Automobile Laboratory Manual (BE)

A Laboratory Manual for
Automobile Engineering
Degree in Mechanical Engineering (BE-II)
Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)
Guidelines for teachers:

Teachers shall discuss the following points with students before start of practicals of the subject. Learning Overview: To Develop better understanding of importance of the subject. To know related skills to be developed such as intellectual skills and Motor Skills. Link / Block Diagram: Context of the subject in the form of link diagram showing interrelationship of various subject areas, curriculum objectives and job profile. Graphical structure: In this, topics and sub topics are organized in systematic way so that ultimate purpose of learning the subject is achieved. This is arranged in the form of fact, concept, principle, procedure, application and problem. Know your Laboratory work: To understand the layout of laboratory, specifications of Equipment /Instruments/ Materials, procedure, working in groups, planning time etc. Also to know total amount of work to be done in the laboratory. Teacher shall ensure that required equipment are in working condition before start of experiment, also keep operating instruction manual available. Explain prior concepts to the students before starting of each experiment. Involve students activity at the time of conduct of each experiment. While taking reading/observation each student (from batch of 20 students) shall be given a chance to perform/observe the experiment. List of questions is given at the end of each experiment. Teacher shall instruct the students to attempt all questions given at the end of each experiment / exercise. Teacher shall ensure that each student writes the answers to the allotted questions in the laboratory manual after performance is over. If the experimental setup has variations in the specifications of the equipment, the teachers are advised to make the necessary changes, wherever needed Teacher shall assess the performance of students continuously as per norms prescribed by University. Teacher should ensure that the respective skills and competencies are developed in the students after the completion of the practical exercise. Teacher is expected to share the skills and competencies to be developed in the students. Teacher may provide additional knowledge and skills to the students even though not covered inthe manual but are expected from the students by the industries. Teachers shall ensure that industrial visits recommended in the manual are covered. Teacher may suggest the students to refer additional related literature of the technical papers /reference books / Seminar Proceedings, etc. During assessment teacher is expected to ask questions to the students to tap their achievements regarding related knowledge and skills so that students can prepare while submitting record of the practical. Focus should be given on development of enlisted skills rather than theoretical/codified knowledge. Teacher should enlist the skills to be developed in the students that are expected by the industry. Teacher should organise Group discussions / brain storming sessions/ Seminars to facilitate the exchange of knowledge amongst the students.
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Instructions for students:

1. Students shall read the points given below for understanding the theoretical concepts & practical applications. 2. Listen carefully to the lecture given by teacher about importance of subject, curriculum philosophy, graphical structure, and skills to be developed, information about equipment, instruments, procedure, method of continuous assessment, tentative plan of work in laboratory and total amount of work to be done in a year. 3. Students shall undergo study visit of the laboratory for types of equipment, instruments, material to be used, before performing experiments. 4. Read the write up of each experiment to be performed, a day in advance. 5. Organize the work in the group and make a record of all observations. 6. Understand the purpose of experiment and its practical implications. 7. Student should not hesitate to ask any difficulty faced during conduct of practical / exercise. 8. The student shall study all the questions given in the laboratory manual and practice to write the answers to these questions 9. Student shall visit the recommended industries and should study the knowhow of the shop floor practices and the operations of machines. 10. Student shall develop maintenance skills as expected by the industries. 11. Student should develop the habit of pocket discussion / group discussion related to the experiments/ exercises so that exchanges of knowledge / skills could take place. 12. Student shall attempt to develop related hands-on-skills and gain confidence. 13. Student shall focus on development of skills rather than theoretical or codified knowledge. 14. Student shall visit the nearby workshops, workstation, industries, laboratories, technical exhibitions, trade fair etc. even not included in the Lab Manual. In short, students should have exposure to the area of work right in the student hood. 15. Student shall insist for the completion of recommended Laboratory Work, industrial visits, answers to the given questions, etc. 16. Student shall develop the habit of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. than included in the scope of the manual. 17. Student shall refer technical magazines, proceedings of the Seminars, refer websites related to the scope of the subjects and update their knowledge and skills. 18. Student should develop the habit of not to depend totally on teachers but to develop self learning techniques. 19. Student should develop the habit to react with the teacher without hesitation with respect to the academics involved. 20. Student should develop habit to submit the practicals exercise continuously and progressively on the scheduled dates and should get the assessment done. 21. Student should be well prepared while submitting the write up of the exercise. This will develop the continuity of the studies and he will not be over loaded at the end of the term.
List of Experiments & Record of Progressive Assessment.

