THE EXPERIMENTAT METHOD

Is o syslemolic ond scientific opprooch to

resecrch in which the reseorcher monipulotes one or more
ond meosures ony chonge in other voriobles. voriobles, ond controls
Aim of Experimenlol Method
Experiments ore done to be oble to predict phenomeno.
Typicolly, on experiment is constructed to find some kind of
cousotion.
Chqrocferislics of experimenlql melhod
o Comporison of groups
a Monipulotion of the independent vorioble
a Rondomizotion
Sleps
a ldentifying o reseorch problem
a Plonning on experimentol reseorch siudy
a Conducting the experiment
o Anolyzing ihe doio
Writing the poper/presentotion describing the findings
Types of voriobles
'r Independent voriobles - conditions or chorocteristics thot on experimenter monipulotes or controls
Dependent voriobles - condilions or chorocteristics thoi oppeor,
disoppeor, or chonge os the experimenter
introduces, removes, or chonges independent voriobles
o confounding voriobles - ospects of o study or somple thoi might
influence the dependent vorioble ono wnose
effeci moybe confused with the effect of ihe ind.pendent voriobre
. Inierveningvoriobles
e Exircneous voriobles
' Inleryening voriobles - is o hypolhelicol infernol siote thot is used to exploin relotionships between observed
voriobles, such os independent ond depencient voricbles.
o Extrcneous vcrioble - ore vcricbles other thon the independent vorioble ihct moy beor ony effect
of the subject being studied. on the behovior
Melhods of conlrolling exlroneous voriobles
r Removing the vorioble
. Rondomizoiion
e Moiching coses
r Boloncing coses or group moiching
o Anolysis of covorionce
Advonloges & Disqdvonloges of Experimenlol Reseorch
1. Experimentotion is o woy to goin insight into methods
of instruction.
2' A perception exists thct informotion obtoined through scientific method
is free of humon inconsistencies.
3, Scientific Method-Humon Construction ond Humon Error
4. Reseorcher does bring bios 1o the experimentotion
5. Scmples moy noi be representotive of o populotion.
6. The reseorcher hos control over the voriobles.
Z. Artificiol results mcy result.
8. Groups in on experiment moy not be comporoote.
9. Even when rondomizorion of studenis is possibre, probrems crise.
10' When o humon populotion is involved, experimentol reseorch becomes
concerned if behovior con be predicted with
volidity.
I 1. Experimentotion con be combined with olher reseorch methods to ensure
rigor.
I2. Polilicol pressure drives experimentolion ond forces unrelicble resurTS.
Pre Experimentol Design
Pre-experimentol deslgns ore so nomed becouse they follow bosic expenmentol
steps
. THE ONE-SHOT CASE STUDY
Subjects ore presented wiih some type of treotment, ond then outcome mecsure <l^r Shrt Ca6 Sir<t
is opplied. xc:
Gool- to determine if the treotment hod ony effect on the outcome on+ Droup Fr€fasl aosA6i Atudy
Wiihoul o comporison group, it is impossible io determine if the ouTcome scores ore alto:
ony higher thon
they would hove been without the treotment. **k €nrop Catr"rrison Strdy

