e the 8exposed terminal8 problem? Eemember, + wants to send data to A, ) to someone else. +ut ) is polite enough to sense the medium before transmitting, sensing a busy medium caused by the transmission from +. ) defers, although ) could ne!er cause a collision at A. With "A)A, + has to transmit an E$( first ,as shown in 2igure 3.11- containing the name of the recei!er ,A- and the sender ,+-. ) does not react to this message as it is not the recei!er, but A acknowledges using a )$( which identifies + as the sender and A as the recei!er of the following data transmission. ) does not recei!e this )$( and concludes that A is outside the detection range. ) can start its transmission assuming it will not cause a
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collision at A. $he problem with e%posed terminals is sol!ed without fi%ed access patterns or a base station.

4ne problem of "A)A is clearly the o!erheads associated with the E$( and )$( transmissions - for short and time-critical data packets, this is not negligible. "A)A also assumes symmetrical transmission and reception conditions. 4therwise, a strong sender, directed antennas etc. could counteract the abo!e scheme. 2igure 3.1. shows simplified state machines for a sender and recei!er. $he sender is idle until a user re:uests the transmission of a data packet. $he sender then issues an E$( and waits for the right to send. If the recei!er gets an E$( and is in an idle state, it sends back a )$( and waits for data. $he sender recei!es the )$( and sends the data. 4therwise, the sender would send an E$( again after a time-out ,e.g., the E$( could be lost or collided-. After transmission of the data, the sender waits for a positi!e acknowledgement to return into an idle state.
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$he recei!er sends back a positi!e acknowledgement if the recei!ed data was correct. If not, or if the waiting time for data is too long, the recei!er returns into idle state. If the sender does not recei!e any acknowledgement or a negati!e acknowledgement, it sends an E$( and again waits for the right to send. Alternati!ely, a recei!er could indicate that it is currently busy !ia a separate 1x#usy. Eeal implementations ha!e to add more states and transitions, e.g., to limit the number of retries.