Assessment Max. Marks (10) Sign& Remarks of Teacher
Sr. No.
Name of the Experiments
Date of Performs
Study and demonstration of four wheeler chassis layout. Two-wheel & fourwheel driv layouts. Study and Demonstration of working of automobile clutch. Study and demonstration of Automobile gearbox. Study and demonstration of final drive and differential. Study and demonstration of working Hydraulic braking system. Study and demonstration of front wheel steering geometry and steering mechanism. Study and demonstration of suspension system of a four-wheeler. Study and demonstration of battery, electrical charging system. Study and demonstration of electrical starting system. Study and demonstration of a] D. C. Electric horn. (a) Electric Fuel Gauge (b) Electric fuel Gauge. (c) Flasher unit. (d) Wiper circuit
10
Experiment No. 01 Study and demonstration of four wheeler chassis layout. Two-wheel and four wheels drive layouts.
EXPERIMENT NO 1. Title Study and demonstration of four wheeler chassis layout. Two-wheel and four wheels
drive layouts.
AIM To study four Wheeler chassis layout and two wheel and four wheel drive arrangement.
Objetives To study four wheeler. To study types of chassis. To study two wheel drive arrangement. To study four wheel drive arrangement. Different between two and four wheel drive arrangement.
Introduction:Chassis The chassis is a part of automobile which supports its body, engine and transmission system. It is a complete operating unit, which is a capable of running with its own power. Chassis is defined as without body structure. Automotive chassis is considered to be one of the significant structures of an automobile. It is usually made of a steel frame, which holds the body and engine of an automotive vehicle. More precisely, automotive chassis or automobile chassis is a skeletal frame on which various mechanical parts like engine, tires, axle assemblies, brakes, steering etc are bolted. At the time of manufacturing, the body of a vehicle is flexibly molded according to the structure of chassis. Automobile chassis is usually made of light sheet metal or composite plastics. It provides strength needed for supporting vehicular components and payload placed upon it. Automotive chassis or automobile chassis helps keep an automobile rigid, stiff and unbending. Auto chassis ensures low levels of noise, vibrations and harshness throughout the automobile
Component of chassis Chassis includes following components. 1. Frame. 2. Engine with radiator. 3. Transmission system. 4. Wheel and Tires. 5. Suspension system. 6. Braking system. 7. Steering mechanism. 8. Electrical system. 9. Fuel and air tank. Types of chassis:- A)Full forwarded chassis. In this type of chassis, engine is mounted completely outside the driver cabin. B) Semi forwarded chassis In this type of chassis engine is so mounted that half of its in the drivers cabin whe re as the other half is in front outside the driver. C) Bus Chassis: - In bus chassis the engine is mounted completely inside the driver so that driver should see the road just in front of front wheel. D) Overhang Chassis: - Overhang chassis are chassis in which the chassisis overhang after rear wheel this type chassis is used in bus, in this more space are provide. E) Long Wheel Base Chassis:Standard truck chassis are used for making trucks and to permit the truck to carry, the exact weight but in case of bus chassis seats are fixed and the distance between each seat is fixed. The vehicle will be running with less weight as less no. of passenger and to carry more weight bus chassis are provide with longer wheel base. cabin,
Experiment NO - 2. Study, Demonstration and Working of Automobile Clutch.
EXPERIMENT NO - 2.
Title - Study and Demonstration of working of Automobile clutch.
AIM - To study Automobile clutch assembly.
Objectives To study function & requirement of clutch. To study classification of clutch. To study construction & working of single plate automobile clutch. To study components of single plate automobile clutch. To demonstrate on single plate automobile clutch.
IntroductionClutch is used to engage or disengage the engine to the transmission or gear box. When the clutch is in engaged position, the engine power or rotary motion of engine crankshaft is transmitted to gear box and then to wheels. When clutch is disengaged, the engine power does not reach to gear box (and to wheels) although engine is running. Clutch is also used to allow shifting or changing of gears when vehicle is running. For shifting gears, clutch is first disengaged then gear is shifted and then clutch is engaged. Clutch has to be disengaged to stop the vehicle and also at the time of idling. Functions 1. To engage or disengage engine and rotation part. 2. To transmit power to transmission system without shocks & jerks. 3. To permit engagement to gears without damage when vehicle is in motion. Principle of clutch It operates on the principle of friction. When two surfaces are brought in contact and are held against each other due to friction between them, they can be used to transmit power. If one is rotated, then other also rotates. One surface is connected to engine and
other to the transmission system of automobile. Thus, clutch is nothing but a combination of two friction surfaces.
Requirements -
a) Torque Transmission. The clutch should be able to transmit the max torque of engine.
b) Gradual Engagement. The clutch should take drive (positively) gradually without the occurrence of sudden jerks. c) Heat dissipation At the time of clutch operation large amount of heat is generated the proper adequate dissipation of heat. d) Vibration damping Suitable mechanism should be incorporated within the clutch, so that noise produced in transmission is eliminated. e) Dynamic balancing This is necessary particular high speed clutches. f) Size - The size of clutch is must smallest so that it can occupy minimum amount of space.
g) Clutch free pedal playTo reduce effective clamping load on carbon thrust bearing & wear therefore sufficient clutch pedal play must be provided in clutch. Ease of operation For higher power transmission the operation of disengaging clutch must not be tiresome to the driver.
h)
Types of clutch Some types of clutches used in vehicles are given below : A. Friction Clutch : It may be (I) Single plate clutch, (II) Multi-plate clutch, or (III) Cone clutch. Multi-plate clutch can be either wet or dry. A wet clutch is operated in an oil batch whereas a dry clutch does not use oil. B.Centrifugal clutch. a. Semi-centrifugal clutch. b. Hydraulic clutch. c. Positive clutch. d. Vacuum clutch. e. Electromagnetic clutch.
Main components of clutch1. Flywheel. 2. Clutch plate. 3. Pressure plate. 4. Cover. 5. Releasing leaver with draw. 6. Fork & Bearing. 7. Clutch shaft. I) Single plate clutch: A single plate is commonly used in cars and light vehicles. It has only one clutch plate which is mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft. A flywheel is mounted on the crankshaft of the engine. A pressure plate is connected to the flywheel through the bolts and clutch springs. It is free to slide on the clutch shaft with the movement of clutch pedal. When clutch is in engaged position, the clutch plate remains gripped between flywheel and pressure plate. Friction linings are provided on both the sides of clutch plate. On one side clutch plate is in touch with flywheel and on other side with pressure plate. Due to friction on both sides, the clutch plate revolves with engine flywheel. Therefore, clutch transmits engine power to
clutch shaft. Clutch shaft is connected to transmission (or gear box) of automobile. Thus, clutch transmits power from engine to transmission system which inturn rotates wheels of engine. When the clutch plate is to be disengaged, the clutch pedal is pressed. Because of this pressure plate moves back and clutch plate is disengaged from flywheel. Thus, clutch shaft stops rotating even if engine flywheel is rotating. In this position, power does not reach the wheels and vehicle also stops running. Single plate clutch is shown in Figure. II) Multiplate clutch: Multi-plate clutch consists of more than one clutch plates contrary to single plate clutch which consists of only one plate. Friction surfaces are made in case of multi-plate clutch. Due to increased number of friction surfaces, a multi-plate clutch can transmit large torque. Therefore, it is used in racing cars and heavy motor vehicles which have high engine power. The clutch plates are alternatively fitted with engine shaft and the shaft of gear box. He plates are firmly held by the force of coil springs and they assembled in a drum. One plate slides in the grooves on the flywheel and the next plate slides on spines provided on pressure plate. Thus, each alternate plate slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other on splines of pressure plate. If we take two consecutive plates, then one has inner and other has outer splines. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of coil spring, when the clutch plates are disengaged and engine flywheel and gear box are decoupled. However, when clutch pedal is not pressed the clutch remain in engaged position and the power can be transmitted from engine flywheel to the gear box. This type of clutch has been shown in Figure. Clutch pedal free-play adjustment: Clutch remains in engaged position when clutch pedal is not pressed. Free play adjustment is required to maintain a given free play of the pedal after the clutch is engaged. Before making this adjustment, correct floorboard clearance or clutch pedal travel must be adjusted. Floorboard clearance adjustment is made to prevent touching of floor by pedal when clutch is engaged. Clutch pedal travel adjustment is done to ensure total clutch disengagement when the clutch pedal is pressed.
Component of clutch i) Clutch plate.The clutch plate consist steel plate with a splined central hub. Annular friction facings are attached to the steel plate by rivets, special resins are being used to bind friction facing. ii) Clutch facing.The wear of clutch facing depends upon rubbing speed & intensity of press for maximum, Life the rubbing speed at the time of engagement should not exceed 30 ms-1 while press intensity should not exceed 100 kpa. iii) Pressure plate:High tensile grey iron is the most commonly used material for pressure plate which must be sufficiently rigid is as not distort under press of the clutch springs adequate rigidity is also needed to provide uniform pressure to clutch plate. iv) Release lever:The pressure plate in case of coil spring type clutch has a number of release levers usually there of four especially spaced around the pressure plate. v) Cover:This is a steel pressing bolted on to the flywheel & houses the pressure plate assembly It provides pivot for the release levers & taken reaction of the springs due to which reason it must be sufficiently rigid. vi) Springs.:Normally, duty clutch springs are made from coil tempered spring steel wire however for sever conditions they are made from silica chrome steel to prevent heat set insulating washers are also sometimes used under extreme conditions to reduce heat conditions from the pressure plate to springs.
Friction material:1. Leather: Dry leather on iron has coefficient in friction of 0.27. 2. Cork: Cork on dry steel friction or iron has coefficient of friction is 0.32. 3. Fabric: Good quality fabric materials have coefficient of friction is about 0.9. They cannot use at high temperature. 4. Asbestos: Asbestos facing has coefficient of friction about 0.2; however it has got anti heat characteristic. Clutch plate:The clutch plate consists of steel plate with a splined central hub. Annular facings (friction) are attached to the steel plate by rivets. The axial cushioning interposed between the clutch plate & friction facings are riveted to these springs on engagement. The load applied first has to compress the spring regiments to the flat condition resulting in a greater degree of clutch control (due to longer distance traveled at the clutch plate) & therefore smooth engagement. The central hub sub- assembly consists of a splined hub with radially placed slots in the flange of hub. There are similar slot in which coil springs under slight compression are fitted these provide a flexible torsional connection between center hub flange and ride plates which are riveted to main clutch plate. Diaphragm clutch. A diaphragm spring type clutch is shown in Fig (a) shows the clutch in the engaged position and Fig. (b) In the disengaged position. It is seen from the above figures that the diaphragm spring is supported on a fulcrum retaining ring so that any section through the spring can he regarded as a simple \ever. The pressure plate E is movable axially, but it is fixed radially with respect to the cover. This is done by providing a series of equally spaced Jugs cast upon the back surface of the pressure plate. The drive from the engine flywheel is transmitted through the cover, pressure plate and the friction plate to the gear box input shaft. The clutch is disengaged by pressing the clutch pedal which actuates the release fingers by means of a release ring. This pivots the spring about its fulcrum, relieving the spring load on the outside diameter, thereby disconnecting the drive. Advantages of the diaphragm spring type clutch:-
1. This type of clutch has now virtually superseded the earlier coil spring design in many countries in clutch sizes ranging up to 270 mm. in diameter, although in case of heavy vehicles, the coil spring type clutches are still being used, because of the difficulty to provide sufficient clamping force by a single diaphragm spring. The diaphragm spring, however, offers certain distinct advantages. 2. It is a more compact means of storing energy. Thus compact design results in smaller clutch housing. 3. As the diaphragm spring is comparatively less affected by the centrifugal forces, it can withstand higher rotational speeds. On the other hand, coil springs have tendency to distort in the transverse direction at higher speeds. 4. In case of coil springs, load-deflection curve is linear. Therefore with the wear of the clutch facing the springs have less deflection due to which they would apply Jess force against the clutch plate. On the other hand in case of diaphragm spring, the loaddeflection curve is not linear. Therefore, in this case, as the clutch facing wears, force on the plate gradually increases, which means that even in the WOIn out condition, the spring force is not Jess than its value in case of new. 5. The diaphragm acts as both clamping spring and release levers. Therefore, many extra parts like struts, eye bolts, levers etc. are eliminated in the diaphragm spring, because of which the loss of efficiency due to friction wear of these parts also does not occur. which results in the elimination of squeaks and rattles.
Electromagnetic clutch This type of clutch has been employed on some Renault cars. The construction and working of this clutch may be understood by means of simplified Fig. A is the engine flywheel incorporating the winding B. Clutch plate C is lined with friction surfaces and is free to slide on splines on the clutch shaft. D is the pressure plate. The winding B is supplied with current from battery dynamo. When the winding B is energized, it attracts the pressure plate D, thereby engaging the clutch. When supply to winding B is cut off, the clutch is disengaged. There is a clutch release switch in the gear lever. This switch is operated as soon as the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear, cutting off current to the winding and thus causing clutch disengagement. Ordinarily the winding is connected to engine dynamo. At lower engine speeds, dynamo output is also low which makes the force in winding very