wiihout ony preiest scores, it is impossible to determine if ony chonge within the group itself
hos tcken
. ONE GROUP PRETEST POSTTEST STUDY
lnclusion of o pretesi to determine boseline scores
we con now of leost stote whether c chonqe in ihe outcome or dependent vorioble is token ploce
whcl we connot soy is if this chonge would hove occuned even without the opplicotion of the ireotment.
. THE STATIC GROUP COMPARISON STUDY
Attempts to moke up for the lock of o control group but folls short in relotion to showing if o chonge
hos occurred.
Does not include pre tesling ond therefore ony difference between the two groups priir
to ihe study ore unknown. 1l,r
PTcTURE SA RtcHT)
 True Experimenlol Design
They employ both o control group ond o meons 1o meosure the
chonge thot occurs in born groups
only reseorch method thot ccn odequctely meosure the couse ond effect relotionship
. Positest Equivolent Groups Studv
Rondomizotion ond the comporison of both o conlrol ond on expenmentol group PrSs^t [4ui!d]nt Grorpi
ore utilized in ihis E)t.
iype of study. {}:D,
while ihis is opproochlng the besi method, it folls short in its lock of o pretest
meosure. Fr$esl Poin * Fsivatsni GmlF
n s.( c1
Rondomizolion does well to mix subjects but it does not completely ec,(cl
ossure us thoi this mix is truly
creoling on equivolency belween the two groups.
. Pretest-Posttest Equivolent Groups Study
It is the most effective method but olso the most difficurt to perform
Quosi-experimeni
"Quosi" meons /lkeness or resembltng, so quosi-experiments
shore chorocteristics of true experiments which seer
interventions or ireotments.
The key difference in this empiricol opprooch is the lock of rondom
ossignment.
Another unique element ofien involved in this experimentotion metbod is use
intorrr rnlar]
of time series onolysis: interrupted ond non-
Design of Quosi-experimenl
l. ldentify the voriobles.
2. The quosi-independent vcrioble will be the x_voricble.
3 Grouping meons two or more groups such os o treotmeni group ond c control group.
4. The predicted outcome is the dependent vorioble which is the y-vorioble.
5' In o time series onolysis, the dependent vorioble is observed over time
for cny chonges
thot moy toke ptoce.
6' Once the voriobles hove been identified ond defined, o procedure should then be implemented
ond group
differences should be exomined.
Advontoges
o They ore iypicclly eosier to set up thon true experimentol designs, it tokes r ruch
less effort to study ond compore
subiects or groups of subjects thol ore olreody noturolly orgonized thon lo hove io
(t tnta-ic
conduct rondom ossiqnment of
o Utiliiing quosi-experimentol designs minimizes threots to externol volidity
o Since quosi-experiments ore noturol experiments, findings in one moy be opplied to
other subjecls ond setiings,
ollowing for some generclizotions to be mode oboui pooulotion.
o lt is efficient in longitudinol reseorch thot involves longer time periods which ccn be
followed up in different
environments.
Disodvonfoges
o The control ollowed ihrough ihe monipulotion of the quosi-independeni voricble con leod io unnoturol
circumstonces, olthough the dongers of ortificiolily ore considerobly less relotive to lrue experimenls
o lt moy ollow studies to be more fecsible, but this olso poses mony chollenges for the invesiigotor in terms of internol
volidity.
o Becouse rondomizotion is obsent, some knowledge obout ihe doto con be opproximoted, but conclusions of
cousol relotionships ore difficult to determine
Focloriol Design
o Foctoriol Designs ore designs used extensively in educoiionol reseorch, becouse essenliclly Fffi.
they ore the designs when two or more independeni voriobles ore included in the design. t',,ffi
-,*x,I.rT.r:ip.
o The term foctorrol is used to indicoie thoi oll possible combinotions of the foctors ore
constoereo.
o The bosic construciion of o fociorioi design is thot oll levels of eoch independeni vorioble ore
token in combinotion with the levels of the other independent voriobles.
o The design requires o minimum of two independent voriobles, with ot leosl two levels of eoch vcricble.
O li involves two or more independent vcriobles, colled focfors, in o single design.
o The number of different groups involved in o foctoriol design increoses very ropidly with the increose of the number
of independent voriobles ond number of levels.
Advonioges
o Foctoriol design provides the economy of o single design rother thon seporcte designs for eoch of the independeni
voriobles, ond it ollows the reseorcher to invesiigote lhe interoctions between the voriobles.
O The fociorlol design, os well os simplifying the process ond moking reseorch cheoper, ollows mcny levels of onolysis.
Disodvonloge
O The moin disodvcntoge is ihe difficulty of experimenting with more thon two foctors, or monv levels. lt hos to be
plcnned meticulously, os on error in one of the levels, or will jeopordize o greot omount of work
STATISTICAT TOOLS FOR DATA ANATYSIS
Stotistics- Mothemoticol science perloining to the collection, onolysis, interpretotion or explonotion, ond presentofion of

Stotisticol methods con be used to summorize or descrlbe o collection of doto; ihis is cclied Descripfive Stofisllcs
thct ore then used to drow inferences crhor ri tha nror-asc or populotion being studied; this is colled lnferenfiot
UHfi ,
t/- /
'::
"//
 Non-parametric - refers to (a function on a sample) whose interpretation does not depend on the population fitting any
oarameterized distributions.
ff you get it wrong you risk using on incorrect statistical procedure or you may use o less powerful procedure.