!.".F ,ollin& Where one station is to be heard by all others ,e.g., the base station of a mobile phone network or any other dedicated station-, polling schemes ,known from the mainframeDterminal world- can be applied. =olling is a strictly centrali5ed scheme with one master station and se!eral sla!e stations. $he master
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can poll the sla!es according to many schemes: round robin ,only efficient if traffic patterns are similar o!er all stations-, randomly, according to reser!ations ,the classroom e%ample with polite students- etc. $he master could also establish a list of stations wishing to transmit during a contention phase. After this phase, the station polls each station on the list. (imilar schemes are used, e.g., in the +luetooth wireless KA0 and as one possible access function in I666 &'..11. !.".1; Inhibit sense multiple access Another combination of different schemes is represented by inhibit sense multiple access )ISM$*. $his scheme, which is used for the packet data transmission ser!ice )ellular *igital =acket *ata ,)*=*- in the A"=( mobile phone system, is also known as digital sense multiple access ,*("A-. ere, the base station only signals a busy medium !ia a busy tone ,called +>(NDI*K6 indicator- on the downlink ,see 2igure 3.13-. After the busy tone stops, accessing the uplink is not coordinated any further. $he base station acknowledges successful transmissions/ a mobile station detects a collision only !ia the missing positi!e acknowledgement. In case of collisions, additional back-off and retransmission mechanisms are implemented. !.5 CDM$
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2inally, codes with certain characteristics can be applied to the transmission to enable the use of code di!ision multiple%ing ,)*"-. )ode di!ision multiple access ,)*"A- systems use e%actly these codes to separate different users in, code space and to enable access to a shared medium without interference. $he main problem is how to find FgoodF codes and how to separate the signal from noise generated by other signals and the en!ironment. A code for a certain user should ha!e a good autocorrelation and should be ortho&onal to other codes. 4rthogonal in code space has the same meaning as in standard space ,i.e., the three dimensional space-. $hink of a system coordinate and !ectors starting at the origin, i.e., in ,', ', 4- Q3. $wo !ectors are called ortho&onal if their inner product is ', as is the case for the two !ectors ,., <, '- and ,', ', 1A: ,., <, '-R,', ', 1A- O ' P ' P ' O '. +ut also !ectors like ,3, -., 8- and ,-., 3, 3- are orthogonal: ,3, -., 8-R,-., 3, 3- O -@ - @ P 1. O '. +y contrast, the !ectors ,1,.,3- and ,8,., -@- are not orthogonal ,the inner product is -1'-, and ,1, ., 3and ,8, ., -3- are FalmostF orthogonal, with their inner product being -1 ,which is FcloseF to 5ero-. $his description is not precise in a mathematical sense. owe!er, it is useful to remember these
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simplified definitions when looking at the following e%amples where the original code se:uences may be distorted due to noise. 4rthogonal cannot be guaranteed for initially orthogonal codes. 0ow let us translate this into code space and e%plain what we mean by a good autocorrelation. $he +arker code ,P1, -1, P1, P1, -1, P1, P1, P1, -1, -1, -1-, for e%ample, has a good autocorrelation i.e. the inner product with itself is large, the result is 11. $his code is used for I(*0 and I666 &'..11. +ut as soon as this +arker code is shifted chip further ,think of shifting 11 chip +arker code o!er itself concatenated se!eral times-, the correlation drops to an absolute !alue of 1. It stays at this low !alue until the code matches itself again perfectly. $his helps for e%ample, to synchroni5e a recei!er with the incoming data stream. $he peak in the matching process helps the recei!er to precisely, e!en if noise distorts the original signal up to a certain le!el. After this :uick introduction to orthogonality and autocorrelation, the following ,theoretical- e%ample e%plains the basic function of )*"A before it is applied to signals: S $wo senders, A and +, want to send data. )*"A assigns the following uni:ue and orthogonal key se:uences: key Ak O '1''11 for sender A, key +H O 11'1'1 for sender +. (ender A wants to send the bit Ad O 1, sender + sends +d O '. $o illustrate this
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e%ample, let us assume that we code a binary ' as -1, a binary 1 as P1. We can then apply the standard addition and multiplication rules. S +oth senders spread their signal using their key as chipping se:uence ,the term #spreading# here refers to the simple multiplication of the data bit with the whole chipping se:uence-. In reality, parts of a much longer chipping se:uence are applied to single bits for spreading. (ender A then sends the signal A( O AdRAk O PLR,-1, P1, -1, -1, P1, P1- O ,-1, P1, -1, -1, P1, P1-S (ender + does the same with its data to spread the signal with the code: +s O +dR+k O -1R,P1, P1,.-1, P1, -1, P1- O ,-1, -1, P1, -1, P1, -1-. S +oth signals are then transmitted at the same time using the same fre:uency, so, the signals superimpose in space. *iscounting interference from other senders and en!ironmental noise from this simple e%ample, and assuming that the signals ha!e the same strength at the recei!er, the following signal ) is recei!ed at a recei!er: ) O As P +s O ,-., ', ', -., P., '-. S $he recei!er now wants to recei!e data from sender A and, therefore, tunes in to the code of A, i.e., applies A#s code for dispreading: )RAk O ,-., ', ', -., P., '-R,-1, P1, -1, -1, P1, P1- O . P ' P ' P . P . P ' O @. As the result is much larger than ', the recei!er detects a binary 1. $uning in to sender +,
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i.e., applying +#s code gi!es )R+k O ,-., ', ', -., P., '-R ,P1, P1, -1, P1, -1, P1- O -. P ' P ' - . - . P ' O -@. $he result is negati!e, so a ' has been detected. $his e%ample in!ol!ed se!eral simplifications. $he codes were e%tremely simple, but at least orthogonal. "ore importantly, noise was neglected. 0oise would add to the transmitted signal ), the results would not be as e!en with -@ and P@, but would maybe be close to ', making it harder to decide if this is still a !alid ' or 1. Additionally, both spread bits were precisely superimposed and both signals are e:ually strong when they reach the recei!er. What would happen if, for e%ample, + was much stronger? Assume that +#s strength is fi!e times A#s strength. $hen, ) O As P <R+( O ,-1, P1, -1, -1, P1, P1- P ,-<, -<, P<, -<, P<, -<- O ,-@, -8, P8, -@, P@, -8-. Again, a recei!er wants to recei!e +: )#R+k O -@ -8-8-@-@-8O -3'. It is easy to detect the binary ' sent by +. 0ow the recei!er wants to recei!e A: )RAk O @-8-8 P @ P @-8 O @. )learly, the ,absolute- !alue for the much stronger signal is higher ,3' compared to @-. While -3' might still be detected as ', this is not so easy for the @ because compared to 3', @ is :uite close to 5ero and could be interpreted as noise. Eemember the party e%ample. If one person speaks in one language !ery loudly, it is of no more use to ha!e another language as orthogonal code no one can understand you, your !oice will only add to the noise. Although simplified,
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this e%ample shows that power control is essential for )*"A systems. $his is one of the biggest problems )*"A systems face as the power has to be ad;usted o!er one thousand timing per second in some systems T this consumes a lot of energy. $he following e%amples summari5e the beha!iour of )*"A together with the *((( spreading using

orthogonal codes. $he e%amples now use longer codes or key se:uences ,i.e., longer as a single bit-. )ode se:uences in I(-?<, for e%ample, ,a mobile phone system that uses )*"A- are .8. - 1 chips long, the chipping rate is 1..&&'' chipsDs ,i.e., the code repeats after 81.8.< days-. 2igure 3.18 shows a sender A that wants to transmit the bits 1'1. $he key of A is shown as signal and binary key se:uence Ak. In this e%ample, the binary F'F is assigned a positi!e signal !alue, the binary FIF
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a negati!e signal !alue. After spreading, i.e., J4Eing Ad and Ak, the resulting signal is As. $he same happens with data from sender +, here the bits are 1''. $he result of spreading with the code is the signal +s. A< and +s now superimpose during transmission ,again without noise and both signals ha!ing the same strength-. $he resulting signal is simply the sum A< P +s as shown in 2igure 3.1<. A recei!er now tries to reconstruct the original data from A, Ad. $herefore the recei!er applies A#s key, Ak, to the recei!ed signal and feeds the result into an integrator ,see section ..A.1-. $he integrator adds the products ,i.e., calculates the inner product-, a comparator then has to decide if the result is a ' or a 1 as shown in 2igure 3.1@. As we can see, although