small. Three rings are also provided in the clutch (not shown) to balance this reduced electromagnetic force at low speeds, thus disengaging the clutch. During normal operation, the electromagnetic force of the winding is regulated by means of an electrical resistance, which itself is controlled by means of accelerator pedal. As the acceleration pedal is pressed the resistance is gradually cut, thus increasing the electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic type of clutch is best suited where remote operation is desired since no linkages are required to control its engagement. A major limitation of this type is that of heat capacity since the clutch-operating temperature is limited by the temperature rating of the insulation of the magnetic coil. Another disadvantage is its higher initial cost.
Experiment No. 03
Automobile Gear box.
EXPERIMENT NO - 3.
Title Automobile gear box. Aim To study different types of gear box used in automobile. Objectives To study function & requirement of gear box. To study type of gear box. To study construction & working of Synchromesh gear box. To study synchronizing unit.. To demonstrate on Synchromesh gear box. Introduction:Function of gear box The main functions which are performed by the gear box are 1) The torque or tractive efforts produced by the engine varies with speed only within narrow units limits butt the practical considerations for the running of automobile under different condition of torque available at the wheels. The main purpose of gear box is to provide a means of large variation in torque ratios between the engine & transmission system. 2) The gear box also provides a natural position so that the engine & road wheels are disconnected even with the clutch in the engaged position. 3) A means to back the car by reversing the direction of also provided by the gear box.
Necessity of gear box: i. To provide variation in the torque. ii. To provide variation of tractive effort of vehicle available at various speeds. iii. To Provide reverse direction to the vehicle. iv. To provide the idle condition i.e. disconnect engine from the transmission system. Types of gear box: Following are the type of gear box 1) Manually operated gear box. a. Sliding mesh gear box b. Constant mesh gear box. c. Synchromesh gear box 2) Automatic operated gear box. a) Fluid type gear box. 3) Synchromesh Gear Box This type of gear box is similar to const mesh with the corresponding gear on the lay shaft the lay shaft are fixed to it while those on the main shaft are free to rotate on the same. Fig. shows the construction & working of synchromesh gear box. Construction In Fig. A. is engine shaft gear B,C ,D,E. are free on the main shaft & are always in mesh. With corresponding gears on the lay shaft as well as on lay shaft continue to rotate so long as shaft A rotating Member F1 & F2 are free to slide on spines on the main shaft G1 & G2 Are ring shaped members having internal teeth Fit into the external teeth members F1 & F2 respectively K1 & K2 are dog teeth on B & D respectively & those also fit on to the teeth of G1 & G2 & S1 & S2 are the fork T1 & T2 are the ball supported by spring . these tends to prevent the sliding of members G1 (G2 ) on F1 ( F2 ). However When the force applied on G1 (G2 ) through fork slides over& S1 (S2 ) exceeds a certain value. The balls are overcome & member G1 (G2 ) slides over F1 ( F2 ).there are usually six of these balls symmetrically
b) Electric type gearbox.
placed circumferentially in one synchromesh device , M1, M2, N1,N2 ,P1,P2, R1,R2 are frictional surfaces. Working -For direct gear member G1 (through spring loaded balls) is slide towards left till cones M1& M2 rub & friction makes their speed equal further pushing the member G1 to left causes it to override the balls get engaged with dogs k1 now the drive to the main shaft is direct from B via F1 & the splines. However, if member G1 is pushed too quickly so that there is not sufficient time for synchronization of speeds a clash may result. Likewise defect will arise in case springs supporting the balls if have become weak. Similarly for second gear member F1 & G1 are slid to the right to that finally the
internal teeth on G1 are engaged with L1 . Then the drive to main shaft will be form B via U1 U2 C1 F1 & splines. For Fist gear G1 & F2 are moved towards left the drive will be form B via U1, U3, D1, F2 & splines to the main shaft.. Synchromesh unit: In synchromesh gear box it is very necessary for the smooth operation that sufficient time is allowed for the equation of the speeds before the equalization of the speeds before the gears are finally brought into mesh. To help in this special modification have been Employed in many gear boxes one such modified synchromesh device is shown in provided between the dog teeth K1 & member F1. to push this synchromesh ring in the desired direction , there guide bar equally spaced along the circumference are provided. These are retained in place by means of serclips teeths at its outer circumference & is cut at three places to provide space for the guide bars plus half the pitch of the teeth on the synchronizer Ring. When the gear is to be engaged, fork S1 side F1 to left pushing synchronizer ring also Along till the inclined friction surface on the inside of the ring domes into contact with the corresponding friction surface of the gear till the speeds of the two mating surfaces have not equalized the guide bars would be contacting one side of the corresponding cuts in the synchronizer ring as shown in fig In this position G1 cannot move further. However, as the speeds are equalized, the guide bars become central in the cut & the member G1 can be pushed further overriding the spring loaded balls as explained earlier so as to engage gear.
4) Constant mesh gear box:In this type of gear box, all the gears are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the lay shaft. The gears on the main shaft, which is splined, are free. The dog clutches are provided which are free to slide on the main shaft. The gears on the layshaft are, however, fixed. When the left dog clutch is slid to the left by means of the selector mechanism, its teeth are engaged with those on the clutch gear and we get the direct gear. The same dog clutch, however, when slid to right makes contact with the second gear and second gear is obtained. Similarly movement of the right dog clutch to the left result in low gear and towards right in reverse gear. Double Declutching:In the constant mesh box, for the smooth engagement of the dog clutches it is necessary that the speed of main shaft gear and the sliding gear must be equal. Therefore to obtain lower gear, the speed of the clutch shaft, layshaft and main shaft gear must be increased. This is done by double clutching. The procedure of double clutching is given bellow. The clutch is disengaged and the gear is brought to neutral. Then the clutch is engaged and accelerator pedal is pressed to increase the speed of the main shaft gear. After this the clutch is again disengaged and the gear moved to the required lower gear and the clutch is again engaged. As the clutch disengaged twice in this process, it is called double declutching. Advantages:Compared to the sliding mesh type, the constant mesh gear box has the following advantages. 1. As the gears have to remain always in mesh, it is no longer necessary to use straight spur gears. Instead, helical gears are used which are quieter running. 2. Wear of dog teeth on account of engaging and disengaging is reduced because; here all the teeth of the dog clutches are involved compared to only two or three teeth in the case of sliding gear. 4) Sliding mesh type of gear box:-
This is simplest type of gear box. Figure shows simplified view of the gear box. The power comes from the engine to the clutch shaft and thanes to clutch gear which is always in mesh with the gear on the lay shaft. All the gear on the lay shaft is fixed to it and as such they are all the time rotating when the engine is running and the clutch is engaged. Three direct and one reverse speeds are attained on suitably moving the gear on the main shaft by means of selector mechanism. The various positions are shown in figure.
Experiment NO - 4.
Final Drive And Differential.
EXPERIMENT NO - 4. Title Final drive and differential. Aim To study final drive and differential unit.
Objectives To study function & construction of propeller shaft. To study function of final drive. To study types of gears used in final drive. To study construction & working of differential unit. To study function & requirement of differential unit. To demonstrate on differential unit.
Introduction:Propeller shaft: Functions: - Function of propeller shaft is to transmit the drive from the transmission to the bevel pinion or worm of final drive in front engine rear drive vehicles. Construction: Propeller shaft consist mainly three parts. 1. Shaft As this has to withstand mainly torsional loads it is usually mode of tubular cross- sections. 2. Universal joint- One or two universal joint account for up & down movement of the rear axle when the vehicle is running. 3. Slip joint Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in shaft. This serves to adjust the length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle movements. A propeller shaft has two universal joints at the ends and a slip or sliding joints. Slip joint is formed by the internal splines on the sleeve attached to the `left universal joint & external splines on the propeller shaft as shown.
Function:The function of the final drive is to provide a permanent speed reduction & also to turn the drive through 900. The reduction provided is about 4:1 in case and 10: 1 in heavier vehicles. This is done either in one or two stages for lesser reduction say up to about 7:1 single reduction are achieved in two steps. the double reduction has. Final drive: The functions of the final drive are to provide a permanent speed reduction and also to turn the drive und through 90. The reduction provided is about 4: I in cars and 10: I in heavier vehicles. This is done it her in one or two stages. For lesser reduction, say upto about 7:1 single reduction is used, while higher reductions are achieved in two steps. The double reduction has to be resorted to, because otherwise the size f the larger gear becomes too much. The final drive in practice consists of a bevel pinion and a crown wheel or alternatively, worm and wheel arrangement. The bevel pinion is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the propeller shaft generally through a universal joint. From the crown wheel the drive goes to the differential. Three types of gears are used for the final drive gearing: 1. Straight Bevel Gears These contain the straight teeth. They are therefore simplest and thus the cheapest of all types. However, with straight bevel gears, at one instant only one pair of teeth of pinion and the crown wheel will be in contact. As a result an uneven transmission of motion will take place as the load is transferred from one pair of teeth to the next. Thus these gears are noisy and suffer from high wear. 2. Spiral Bevel Gears The spiral bevel gears have curved teeth which result in greater contact of the teeth. Because of this spiral bevel gears are silent running and stronger than the straight bevel gears 3. Hypoid Gears These types of gears are widely used for final drive these days. The name 'hypoid' is derived from the 'hyperboloid of revolution'. The basic surface on which the teeth are cut in their case, is hyperboloid, which is a solid obtained by rotating a hyperbola about an offset axis. Such gears are employed to connect shafts at right angles to each other, but not lying in the same plane.
In appearance, the shape of the teeth is similar to the ones in case of spiral bevel gears. Worm and wheel arrangement: Apart from bevel pinions and the crown wheel, the worm and wheel arrangement is also used quite frequently. Worms used are of the multi-start type. Such a worm would have a lead equal to number of starts times its pitch and would thus advance the wheel through a larger distance compared to a single start worm. This decreases the gear ratio. Usually final drives have four to eight start worms depending upon the reduction required. Thus,
Differential: The purpose of the differential assembly is to allow the two drive wheels to turn at different speeds when the car goes around a corner. This is necessary because when cornering, the wheel on the inside of the turn goes through a smaller arc or corner than the wheels on the outside. If the wheels were not allowed to turn at different speeds, they would tend to skip around the corner and steering would be very difficult. Differentials are used in: a) The rear drive axle of front engine, rear wheel drives vehicles. b) The transaxles of front engine, front wheel drive and rear engine, rear wheel drive vehicles. c) The front drive axle and rear drive axle of four wheel drive vehicles. d) The transfer case of some four wheel drive vehicles. Both the front drive and rear drive differential have the same job to do. They also have many of the same parts. The basic difference is the way in which engine torque is delivered to the differential assembly. Power enters the rear axle assembly from the final drive which consists of bevel pinion connected through a rear universal yoke to the propeller shaft. The bevel pinion is meshed with the crown wheel, which is bolted to the case. This arrangement allows the bevel pinion to turn. The crown wheel. As the crown wheel turns, the case attached to it also turns. A shaft through the case also goes through the middle of two small pinion gears. As the case turns, this shaft turns the small pinion gears, each of which meshes with a side gear. Each side gear is attached to a shaft called an axle, which on a rear drive system runs through housing to one of the rear wheels. When the automobile is travelling in a straight line, the
power flow through the system is fairly simple. The crown wheel turns the case. The case, through its shaft and pinion gears, turns each of the side gears at the same speed. The axles or drive shafts turn the drive wheels, which drive the vehicle. When the vehicle makes a turn, however, the power flow becomes more complicated. If the automobile is making a left turn, the left drive wheel must go through a sharper corner or travel through a shorter distance than the right drive wheel. The crown wheel turns the case. Since the left wheel is going through a sharp corner, the left axle is slowed or stopped momentarily. The pinion gears in the case still turn with the case but they also rotate on the case shaft. Thus they can walk around the slowed or stopped left side gear and provide all the power to the right side gear so the right wheel will turn faster than the left wheel. During a right turn there is more resistance on the right axle, because the right wheel must turn through a sharper corner than the left. The pinions in the case walk around the right side gear and drive the left axle gear.
Experiment No. 05 Hydraulic Brake System
EXPERIMENT NO.:-5
Title: - Hydraulic brake system.
Aim: - To study hydraulic brake system.
Objectives: To study function & requirement of breaking system. To study classification of braking system. To study construction & working of hydraulic braking system. To demonstrate on hydraulic breaking system. Introduction:Brakes are one of the most important control components of vehicle. They are required to stop the vehicle within smallest possible distance & this is done by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy which is dissipated into the atmosphere. Function and requirement of brake a) To reduce the speed of the vehicle. b) To keep the vehicle at rest. c) To control the vehicle. Requirement:-
a) It should be easy to operate. b) It should easy to adjust. c) The brake must be enough strong to stop vehicle within a minute distance in an
emergency.
d) The brakes must have good anti feed characteristics i.e their effectiveness should not
be decrease with constant prolonged application.
e) It should required minimum force to operate. f) there are no skidding