Parametric Non-parametric

Assumed distribution Normal Any

Assumed variance Homogeneous Any

Typical data Ratio or Interval Ordinal or Nominal

Data set relationships lndependent Any

Usual central measure Mean Median

Benefits Can draw more conclusions Simplicity; Less affected by outliers

Level of Measurements
Nominal -The lowest measurement level. lt is simply the placing of data into categories.
Ordinal - Next up the list in terms of power of measurement. The data to be collected are to be arranged in rank.
Interval - The standard survey rating scale. This means that the differences in the distance along the scale are definable in contrast
to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the degree of order.
Ratio scale - is the top level of measurement. The factor which clearly defines a ratio scale is that it has a true zero point.
When to Use
a lf your measurement scale is nominal or ordinal then you use NON-PARAMETRIC statistics.
a lf you are using interval or ratio scales you use PARAMETRIC statistics.
Goal Type of Data

Measurement (from Gaussian Rank, Score, or Measurement {from Non- Gaussian

Population) Population)

Describe one group Mean, SD Median, range

Compare one group to a hypothetical One-sample f test Wilcoxon test

value

Compare two unpaired groups Unpaired t test Mann-Whitney test

Compare two paired groups Paired t test Wilcoxon test

Compare three or more unmatched One-way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis test

groups

Compare three or more matched Repeated-measures ANOVA Friedman test

groups

Quantify association between two Pearson correlation Spearman correlation

variables
ONE SAMPTE TTEST
o One sample t-test is a statistical procedure that is used to know the mean difference between the sample and the known
value of the population E-u -
t - -----:- 4t'i
mean.
Unpaired two sample T Test .)
a The unpaired t methsd tests the null hypothesis that the population means related to
two independen! random samples from an approximately normal distribution are equal.
a- 4:

E(--- ---r)= -rl(-'r, --?r)'

.l ,:l
rza -'t- rr-
- ? - where x bar 1 and x bar 2 are the sample means, s2 is
the pooled sample variance, n1 and n2 are the sample sizes and t is a quantile with n1 + n2 - 2 degrees of freedom"
The Paired f-test enables you to determine whether the means of paired samples are equal. The term paired means that there is a
correspondence between observations from each population.
ANOVA (ANAIYSIS OF VARTANCE)
a ANOVA is a general technique that can be used to test the hypothesis that the means among two or more groups are
equal, under the assumption that the sampled populations are normally distributed.
PFARSON's CORREISTIO|{ COEFFICIEI{T
a
a
Used to test correlation {linear dependence} between two variables.
tntergreted as -1 for negative linear correlation and +1 for positive linear correlation. '*[(=){?)
SPEARMAN's CORRELAT|ON COEFfICIENT p:l*
a
it assesses how well an arbitrary function could describe the relationship between two t1") t