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the original signal form is distorted by +#s signal, the result is still :uite clear. $he same happens if a recei!er wants to recei!e +#s data ,see 2igure 3.1A-. $he comparator can easily detect the original data. Kooking at ,As P +s-R+k one can also imagine what could happen if A#s signal was much stronger and noise distorted the signal. $he little peaks which are now caused by A#s signal would be much higher, and the result of the integrator would be wrong. If Ak and +k are perfectly orthogonal and no noise disturbs the transmission, the method works ,in theory- for arbitrarily different

signal strengths.

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2inally, 2igure 3.1& shows what happens if a recei!er has the wrong key or is not synchroni5ed with the chipping se:uence of the transmitter. $he integrator still presents a !alue after each bit period, but now it is not always possible for the comparator to decide for a 1 or a ', as the signal rather resembles noise. Integrating o!er noise results in !alues close to 5ero. 6!en if the comparator could detect a clear 1, this could still not reconstruct the whole bit se:uence transmitted by a sender. A checksum on layer .

would detect the erroneous packet. $his illustrates )*"A#s inherent protection against tapping. It is also the reason for calling the spreading code a key, as it is simultaneously used for encryption on the physical layer.
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!.5.1 Spread $loha multiple access As shown in the pre!ious section, using different codes with certain properties for spreading data results in a nice and powerful multiple access seller namely )*"A. +ut )*"A senders and recei!ers are not really simple de!ices. )ommunicating with n de!ices re:uires programming of the recei!er to be able to decode n different codes ,and probably sending with n codes, too-. 2or mobile phone systems, a lot of the comple%ity needed for )*"A is integrated in the base stations. $he wireless and mobile de!ices communicate with the base station only. owe!er, if spontaneous, bursty traffic has to be supported between an arbitrary number de!ices, the )*"A techni:ue seems to pose too much o!erhead. 0o one wants to program many different spreading codes for e.g. Ad7hoc networks. 4n the other hand, Aloha was a !ery simple scheme, but could only pro!ide a relati!ely low bandwidth due to collisions.

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What happens if we combine the spreading of )*"A and the medium access of Aloha or, in other words, what if we use )*"A with only a single code, i.e., without )*? $he resulting scheme is called spread $loha multiple $ccess )S$M$* and is a combination of CDM$ and %DM$. (A"A works as follows: each sender uses a same

spreading code. $he standard case for Aloha access is shown in upper part of the figure. (ender A and sender + access the "edium at the same time in their narrowband spectrum, so that all three bits shown cause a collision. $he same data could also be sent with higher power for a shorter period as shown in middle. now spread spectrum is used to spread the shorter signals i.e. to increase the bandwidth ,spreading factor s 0 A in the e%ample-. +oth signals are spread, but the chipping phase differs slightly. (eparation of the two signals is still
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possible if one recei!er is synchroni5ed to sender A and another one to sender +. $he signal of an unsynchronised to sender appears as noise. $he probability of a collision is :uite low if the number of simultaneous transmitters stays below '.1 to '..s. $his also depends on the noise le!el of the en!ironment. $he main problem in using this approach is finding good chipping se:uences. )learly, the code is not orthogonal to itself - it should ha!e a good autocorrelation but, at the same time, correlation should be low if the phase differs slightly. $he ma%imum throughput is about 1& per cent, which is !ery similar to Aloha, but the approach benefits from the ad!antages of spread spectrum techni:ues: robustness against narrowband interference and simple coe%istence with other systems in the same fre:uency bands.

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!.A Comparison o( S>%>F>CDM$ $o conclude the chapter, a comparison of the four basic multiple access !ersions is gi!en in $able 3.1. $he table shows the "A) schemes without combination with other schemes. owe!er, in real systems, the "A) schemes always occur in combinations. A !ery typical combination is constituted by (*"AD$*"AD2*"A as used in I(<8, 1(", *6)$, = (, and =A)( phone systems, or the Iridium and I)4 satellite systems. )*"A together with (*"A is used in the I(-?< mobile phone system and the 1lobal star satellite system.

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Although many network pro!iders and manufacturers ha!e lowered their e%pectations regarding the performance of )*"A compared to the early 1?&'s ,due to e%periences with the I(-?< mobile phone system- CDM$ is integrated into almost all third &eneration mobile phone systems either as W)*"A ,24"A, >"$(- or cdma.''' ,see chapter 8-. )*"A can be used in combination with 2*"AD$*"A access schemes to increase the capacity of a cell. In contrast to other schemes, )*"A has the ad!antage of a so(t handover and so(t capacity. $*"AD2*"A systems perform a hard hando!er, i.e., they switch base station and hopping

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se:uences ,timeDfre:uency- precisely at the moment of hando!er. ando!er decision is based on the signal strength, and oscillations between base stations are possible.

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