Classification of brakes:The brakes for automotive use may classify according to the following consideration. a) Purpose
b) Location. c) Construction. d) Method of actuation. e) Extra braking effort.
Purpose:From this point of view brakes may be classified as service or primary & parking or secondary brakes. The service brakes are the main brakes used for stopping vehicle while in motion, whereas parking brakes are meant hold vehicle on a slope. Location:The brakes may be located either on transmission or at wheels. firstly the locations of transmission brakes from this view point very poor, whereas in case of wheel brakes may have four brakes drum. i.e. one on each wheel. Construction:From construction point of view, two categories are drum brakes & the disc brakes. Method of actuation:This criterion gives the following brakes type. a) Mechanical brake b) Hydraulic brake c) Electric brake d) Vacuum brake e) Air brakes Extra braking effort:In this brakes are called servo brakes or power assisted brakes. however, when practically none of breaking effort is applied by driver, brakes are termed power brakes or power operated brakes.
Construction and working of hydraulic brakes:An outline of hydraulic braking system in fig. the main component in this is master cylinder, which contain reservoir for the brake fluid. Master cylinder is operated by brakes paddle and is further connected to wheel cylinder in each wheel through steel pipe lines and flexible hoses. The system is so designed that even when brakes are in released position, a small pressure of about 50 kpa is maintained in pipe lines to ensure that cups of wheel
cylinder are kept expanded. This prevents air from entering wheel cylinders when the brakes are released. Besides, this pressure also serves following purpose. i. ii. It keeps free travel of peddle min. by opposing brake shoe retraction sprig. During bleeding, it does not allow fluid pumped into line to return, thus quickly purging air from system. The main components of hydraulic braking system are as follows:Master cylinder:This can be rightly named as heart of hydraulic braking system. There are two main chambers viz. fluid reservoir & compression chamber in which piston operates. the fluid in reservoir components for any change in fluid volume in pipeline due to temp. Variation & to some extent due to leakage, to prevent leakage there are rubber seal on both side of piston in compression chamber. The reduce diameter region of piston always surrounded by fluid. a rubber but covers push rod end of master cylinder to prevent dirt from entering inside. Towards the brake lines side of compression chamber, there is a fluid check valve with a rubber cup inside. It serves to retain residual pressure in brakes line even when brakes are released. There is a no. of holes in piston head on primary seal side. Two holes connect fluid reservoir to compression chamber. The smaller one out of these is about 0.7mm dim. It is called bypass or compression port. The second hole is called intake or recuperation on port. As pedal is pressed, push rod moves piston to left against force of spring till it cover bypass port. Finally when sufficient pressure has built up inner rubber cup of fluid check is deflected, forcing the fluid under pressure in lines. This fluid enters wheel cylinder or caliper & moves the piston thereby applying brakes.
Tandem master cylinder:Tandem master cylinder ensures reliability with not much extra cost. Under ordinary condition brake fluids will transmit pressure both to as well as to the rear brakes when brake pedal is applied. however, the front brake lines are damaged piston(2) will move till come up in space between piston 1&2 & rear, brakes will be applied similarly when rear brake lines or damaged, no pressure will built up in space between piston 1&2. So piston (1) will move freely till it comes up against (2). Further push at brake pedal will move both piston (1) & (2) together there by applying the front brakes.
Wheel cylinder:Wheel cylinder in brake system is meant to force brake shoes against the drum. Each wheel cylinder is provided with piston, rubber seals (cups), cup spreaders, spring & dust covers (boots). The brake line from the master cylinder is attached to the inlet part & a bleeder screw with a cover is provided to bleed air from system whenever required. Wheel cylinders are mounted on the back plate. When are applied the fluid under pressure from master cylinder enters at inlet part & forces against drum. Similarly, when brake is released, brake shoe retractor spring forces brake fluid out the wheel cylinder by pushing piston inward. Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic brakes Advantages: (a) Equal braking action on all wheels. (b) Increased braking force. (c) Simple in construction. (d) Low wear rate of brake linings. (e) Flexibility of brake linings. (f) Increased mechanical advantage.
Disadvantages: (a) Whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from brake linings. (b) Presence of air inside the tubings ruins the whole system.
Braking systems:
Air Brakes Air brakes are applied by the pressure of compressed air. Air pressure applies force on brakes shoes through suitable linkages to operate brakes. An air compressor is used to compress air. This compressor is run by engine power. Vacuum Brakes Vacuum brakes are a piston or a diaphragm operating in a cylinder. For application of brakes one side of piston is subjected to atmospheric pressure while the other is applied vacuum by exhausting air from this side. A force acts on the piston due to difference of pressure. This force is used to operate brake through suitable linkages. Electric Brakes In electrical brakes an electromagnet is used to actuate a cam to expand the brake shoes. The electromagnet is energized by the current flowing from the battery. When flow of current is stopped the cam and brake shoes return to their original position and brakes are disengaged. Electric brakes are not used in automobiles as service brakes.
Experiment No. 06 Study and demonstration of front wheel steering geometry and steering mechanism.
EXPERIMENT NO 6. Title Study and demonstration of front wheel steering geometry and steering mechanism. Aim To of front wheel steering geometry and steering mechanism..
Objectives:1. To study functions & requirement of steering. 2. To study correct steering, under steering & over steering conditions. 3. To study steering linkage for independent of rigid axle suspension for front wheel. 4. To study steering gear. 5. To demonstrate on steering mechanism.
Introduction: Primary function of steering system is to achieve angular motion of the front wheel to negotiate the turn .This is done through linkage of steering gear which convent the rotary motion of system steering wheel into the angular motion of the front wheels. Function: 1. To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead. 2. To provide perfect steering condition i.e. perfect rolling motion of road wheels at all times. 3. The facilities straight ahead recovery after completing turn. 4. To minimize turn wear.
Requirements: 1. The steering mechanism should be very accurate & easy to handle. 2. The effort required to steer should be minimum & must not be tiresome to the driver. 3. The steering mechanism should also provide directional stability.
Vehicle dynamics and steering: Generally speaking, when you turn the steering wheel in your car, you typically expect it to go where you're pointing it. At slow speed, this will almost always be the case but once you get some momentum behind you, you are at the mercy of the chassis and suspension designers. In racing, the aerodynamic wings, air splitters and undertrays help to maintain an even balance of the vehicle in corners along with the position of the weight in the vehicle and the suspension setup. The two most common problems you'll run into are understeer and oversteer. Correct steering: The perfect steering is achieved when all the four wheels are rolling perfectly under all conditions of running, while taking turns the condition of perfect rolling is satisfied it the axes of the front wheel axes at one point. Then this point is instantaneous centre of the vehicle. It is seen that inside vehicle is required to turn the greater angle than outer wheel. The larger the steering angle of inner wheel can have maximum value of about 440 the extreme position. The diameter of the smallest circle which the outer front wheel they can transverse & obtained when the wheels are at their extreme position is called as running circle. Understeer: Understeer is so called because the car steers less than you want it to. Understeer can be brought on by all manner of chassis, suspension and speed issues but essentially it means that the car is losing grip on the front wheels. Typically it happens as you brake and the weight is transferred to the front of the car. At this point the mechanical grip of the front tyres can simply be overpowered and they start to lose grip (for example on a wet or greasy road surface). The end result is that the car will start to take the corner very wide. In racing, that normally involves going off the outside of the corner into a catch area or on to the grass. In normal you-and-me driving, it means crashing at the outside of the corner. Getting out of understeer can involve letting off the throttle in front-wheeldrive vehicles (to try to give the tyres chance to grip) or getting on the throttle in rearwheel-drive vehicles (to try to bring the back end around). It's a complex topic more suited to racing
driving forums but suffice to say that if you're trying to get out of understeer and you cock it up, you get..... Oversteer: The bright ones amongst you will probably already have guessed that oversteer is the opposite of understeer. With oversteer, the car goes where it's pointed far too efficiently and you end up diving into the corner much more quickly than you had expected. Oversteer is brought on by the car losing grip on the rear wheels as the weight is transferred off them under braking, resulting in the rear kicking out in the corner. Without counter-steering (see below) the end result in racing is that the car will spin and end up going off the inside of the corner backwards. In normal you-and-me driving, it means spinning the car and ending up pointing back the way you came. Counter-steering: Counter-steering is what you need to do when you start to experience oversteer. If you get into a situation where the back end of the car loses grip and starts to swing out, steering opposite to the direction of the corner can often 'catch' the oversteer by directing the nose of the car out of the corner. In drift racing and demonstration driving, it's how the drivers are able to smoke the rear tyres and power-slide around a corner. They will use a combination of throttle, weight transfer and handbrake to induce oversteer into a corner, then flick the steering the opposite direction, honk on the accelerator and try to hold a slide all the way around the corner. It's also a widely-used technique in rally racing. Tiff Needell - a racing driver who also works on some UK motoring programs - is an absolute master at counter-steer power sliding.
Steering system for right axle front suspension: Fig Shows a rigid axle steering linkage the drop arm is rigidly connected to the c/s shaft of the steering gear at its upper while its lower end is connected to the link rod the ball joint to the outer end of the link rod is connected to arm through a ball joint . Each stud axle has a forged track rod arm rigidly bolted to the wheel axis .The other end of track rod arm are connected to track by means of ball joints. The design of their ball joints is such that the expanding spring compensation for wear or miss adjustment .An adjustor is provided in the track rod to change its length for adjusting the wheel alignment. Steering linkage with independent suspension:In this there is no vertical deflection of the suspension hence there is no change in effective track rod length, however in case of independent suspension the two stud axle can move up or down independent on each other due to which distance between ball joint end of the two track rod arm is continuously varying an account of this a single track rod as conventional system described above cant be used. The fig. depicts are linkage for the independent suspension where the above difficulty is avoided .there 3 piece track rod is used .the centre position being called the really rod which is supported on body & to drop arm of the steering gear at the other end through ball joints . Steering gears: The steering gear converts the turning motion of the steering wheel into the to & fro motion of the link rod of the steering linkage .It also provides the necessary leverage so that the driver is axle steer the vehicle without fatigue. There are 5 types of steering gears which are as follows. 1. Worm & worm wheel steering gear 2. Worm & nut steering gear. 3. Worm and roller steering gear. 4. Recalculating ball type steering gear. 5. Rack and pinion steering gear.
Worm & worm wheel steering gear: The movement of the steering wheel turns the worm with in turn drives the wheels attached to the wheel spindle rigidly is drop arm , so that a rotation of steering wheel corresponds to a linear motion of the drop arm end , which is connected to the link rod as has already been discussed . In place of worm wheel only a sector is also sometimes used but the complete wheel has an advantage over the latter in that case back lash due to wearing out of the teeth of the worm & worm wheel can be easily adjusted for its purpose the worm wheel is mounted over an eccentric bush. When the teeth have worm out the problem it how to bring the worm & worm wheel together to take up wear .This is done by rotating the bush there certain angle. Worm & Nut steering gear: The construction of this type of gear is as shown. In this system when the steering wheel is rotated the steering columns rotates. The worm is an integrated part of the steering column. Therefore when the steering column rotates, the worm also rotates. Now the worm is mesh with a nut arrangement. This movement will take place along the axis of the column eighter up or down. This enables the cross shaft to rotate in an arc. This arm transmits the steering to all wheels.