variables, without making any other assumptions about the particular nature of the relationship between the variables ./l
COLLECTION of DATA (pp 97-104) ...Psychologicaltest...Anecdotal
INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COIIECTION Records...Autobiographies...Checklist, Score cards,
1. QUESTIONNAIRE (pp 105-1271 Rating scales, etc
2. fNTERVfEW (pp 729-1,37) CHARACHTERIS'T,G OF SATISFACTORY CASE STDY-Continuity
3. OBSERVATION (pp 139-154) 9 Completeness of data Validity of data Confidential
4. TESTS (pp 155-160) recording Scientific synthesis
SAMPIING (pp 163-177) TYPES
NATUREOFDESCRIPTIVE V ExploratoryCaseStudy, ExplanatoryCaseStudy,
V lt describes and interprets "what is". Descriptive Case Study
I lt is concerned with conditions of relationships that ADVANTAGES
exist,' practices that prevail; beliefs, processes that V Case Study provides a great amount of description
are going on; effects that are being felt, trends that and detail.
are developing. V Case Study present opportunities that researchers
PURPOSE could not otherwise have.
V Determines and describes the way things are DISADVANTAGES
V Compares how sub-groups view issues and topics V diffi€ult to generalize
BASIC STEPS V there is considerable room in case studies for
V Statement ofthe problem "researcher bias" to creep in
V ldentification of information needed to solve the SURVEY METHOD
problem V a study used to measure existing phenomenon
V Selection or development of instruments for without inquiring why it exists
gathering the information V a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate
V ldentification of target population and determination interpretation
of sampling procedure V is used to collect demographic data about people
V Deslgn of procedure for information colfection PURPOSE
g Collection of information V To describe the characteristics, behaviors or opinions
V Analysis of information of a particular population
V Generalizations and/or predictions NATURE
DISADVANTAGES . Information is collected from a group of people.
1. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized. . The information is collected through asking
2. Low response rates are common questions.
3. There are difficulties in interpreting the findings without the TYPES
data representing non-respondents'views 1. Cross-sectional survey
4.Unc|ear/ambiguousitems.Researcherneedstodeve|op>
recording forms that collect the data objectively and reliably 2. Longitudinal survey
5.Becausetherearenovariab|esmanipu|ated,thereisno>
way to statistically analyze the results. Many scientists regard time.
this type of study as very unreliable and 'unscientific'. STEPS
6.Theresultsofobservationa|studiesarenotrepeatab|e>
which changes over time, and so there can be no replication 1. Population lssues
of the experiment and reviewing of the results. 2. Sampling lssues
CASE STUDY 3. Question lssues
V is an extensive and intensive investigation of a unit 4. Content lssues
represented, whether the unit is an individual, a 5. Bias lssues
family, a social group, an institution, or a community 5. Administrative lssues
V PURPOSE- to identify causal factors to some 7. Planning and survey design
abnormality or deficiency and to find and recommend 8. Data collection
a solution, a treatment, or developmental procedures 9. Data analysis
METHOD- has been employed to describe a plan of organizing 10. Reporting
and presenting instructional materials in law, medicine, social ADVANTAGES
work, and even in education, psychology, and sociology, where 1. lt is not labor intensive.
as a rule, the case materials used are the product of case study 2. Methodology is not complex.
investigation 3. Small sample size can be used.
NEEDED INFORMATION- ldentifying data... ldentification and 4. lt reveals what is typical, average or normal.
statement of the problem...Health and development 5. lts results may be used for prediction.
history...Family history...Educational history...Social 6. lt makes possible for the formulation of generalizations.
History....Economic history...Psychological history 7. lt reveals problems.
STEPS lN ORGANIZTNG AND CONDUCTING- Problem A case 8. The instruments for gathering the data are easy to
study should address a problem determine.
g lmplementation-Theirnplementationdiscusseshow DISADVANTAGES
the problem was addressed 1. Retrieval problem of the questionnaire fielded.
V Result- Result discusses the outcomes of how the 2. Perceptions are not always reliable.
addressed
problem was 3. Questionnaire may not be able to address the
V INSTRUMENTS- problem due to inadequacy of information.
Interview...Observation...Questionnaire
 Survey Case study
a. Usually largepopulation a. Usually one person, small community
b. Limited variables in the life of the group b. All the variables in the life are included
surveyeo c. Finding the causes is always a part
c. Cause-effect relationship are not given d. Representativeness is not important
emphasis e. From birth or origin or even the future
d. Representativenessisimportant
e. Present conditions

r Satisfaction measurements
r Product features desired
r Medical errors
r Patient outcomes
r Viewer/readership nterests
i