Worm and roller steering gear: In this system the worm is at the end of steering column. The diameter of worm is more at its ends. Its diameter is gradually reduced at the centre. A roller is in mesh with this worm. The roller has a cross shaft which is fitted to drop arm. When steering wheel is rotated, the column also rotates. Also, when the worm of the shaft is rotated, the roller rotates in an arc. Which is turn rotates the wheel.
Recirculation ball type steering gear: It consists of a worm at the end of steering rod/shaft. A nut is mounted on the worm with two sets of balls in the grooves of the worm, in between the nut and the worm. The balls reduce the friction during the movement of the nut on the worm. The nut has number of teeth on the outside, which mesh with the teeth on a worm wheel sector, on which is further mounted the drop arm, which steers the road wheels through link rod and steering arms.
Rack and pinion steering gear: A pinion is mounted on the end of steering shaft. It engages with a rack which has ball joints at each end to allow for the rise or fall of the wheels. As the pinion teeth mesh with rack teeth, rack moves to and fro. A rack and pinion steering gear is suitable for small cars where steering force is light.
Experiment No. 07 Study and demonstration of suspension system of a four-wheeler.
EXPERIMENT NO. :-7
Title: - Study and demonstration of suspension system of a four-wheeler.
Aim: - To study suspension system.
Objectives: To study function & requirements of suspension system. Type of suspension system. To study leaf spring & shock absorber. To study independent suspension system for front & rear wheel. To demonstrate on suspension system.
Function of system:1. To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to vehicle components. 2. To safeguard the occupants from road shocks. 3. To preserve stability of vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion.
Requirements of suspension system:1.Verticle loading :The frequency of the front springing system should be less than that of rear springing system. 2.Rolling :To obviate the tendency for vehicle to roll, a stabilizer called anti-roll should be used in the form of torsion bar. 3.Side thrust: Centrifugal force during cornering ,cross winds, cambering of thrust such forces are usually absorbed by rigidity of leaf spring. 4.Unsprung weight :The weight of the unsprung parts should be minimum to avoid vibration & shocks. The suspension system should be optimum compromise between softness & hardness. road etc. cause a side
Principles of Suspension: The suspension system isolates the body from road shocks and vibrations which would otherwise be transferred to the passengers and load. It also must keep the tyres in contact with the road. When a tyre hits an obstruction, there is a reaction force. The size of this reaction force depends on the unsprung mass at each wheel assembly. The sprung mass is that part of the vehicle supported by the springs- such as the body, the frame, the engine, and associated parts. Unsprung mass includes the components that follow the road contours, such as wheels, tyres, brake assemblies, and any part of the steering and suspension not supported by the springs. Vehicle ride and handling can be improved by keeping unsprung mass as low as possible. When large and heavy wheel assemblies encounter a bump or pothole, they experience a larger reaction force, sometimes large enough to make the tyre lose contact with the road surface. Wheel and brake units that are small, and light, follow road contours without a large effect on the rest of the vehicle. At the same time, an uspension system must be strong enough to withstand loads imposed by vehicle mass during cornering, accelerating, braking, and uneven road surfaces. Types of suspension system:The various springs may be classified as follows:1.Steel springs:a. Leaf spring. b. Tapered leaf spring. c. Coil spring d. Torsion bar.
2. Rubber spring:a. Compression spring. d. Progressive spring. b. Compression shear spring e. Face shear spring. c. Steel reinforced spring. f. Torsional shear spring.
3. Plastic spring. 4. Air spring. 5. Hydraulic spring. a) Leaf spring:Semi-elliptical leaf springs are almost universally used for suspension in light & heavy commercial vehicles for cars also; these are widely used for suspension.
Construction:-
Fig. gives rear axial leaf spring of semi-elliptical type. The springs consist of no. of leaves called blades. The blades vary in length as shown. The composite spring is based upon theory of beam of uniform strength. The lengthiest blade has eyes on its ends. This blade is called master leaf. All the blades are bound together by means of steel straps as shown. The spring is supported on axel, front or rear by means of u-bolt. One end of the spring is mounted on spring with simple while on other end; connection is made with a shackle when the vehicle comes across a projection on road surface, the wheel moves up, deflecting spring. This changes the length between spring eyes. If both ends are fixed, spring will not able to accommodate this change of shackle at one end which gives a flexible connection. Shock absorber:A springing devise must be compromise between flexibility & stiffness. if it is more rigid ,it will not absorb road shocks efficiently & if it is more flexible it will continue to vibrate even after bump has passed. So we must have sufficient damping of spring to prevent excessive flexing. as shown in fig. rod g is attached to two ways valve a ,while another similar two way valve b is attached at lower space between cylinder c & tube d ,which is connected to space below valve assembly b as shown. h is gland in head j & any fluid scrapped passage shown in the head , off by rod g is brought down into the annular space through inclined passage, the eye e is connected to the axel, while the eye f is attached to chassis frame. The fluid generally used n shock absorber is a mixture of 60% transformer oil & 40% turbine oil. When car has more across a bump then eye e would up & there fluid will pass from lower side of valve assembly to its upper side. But since volume of space above is less by volume of rod g, fluid will also exert a pressure on valve assembly b & go to underside of valve b. These passings of fluid through valve opening provide damping. Similarly for downward motion, fluid will pass from upper side of the valve assembly to lower side & also from lower side of valve assembly b to its upper side. Independent suspension system (front wheel):-
One of the main benefits claimed for independent suspension is that unsprung mass can be kept low. Also, if a wheel on one side hits a road irregularity, it wont upset the wheel
on the other side on the same axle. And it allows wheel camber to be adjusted individually, when provided for by the manufacturer. One of the simplest and most common,
independent suspension systems are the McPherson strut type. It can be used on the front and rear of the vehicle. Five type of independent suspension system . 1. Wishbone type or parallel link type. 2. Mac pherson strut type. 3. Vertical guide type. 4. Trailing link type.
5. Swinging half axle.
Wishbone type suspension:Fig. shows a diagrammatic sketch of wishbone type suspension with coil spring in front axle suspension of cars is almost universal. It consist of upper & lower wishbone arm pivoted to frame member, the spring is placed between lower wishbone & the underside of cross-member. The Body & cross member to coil spring through which it goes to the lower wishbone member. shock absorber is placed inside the coil spring & is attached to cross member & to lower wishbone arm are like the chicken. The wishbone arms are or letter v is shape, because of which the system is so called. The wishbone type is the most popular independent system. Macpherson strut front Suspension The MacPherson strut suspension system is similar to the SLA suspension. The MacPherson strut eliminates the upper control arm and mounts a coil type spring over the strut assembly. TheMacPherson strut is used on most current front-wheel drive vehicles with independent front suspensions. The suspension system consists of a lower control arm, a vertical strut with a coil spring, and a sway bar. A strut rod or link is used to control fore and aft movements if a lower control arm does not do this. The MacPherson strut contains upper/lower spring seats and ashock absorber for damping spring oscillations. The coil spring is offset on the strut to improve durability and reduce friction. An isolator is located on the top of the strut. The isolator bolts to the upper fender well reinforcement (strut tower) with several bolts. The isolator contains a pivot bearing that allows the strut, steering knuckle, and wheel to turn.
Rear wheel (live axle) independent suspension:Through the rear wheels are not to be steered, yet there is considerable difficulty in rear wheel. But even rear wheel independent springing is coming into prominence because of its distinct advantages over axle type. fig. shows the one method of rear wheel independent suspension universal coupling a & b keep the wheel vertical , while sliding coupling c is required to maintain wheel track constant, thereby avoiding scrubbing of types. This method has been used in de dion type of axle Telescopic type Shock Absorber A 'Telescopic' shock absorber derives its name from the tubular shape of early telescopes used in ancient times. These are of two types, viz., the mono-tube type and the twin-tube type. Referring to Fig. wherein a twin-tube type shock absorber is shown, rod G is attached to the two-way valve A; whiling other similar two-way valve B is attached at the lower end of cylinder C. There is a fluid in the space below valve assembly A, below B and also in the annular space between cylinder C and tube D, which is connected to the space below the valve assembly B as shown. H is gland in the head J and any fluid scrapped off by rod G is brought down into the annular space through the inclined passage shown in the head. The eye E is connected to the axle, while the eye F is attached to the chassis frame. The fluid generally used in shock absorbers is a mixture of 60 per cent transformer oil and 40 per cent turbine oil. To understand the action of the shock absorber, consider that the vehicle has come across a bump. Then eye E would move up and there by the fluid will pass from the lower side of valve assembly A to its upper side. But since the volume of the space above A is less by the volume of rod G, the fluid will also exert its pressure on vale assembly B and go to the underside of valve B. This passing of fluid through valve openings provides the damping. Similarly for the downward motion of the eye E during rebound, the fluid will pass from the upper side of valve assembly A to the lower side of valve assemble B.
Stabilizer Bar: Stabilizer is necessarily used in all independent front suspension. It reduces tendency of the vehicle to roll on either side when taking a turn. It is simply a bar of alloy steel with arms at each end connected to the lower wish bone of the independent suspension system. It is supported in bush bearings fixed the frame and is parallel to cross member. When both the
wheels deflect up or down by the same amount, the stabilizer bar simple turns in the bearings. When only one wheel deflects, then only one end of the stabilizer moves, thus it acts as a spring between two sides of the independent front suspension. Torsion Bar Torsion bar suspension is used in independent suspension system. It is a rod acting in torsion and taking shear stresses only. It is made up of heat treated alloy spring steel. This bar stores amount of energy nearly as same as coil spring. The bar is fixed at one end to the fr4ame, while the other end is fixed to the end of the wheel arm and supported in the bearing. The other end of the wheel arm connected to the wheel hub. When the wheel strikes a bump, it starts vibrating up and down, thus exerting torque on the torsion bar which acts as a spring. Trailing-arm rear suspension: In order to minimize the amount of room required, the coil spring and monotube gaspressure shock absorber are directly supported by the chassis subframe. The connecting tube is stress optimized oval shaped in order to withstand the high bending moments from longitudinal and lateral wheel forces which occur in the course of driving. The torsionbar stabilizer proceeds directly from the shock-absorber attachment for reasons of weight and ease of assembly. When establishing the spring/shock-absorber properties,the line along which the forces act and which is altered by the lift of the wheel is to be taken into consideration, as a disadvantageous load-path can occur with jounce. The two front subframes are hydraulically damped in order to achieve a good level of comfort (hydromounts). The chassis subframe can make minor elastokinematic control movements. When designing subframe mounts, it is necessary to ensure that they retain their defined properties with regard to strength and geometry even with unfavourable conditions of use (e.g. low temperatures) and for a sufficiently long period of time, because variations in the configuration have a direct effect on vehicle performance. The longitudinal arms which run on tapered-roller bearings and which are subject to both flexural as well as torsional stress are designed in the form of a parallelogram linkage. In this way, the inherent disadvantage of a trailing arm axle - unwanted toe-in as a result of the deformation of the link when subject to a lateral force - is reduced by 75%, according to works specifications. Airsuspension:
Air suspension system are designed to cushion the ride and keep the car, bus or truck level fore and aft and at a constant height regardless of load. Air suspension was introduced on many luxury cars in the late 1950s, but it was dropped after one or two model years. Recently, however, new leveling systems have been researched and developed for passenger car use, including air adjustable rear shock absorber. A typical air suspension system consists of an engine-driven air compressor, supply tank, filter or condenser, valves, piping, controls and air springs or bellows. In operation, the air compressor maintains a constant pressure in the supply tank. Air is piped to the control valves, which feed air to each spring as needed. Pressure is automatically increased on either side or at front or rear as required to keep the car level and to keep any desired height from the road (within limit of system).
Experiment NO.8 Study And Demonstration Of Battery, Electrical Charging System
EXPERIMENT NO 8. Title Study and demonstration of battery, Electrical charging system. Aim To study of battery and electrical charging system. Objectives To study battery function. To study construction of battery. To study cell theory of battery. To study battery charging operation. To study Alternator. To study voltage regulator. Introduction:The Automotive Battery: A lead-acid storage battery is an electrochemical device that produces voltage and delivers electrical current. The battery is the primary "source" of electrical energy used in vehicles today. It's important to remember that a battery does not store power, but rather it stores a series of chemicals, and through a chemical process power is produced. Basically, two different types of lead in an acid mixture react to produce an electrical pressure called voltage. This electrochemical reaction changes chemical energy to electrical energy and is the basis for all automotive batteries. The purpose of the battery: The battery supplies power when the: A) Engine is off: power from the battery is used to operate lighting, accessories, or other electrical systems when the engine is not running. B) Engine is starting: power from the battery is used to operate the starter motor and to provide current for the ignition system during engine cranking. Starting the car is the battery's most important function.
C) Engine is running: power from the battery may be needed to supplement the charging system when the vehicle's electrical load requirements exceed the charging system's ability to produce power. Both the battery and the alternator supply power when demand is high. Batteries - primary or secondary: batteries can either be a primary cell, such as a flashlight battery once used, throw it away, or a secondary cell, such as a car battery (when the charge is gone, it can be recharged). Primary cell: because the chemical reaction totally destroys one of the metals after a period of time, primary cells cannot be recharged. Small batteries such as flashlight and radio batteries are primary cells. Secondary cell: the metal plates and acid mixture change as the battery supplies voltage. as the battery drains the metal plates become similar and the acid strength weakens. This process is called discharging. By applying current to the battery in the reverse direction, the battery materials can be restored, thus recharging the battery. Battery construction: An automobile battery contains a diluted sulfuric acid electrolyte and positive and negative electrodes, in the form of several plates. Since the plates are made of lead or leadderived materials, this type of battery is often called a lead acid battery. A battery is separated into several cells (usually six in the case of automobile batteries), and in each cell there are several battery elements, all bathed in the electrolyte solution. Specific gravity of electrolyte: Specific gravity means exact weight. A "Hydrometer" or a "Refractometer" compares the exact weight of electrolyte with that of water. Electrolyte in a charged battery is stronger and heavier than electrolyte in a discharged battery. By weight, the electrolyte in a fully charged battery is about 36% acid and 64% water. The specific gravity of water is 1.000, and the specific gravity of sulfuric acid is 1.835, which means the acid is 1.835 times heavier than the water. The battery electrolyte mixture of water and acid has a specific gravity of 1.270 and is usually stated as "twelve and seventy."
Components of Battery:1) Battery case: The battery case holds the electrolyte and the individual battery cell elements. It is divided into six compartments or cells. The plates are raised up off the bottom of the case with ribs to prevent them from shorting out if any of the active materials (lead, etc.) should happen to fall from the plates. The case is made of polypropylene, hard rubber, and plastic base materials. Some battery manufacturers use translucent plastic cases which allow checking electrolyte level without removing vent caps. These cases often have "upper" and "lower" electrolyte level markers on the outside of the case. 2) Vent caps: Vent caps cover the holes that are used for adding electrolyte. They are also designed to separate the sulfuric acid mist and the hydrogen gas that forms when the battery charges. The caps are designed to the sulfuric acid mist to condense and drop back into the battery and allow hydrogen gas to escape through the vent holes to the atmosphere. Vent caps can cover each individual cell as shown below. Note:Many Gel Cell Batteries use a one way check valve enplane of vents. 3) Vent cap strips: Most batteries today use vent cap strips that cover multiple cells (shown below). The caps are designed to allow hydrogen gas to escape and sulfuric acid mist to condense and drop back into the battery. Battery terminal identification: Battery terminals are identified as either positive" or negative". Battery cases are marked with a " + " for the positive terminal, and a " -" on the negative terminal as shown below. The words POS " or " NEG" are often used instead of the + or -. On top post terminal batteries, the positive post is slightly wider than the negative terminal post. This allow for easy identification.
Battery charging System: The battery, starting and charging systems are interrelated by a continual cycle of converting chemical energy to mechanical energy and then back again. The starter motor uses mechanical energy to crank the engine and once the engine is running, it's really a merry-goround sort of relationship. The rotation of the engine drives the alternator, forcing electrical energy (current) into a battery, where it's stored as chemical energy. The chemical energy of the battery is then changed back to electrical energy when it supplies current to the starter motor and accessories. The cycle repeats itself as the engine's mechanical energy again drives the alternator to recharge the battery so it can supply more current to the starter when needed. Charging System Components: Starter motor Alternator Voltage regulator Battery Charging indicator
Starter Motor: The starter motor is a powerful electric motor, with a small gear (pinion) attached to the end. When activated, the gear meshes with a larger gear (ring), which is attached to the engine. The starter motor turns the engine over to start the engine. When the engine starts to spin faster than the starter, the starter automatically disengages. Alternator: The alternator contains these main components: Stator (attached to alternator housing, remains stationary) Rotor (spins inside the stator) Rectifier Voltage regulator Slip rings and brushes make an electrical connection to the spinning rotor. The alternator generates power through these steps:
Engine power drives the alternator rotor through a pulley and drive belt. The alternator rotor spins inside the windings of the stator. The stator windings generate an alternating current. Rectifier diodes change the alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Voltage Regulator: The voltage regulator controls the alternators output current to prevent overcharging and undercharging of the battery. It does this by regulating the current flowing from the battery to the rotors field coil. resistors and diodes. Charging Indicator: The charging indicator is usually an ON/OFF warning lamp. When the system is running, the light should be OFF. The lamp lights when the charging system is not providing sufficient charge. The charging indicator lights when the charging system is not supplying enough power to charge the battery. Todays IC voltage regulator is a fully electronic device, using
Visual inspection of the battery.Battery maintenance should alwaysbegin with a thorough visual inspection. Look for signs of corrosion on or around thebattery, signs of leakage, a cracked case or top, missing caps, and loose or missing hold-down clamps. Checking electrolyte level and adding water.- on vent cap batteries, the electrolyte level can be checked by removing the caps. Some batteries have a fill ring which indicates the electrolyte level. The electrolyte should be even ith the fill ring. If there is no fill ring, the electrolyte should be high enough to coverthe tops of the plates. Some batteries have an electrolyte-level indicator (delco eye).this gives a color code visual indication of the electrolyte level, with black indicatingthat the level is okay and white meaning a low level. If the electrolyte level in the battery is low, fill the cells to the correct level with distilled water (purified water). Distilled water should be used because it does not contain the impurities found in tap water. Tap water contains many chemicals that
reduce battery life. The chemicals contaminate the electrolyte and collect in the bottom of the battery case. If enough contaminates collect in the bottom of the case, the cell Plates short out, ruining the battery. If water must be added at frequent intervals, the charging system may be overcharging the battery. A faulty charging system can force excessive current into the battery. Battery gassing can then remove water from the battery. Maintenance-free batteries do not need periodic electrolyte service under normal conditions. It is designed to operate for long periods without loss of electrolyte.
Experiment NO.9 Study And Demonstration Of Electrical Starting System
EXPERIMENT NO 9. Title Study and demonstration of electrical starting system AIM To study of electrical starting system.
Objectives To study Starting System Components. To study starter motor. To study one way over running clutch. To study Ignition Switch. Introduction:To make an engine start it must be turned at some speed, so that it sucks fuel and air into the cylinders, and compresses it. The powerful electric starter motor does the turning. Its shaft carries a small pinion (gear wheel) which engages with a large gear ring around the rim of the engine flywheel. In a front-engine layout, the starter is mounted low down near the back of the engine. The starter needs a heavy electric current, which it draws through thick wires from the battery. No ordinary hand-operated switch could switch it on, it needs a large switch to handle the high current. The switch has to be turned on and off very quickly to avoid dangerous, damaging sparking. So a solenoid is used - an arrangement where a small switch turns on an electromagnet to complete the circuit. The starter switch is usually worked by the ignition key. Turn the key beyond the 'ignition on' position to feed current to the solenoid. The ignition switch has a return spring, so that as soon as you release the key it springs back and turns the starter switch off.When the switch feeds current to the solenoid, the electromagnet attracts an iron rod. The movement of the rod closes two heavy contacts, completing the circuit from the battery to the starter. The rod also has a return spring -when the ignition switch stops feeding current to the solenoid, the contacts open and the starter motor stops. The return springs are needed because the starter motor must not turn more than it has to in order to start the engine. The reason is partly that the starter uses a lot of electricity, which quickly runs down the battery. Also, if the engine starts and the starter motor stays engaged, the engine will spin the starter so fast that it may be badly damaged.
The starter motor itself has a device, called a Bendix gear, which engages its pinion with the gear ring on the flywheel only while the starter is turning the engine. It disengages as soon as the engine picks up speed, and there are two ways by which it does so - the inertia system and the pre-engaged system. The inertia starter relies on the inertia of the pinion - that is, its reluctance to begin to turn. The pinion is not fixed rigidly to the motor shaft - it is threaded on to it, like a freely turning nut on a very coarse-thread bolt. Starting System Components: Starter motor Magnetic switch Overrunning clutch Ignition switch contacts Park/neutral position (A/T) or clutch start (M/T) switch Clutch start cancel switch (on some models) Starter relay Starter Motor The Gear Reduction starter is a compact lightweight unit with high torque capacity of two types of starter motors: Gear reduction Planetary Reduction Segment (PS)
Gear-Reduction:- The gearreduction starter motor contains the components shown. This Starter Motor type of starter has a compact, highspeed motor and a set of reduction gears. While the motor is smaller and weighs less than conventional starting motors, it operates at higher speed. The reduction gears transfer this torque to the pinion gear at 1/4 to 1/3 the motor speed. The pinion gear still rotates faster than the gear on a conventional starter and with much greater torque (cranking power). PS Starter Motors:- All current models are fitted with Planetary Reduction Segment. Planetary reduction allows the starter motor to operate at a higher speed than a conventional starter. The reduction gear set reduces the pinion gear speed compared to motor shaft speed. Higher motor speed yields greater torque. More compact
Lighter weight Greater output torque Conventional Starter Motor:- Conventional type starter motors drive the pinion directly. One way over running clutch:- Both conventional and gear reduction starter motors are fitted with a Clutch one way over running clutch. The clutch prevents damage to the starter when the engine starts. Clutch Operation: 1.During engine start, the starter pinion gear drives the engines flywheel ring gear. 2.Once the engine fires, the ring gear almost instantly begins to turn faster than the starter pinion gear. Overspeeding would damage the starter motor if it were not immediately disengaged from the pinion gear. 3.The clutch uses its wedged rollers and springs to disengage the pinion shaft from the clutch housing (which turns with the motor armature). This happens any time the pinion shaft tries to turn faster than the clutch housing. Ignition Switch:- The ignition switch incorporates contacts to provide B+ to the starter. The relay energizes the starter magnetic switch when the driver turns the ignition key to the START position.
Experiment NO.10 Study and demonstration of a) D. C. Electric horn. b) Electric fuel Gauge. c) Flasher unit. d) Wiper circuit
EXPERIMENT NO 10.
Title Study and demonstration of.