r Assess program effectiveness

r Customer acquisition
FOLOW-UP STUDY
U employed when you intend to investigate the
subsequent development of participants after a
specified treatment or condition
V evaluation of success of a specific topic
g May lead to the improvement of the curriculum,
guidance services, administrative procedures, etc.
DOCUMENT ANAtYsls
g also known as content analysis
g the study involves gathering of information by
examining records and documents
e is usually undertaken to supplement the information pURpOSE
the case study researcher acquires
wPtS OF DOCUMENTS
1. prototypical documents
2. docurnents of record
3. Books
4. canonical documents
5. transactional documents
6. non-prototypical documents
7. digital documents
WAYS OF CLASSIFYING DOCUMENTS
7. primary, secondary and tertiary documents
2. public and private documents
3. solicited and unsolicited documents
CHARAC OF DOCUMENTS ANALYSIS
L' Objective 2. Systematic 3. qualitative/quantitative V These are done to understand growth in cognitive,
STEPS
1. Recognize the problem. 2. Form the hypothesis. 3.
Research and assess the documents. 4. Design the
study.s. Develop the instrument. 6. Collect the data.
7. Analyze the data. 8. Make conclusions. 9. Make
recommendations.
APPLICATIONS
'J.. Determining the ideas of great authors and thinkers
2. Determining the contents of the textbooks and other
instructional materials
3. 3. Determining the achievements of students
4. 4. Determining the objectives and practices of
different school and school systems
ADVANTAGES
1. Both quantitative and qualitative
2. Provides historical/cultural insights
3. An unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
4. Provides insight to complex models of human thought
and language used
DISADVANATGES
L. Time consuminC
2. Prone to biases
3. Difficulty in reading the text
4. Relevant data may not be available
DEVEIOPEMTNAI STUDY
V These are studies executed to describe what the
present relationships are among variables in a given
situation and to account for changes occurring in
those relationship as function of time.
g These are studies intended to get reliable information
about a group of people over a tong period of time.
V These are often employed in connection with studies
that deal specifically with aspects of human growth.
V lt is done to discover origin, direction, rate, trend,
pattern, limit and decline of growth with factors
affecting it.
IMPORTANCE
These studies are important to education because...
1. They are needed to know how human beings grow
and develop, and hoe they differ at various ages.
2. They aid administrators in projecting future
requirements of the educational institution for
needed facilities, staff and so forth.
GROWTH STUDY
V These studies give knowledge of what to expect at
different age levels and understanding of
developmental sequences within patterns.
offective and psychomotor domoins.
LONGITUDINAL
These are studies that gather data over an extended period of
time where successive measures are taken at different Doints in
time from the same respondents.
STEPS
Design of procedure for Information Collection
1. Samples of subjects of a particular age are measured
on specific characteristics.
2. Further measurements are made on the same
subjects at predetermined intervals until the subjects
reach the set age limit.
3. 3. By getting the mean (average) values for each time
interval, growth patterns are established for the
sample in general.
4. ffien, tables and graphs are built
to reflect growth changes, rate and direction of it.
5. 4. Differences in the sample are studied by
investigating and analyzing how subjects varied in
measurements at each of the time intervals.
ADVANTAGES, DtS and FEAUTRES (see photocopy)
Ir--
;it
CROSS SECTIONAL is, when scores on one variable covary with scores on
g These are Growth Studies that collects information another variable.
from respondents at one or more point in time. CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
WHEN TO USE S Quantitative index of how well we are able to predict
1. We select the aspect of development to bestudied. one set of scores based on another set of scores
decided
2. We choice different respondents that are within the DIRECTION OF CORRELATIONAL COEFFICIENT
range of age and are in the same age increments. I positive correlation - as a value of one measure
reveal
3. Take measures on each of these respondents to increases, the value of the other measure also
growth patterns and other data increases
Note: This step also includes the Background check g negative correlation - value of one measure
(retrospective) and the Current Development {prospective) increaset the value ofthe other measure decreases
4. Data Analysis MAGNITUDE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
-Analyze these patterns and data to know the rate of V 0 indicates there is no correlation
development, direction of it, limit and the decline of growth V +1.00 indicates a perfect positive correlation
and the factors affecting it. V -1.00 indicates a perfect negative correlation
(ADVANTAGES, DIS and FEAUTRES (see photocopy) V values between 0-1.00 indicate less ability to
TREND predictive relationships of intermediate strength
U These are studies that examine recorded data to TYPES
establish patterns ofchange occurred in the past, to V Naturalistic Observation
know what the present situation reveals, and on the - Involves observing and recording the variables of interest in
basis of these data, to predict what will be likely to the environment without interference or manipulation by the
occur in the future. exPerimenter
STEPS V Survey Method and Questionnaires
1. Examine recorded data to establish patterns of - A random sample of participants completes a survey,
change or trends. test, or questionnaire that relates to the variables of
2. Conduct two or more cross-sectional studies about interest
the selected factors at more than one point in time to V Archival Research
make comparisons over time Performed by analyzing studies conducted by other
3. Based on these data, predict what will be likely to researches or by looking at historical patient records
occur in the future. DISADVANTAGES
RESEARCHES e cannot prove one variable causes a change in another
Researches that are concern in.-. variable
1. Predicting the success of a project or program in the V a correlation between two variables can arise
future. because both variables are related to some third
2. Predicting the growth of students' population in variable that affects both the variable in questions
schools ADVANTAGES
3. individuals
3. Predicting the growth in participation of P useful to study the uncontrollable or unmanipulative
from certain sub-groups in certain fields. variables
4. 4. Predicting the development in the cognitive, V quick and relatively inexpensive
affective and psychomotor domains of learners. V may be able to use readily available data
EXAMPLES
1. The Growing Participation of Women in the
Intercollegiate Sports Programs.
2. The lncreased in Teachers Enrolled in the Graduate
School Programs.
3. 3. Trends in the Methods in Financial Supports of
public Education.
4. 4. Trends in the Aptitude and Achievement test in the
Philippines.
(FEATURES, ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE (see photocopy)
CORRELATIONAL
V A study determining which different variables are
related to each other in the population of interest.
V Correlational studies only tells us that there is a
relationship between two variables
PURPOSE
V Explanatory Studies
- Clarify our understanding of important phenomena
through the identification of relationships among
variables
S Prediction Studies
- A second purpose ofcorrelational research is prediction
THE RELATIONSHIP IN CORRELATION
V A correlation exists when two different measures of
the same people, event, or things vary together, that
\(,4