(a) D. C. Electric horn. (b) Electric fuel Gauge. (c) Flasher unit. (d) Wiper circuit.
Aim To Study (a) D. C. Electric horn. (b) Electric fuel Gauge. (c) Flasher unit. (c) Flasher unit.
(d) Wiper circuit.
Objectives To study D. C. Electric horn. To study Electric fuel Gauge. To study Flasher unit. To study Wiper circuit. Introduction:The instrument panel is placed so that the instruments and gauges can easily be read by the operator. They inform the operator of the vehicle speed, engine temperature, oil pressure, rate of charge or discharge of the battery, amount of fuel in the fuel tank, and distance traveled. Vehicle accessories, such as windshield wipers and horns, provide the operator with much needed safety devices. Vehicles being driven on public roads require the operation of the direction indicator lamps to be monitored and a fault instantly signalled to the driver. Direction indicator lamps are an important road safety feature signalling the direction change intention of the driver. Failure to signal or failure to recognise a direction indicator represents a significant cause for road accidents. In many countries, LED direction indicator lamps offering a reliable Fit and Forget. Automobile electrical system includes starting system, charging system, ignition system and lighting system and some accessories. The accessories include cigarette lighter horn and mobile charging system, etc.
Horn:
The horn currently used on automotive vehicles is the electric vibrating type. The electric vibrating horn system typically consists of a fuse, horn button switch, relay, horn assembly, and related wiring. When the operator presses the horn button, it closes the horn switch and activates the horn relay. This completes the circuit, and current is allowed through the relay circuit and to the horn. Most horns have a diaphragm that vibrates by means of an electromagnetic. When the horn is energized, the electromagnet pulls on the horn diaphragm. This movement opens a set of contact points inside the horn. This action allows the diaphragm to flex back towards its normal position. This cycle is repeated rapidly. The vibrations of the diaphragm within the air column produce the note of the horn. Tone and volume adjustments are made by loosening the adjusting locknut and turning the adjusting nut. This very sensitive adjustment controls the current consumed by the horn. Increasing the current increases the volume. However, too much current will make the horn sputter and may lock the diaphragm. When a electric horn will not produce sound, check the fuse, the connections, and test for voltage at the horn terminal. If the horn sounds continuously, a faulty horn switch is the most probable cause. A faulty horn relay is another cause of horn problems. The contacts inside the relay may be burned or stuck together. Fuel gauge: Fuel gauge is an instrument used to indicate level of fuel contained in the fuel tank. The fuel gaugees consists of two parts.

The sensing unit The indicator
The sensing unit usually uses a float connected to a potentiometer. As the tank empties, the float drops and slides a moving contact along the resistor, increasing its resistance. In addition, when the resistance is at a certain point, it will also turn on a "low fuel" light on some vehicles.
Meanwhile, the indicator unit usually mounted on the dashboard is measuring and displaying the amount of electrical current flowing through the sending unit. When the tank level is high and maximum current is flowing, the needle points to "F" indicating a full tank.
When the tank is empty and the least current is flowing, the needle points to "E" indicating an empty tank. The Fig shows that the fuel in the in the fuel tank is almost empty and the float has moved to the bottom of the tank moving the strip on the resistor thus increasing the resistance to maximum and current flow through the resistor becomes minimum thus displaying fuel empty on the gauge[1]. The gauge consists of a bimetallic strip i.e. a strip made of different kinds of metal and whose thermal co-efficient of expansion differs from each other. When resistance is decreases, current increases and thus the strip is heated during which one metal expands less than the other, so the strip curves, and this bending action is what moves the needle move on the fuel gauge. As resistance increases, less current passes through the heating coil, so the bimetallic strip cools. As the strip cools, it straightens out, pulling the gauge from full to empty. The smart fuel gauge system techniques has been implemented in some newer cars in which, instead of sending the current directly to the gauge, an intermediate microprocessor is used to read the output of the resistor and then communicate with the dashboard for displaying the fuel on the gauge corresponding to the read output voltage from the sending unit and these systems actually help improve the accuracy of the gauge. Flasher unit: A Car Flasher Relay is used for operating the flashlights of a car. We all must have noticed that every vehicle consists of four distinct orange colored lights at the edge of their four corners. These lights are called indicator lights and are perhaps one of the very important parts of every vehicle as far as safety is concerned. On a busy street whenever a driver needs to change the course of its vehicle or make a turn (towards left or right), it becomes very important for him to give a prior warning signal to other speeding vehicles from the rear side. This is effectively done by flashing the relevant (left pair or right pair) indicators so that the other vehicles around are intimated of a change in its course and avoid a possible accident. These indicators are actually made up of 12 volts incandescent bulbs fitted in the appropriate left, right side holders. A 12 volt flasher unit is used to alternately switch these bulbs ON and OFF, thus producing a flashing or blinking effect.
The flasher units which are today commercially available in the market may be technically differentiated into three categories, namely Electro-Mechanical Flasher: It is normally used only for the 2-wheelers as its power handling capacity is quite limited. It basically consists of a bi-metal strip inside which in effect of a heating coil, alternately makes and breaks the supply to the bulbs, making the bulbs to flash. Solid State Electronic Flasher: These types of flashers operate using an electronic circuit. The entire load of the bulbs is handled by a power transistor. The circuit is in fact an oscillator which provides switching pulses to the power transistor. In response to these pulses the power transistor switches the indicator lights ON and OFF alternately producing a blinking effect. Since they do not incorporate any movable part, are generally highly durable. They may come in 2-pin or 3-pin versions and may be universally used for all small vehicles. Relay Type Electronic Flasher: In these types of flashers, the relay forms the main load handling component. Again an electronic oscillator is used to drive the relay. The load or the indicator bulbs are connected in series with the relay, therefore when the relay oscillates the bulbs also flash in accordance with the relay contacts and generate the required signaling. These can also be used universally for all vehicles barring the trucks. Windshield wipers: The windshield wiper system is one of the most important safety factors on any piece of equipment. a typical electric windshield wiper system consists of a switch, motor assembly, wiper linkage and arms, and wiper blades. The description of the components is as follows: The windshield wiper switch is a multi position switch, which may contain a rheostat. Each switch position provides for different wiping speeds. the rheostat, if provided, operates the delay mode for a slow wiping action. This permits the operator to select a delayed wipe from every 3 to 20 seconds. A relay is frequently used to complete the circuit between the battery voltage and the wiper motor.
The wiper motor assembly operates on one, two, or three speeds. The motor has a worm gear on the armature shaft that drives one or two gears, and, in turn, operates the linkage to the wiper arms. The motor is a small, shunt wound dc motor. Resistors are placed in the control circuit from the switch to reduce the current and provide different operating speeds. The wiper linkage and arms transfers motion from the wiper motor transmission to the wiper blades. The rubber wiper blades fit on the wiper arms. The wiper blade is a flexible rubber squeegee-type device. It may be steel or plastic backed and is designed to maintain total contact with the windshield throughout the stroke. Wiper blades should be inspected periodically. If they are hardened, cut, or split, they are to be replaced.

Automobile Laboratory Manual (BE)

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A Laboratory Manual for

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Guidelines for teachers:

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Instructions for students:

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

List of Experiments & Record of Progressive Assessment.

Name of the Experiments

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Experiment NO - 2. Study, Demonstration and Working of Automobile Clutch.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Title - Study and Demonstration of working of Automobile clutch.

AIM - To study Automobile clutch assembly.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Automobile Gear box.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

b) Electric type gearbox.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Final Drive And Differential.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Experiment No. 05 Hydraulic Brake System

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Title: - Hydraulic brake system.

Aim: - To study hydraulic brake system.

e) It should required minimum force to operate. f) there are no skidding

b) Location. c) Construction. d) Method of actuation. e) Extra braking effort.

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)

Yadav Rahul N.(Solapur-MH)