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Flexent/AUTOPLEX Wireless Networks

RF Engineering Guideline for 1xEV-DO Systems

401-614-323 Issue 2 May 2003


Lucent Technologies - Proprietary This document contains proprietary information of Lucent Technologies and is not to be disclosed or used except in accordance with applicable agreements Copyright 2003 Lucent Technologies Unpublished and Not for Publication All Rights Reserved

This material is protected by the copyright and trade secret laws of the United States and other countries. It may not be reproduced, distributed, or altered in any fashion by any entity (either internal or external to Lucent Technologies), except in accordance with applicable agreements, contracts, or licensing, without the express written consent of Lucent Technologies and the business management owner of the material.

Notice

Every effort was made to ensure that this information product was complete and accurate at the time of printing. However, information is subject to change.

Mandatory customer information

This information product does not contain any mandatory customer information.
Interference information: Part 15 of FCC rules

NOTE: This equipment has been tested and found to comply within the limits.
Trademarks

AUTOPLEX is a registered trademark of Lucent Technologies. Flexent is a trademark of Lucent Technologies. OpenWindows is a trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc. Sun, Netra, Sparc and Solaris are trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. CDMA2000 is a trademark of Telecommunication Industry Association

Limited warranty

Lucent Technologies provides a limited warranty to this product.

Ordering information

The ordering number for this information product is 401-614-323. To order copies of this product, call 1 888 582 3688 (from the United States) or visit http://www.lucentdocs.com. To report errors or ask questions about the information in this product, please call 1 800 645 6759 or 1 317 322 6848.
Technical Support Telephone Number

For technical assistance, call Lucent Technologies Wireless Networks Customer Technical Support (CTS) at the following numbers: From the United States, call 1800 CAL 4NSC (1 800 225 4672). From all other countries, call 1 630 224 4672.

Support Technical support

Technical assistance can be obtained by calling the Regional Technical Assistance Center (RTAC) at 1 866 LUCENT8 (continental U.S.) or +1 630 224 4672 for in-hours and emergency out-of-hours support.

Developed by Lucent Information Products and Training Group

Lucent Technologies - Proprietary Use pursuant to Company instructions

Contents

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1 1.1
1.1.1 1.1.2

Introduction 3G Technology
Introduction Reason for Reissue

1-1 1-1

1-3
1-3 1-4

1..2
1.2.2.1 1.2.2 1.3.3 1.2.4 1.2.4.1 1.2.4.2 1.2.4.3 1.2.5

Wireless Evolution to Third Generation (3G) Technology


ITU 3G Vision Radio Operating Environments Data Rate vs. Coverage IMT-2000 Standards Mix and Match Worldwide Support for the Three Terrestrial Technologies CDMA2000, Multi-Carrier Mode 1xEV-DO

1-5 1-5 1-5 1-6 1-6 1-8 1-8 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-13 1-14 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-18 1-18 1-18

1.3
1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4.4

Evolution from IS-95 to 3G-1X


Uplink Pilot Channel Turbo Coder Forward Power Control Supplemental Channel

1.4
1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 1.4.2.3 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.4.4.1 1.4.4.1.1 1.4.4.1.2 1.4.4.1.3 1.4.4.2

Introduction to 1xEV-DO
Introduction to 1xEV-DO Elimination of Voice Transmissions Trade-off with Quality, Coverage, and Capacity Limitation of Real-Time, Uninterrupted Voice Transmissions Increased Data Rates Overlay Solution 1xEV-DO Characteristics Forward Link Data Traffic Channel Dynamic Rate Control Packet Data Transmission Scheduling Algorithm Reverse Link Data Traffic Channel

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2 2.1 2.2
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.3.2.1 2.2.3.2.2 2.2.4

RAN Network Overview Network Data Flow


Access Terminal. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) FMS Frames IP Address Assignment Simple IP Mobile IP Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA)

2-1 2-1 2-3

2-4
2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7

2.3
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2 2.3.3.2.1 2.3.3.2.2 2.3.3.3 2.3.3.3.1 2.3.3.3.2 2.3.3.4 2.3.3.4.1 2.3.3.4.2 2.3.3.4.3 2.3.3.4.4 2.3.3.4.5 2.3.3.4.6 2.3.3.4.7

Data Interface Protocols


TPC/IP Reference Model AT Protocol Stack Network Data Transfer Application Layer Transport Layer Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Internet Layer Internet Protocol (IP) Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Host-to-Network Interface Application Layer: Stream Layer Session Layer Connection Layer Security Layer MAC Layer Physical Layer:

2-8
2-8 2-9 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16

2.4
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.2.1 2.4.2.2 2.4.2.3 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5

Simple IP and Mobile IP Internet Access


Peer-to-Peer Communication PPP Connection Between the AT and PDSN Radio Link Protocol (RLP) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) Protocol Unicast Access Terminal Identifier (UATI) Simple IP Connection Simple IP Connection with Private Network Mobile IP Connection

2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-21

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3 3.1 3.2
3.2.1 3.2.1.1

Air Interface Introduction Introduction to 1xEV-DO Air Interface


1xEV-DO Channel Structure Frame/Slot

3-1 3-1

3-3 3-4
3-4 3-5

3.3
3.3.1 3.3.1.1 3.3.1.2 3.3.2 3.3.2.1 3.3.2.1.1 3.3.2.1.2 3.3.2.1.3 3.3.2.2 3.3.2.3 3.3.2.3.1 3.3.2.4 3.3.2.5 3.3.3 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.2 3.3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6

Forward Link Channels


Data Channel Usage Transmit Power 1xEV-DO Frame and Time Slot Structure Data Traffic Channel Forward Link Adaptive Modulation Code Rate Modulation Type Bits Per Packet Preamble Data Control Channel Control Channel Structure Physical Layer Packet Bit Size Pilot Channel MAC Channel Multi-Slot Packet Transmission Slot Data Interlacing Normal Packet Transmission Termination Early Packet Transmission Termination Dynamic Rate Control Virtual Soft Handoff Scheduling Algorithm

3-6 3-6 3-6 3-7 3-9 3-9 3-9 3-10 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-20 3-20 3-21 3-23 3-25 3-27 3-28 3-28 3-28 3-30 3-30 3-31 3-31 3-31 3-33 3-33 3-33 3-35
3-35

3.4
3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.5.1 3.4.5.2 3.4.5.3 3.4.5.4 3.4.6 3.4.6.1 3.4.6.2 3.4.6.3

Reverse Link Traffic Channel


Reverse Traffic Channel Pilot/RRI Channel ACK Channel Data Rate Control (DRC) Channel Data Channel Physical Layer Packet Size Turbo Encoder/Interleaver Walsh Code Spreading Quadrature Spreading Access Channel Generation of Access Channel Data Channel Pilot Channel

3.5
3.5.1

Test Application Feature


Introduc-tion

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3.5.2 3.5.2.1 3.5.2.2 3.5.2.2.1 3.5.2.2.2 3.5.2.2.3 3.5.2.2.4 3.5.2.2.5 3.5.2.2.6 3.5.2.2.7 3.5.2.2.8 3.5.2.2.9 3.5.2.2.10 3.5.2.3

Test Application Forward Link Functionality CLI Input Command Syntax Link Commands UATI 0x# BTS #, SECTOR # DRCRATE # ACK NOLOOPBACK DATAPKTS DURATION # INTERVAL # TAI # MINRATE #, MAXRATE # Start All Tests Command (TAA)

3-35 3-36 3-36 3-36 3-37 3-37 3-37 3-38 3-38 3-38 3-38 3-39 3-39 3-39

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4 4.1 4.2
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.3 4.2.2.4 4.2.2.4.1 4.2.2.4.2 4.2.2.5 4.2.2.5.1 4.2.2.5.2 4.2.3 4.2.3.1 4.2.3.1.1 4.2.3.1.2 4.2.3.2 4.2.3.3 4.2.3.4

Hardware Introduction 1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN)


Introduction Multi-Mode Cells Flexent CDMA Modular Cell Cabinet CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for IS-95 and 1X-3G CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for 1xEV-DO Modular Cell 4 OneBTS Cabinet Digital Shelf Signal Flow Circuit Pack Location Adding 1xEV-DO To AUTOPLEX Cells Duplex Configuration Double Duplex Configuration Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) 1xEV-DO Application Processor (AP) 1xEV-DO Controller Packet Control Function (PCF) Modular Fuse/Filter Unit (MFFU) Reliable Cluster Computing (RCC) Router (Ethernet Switch)

4-1 4-1

4-3 4-4
4-4 4-4 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-13 4-15 4-15 4-16 4-16 4-16

4.3
4.3.1 4.3.2

Element Management System (EMS)


Introduction Graphic User Interface (GUI)

4-17 4-17 4-17 4-18 4-18

4.4
4.4.1

IP Network Elements
Introduction

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4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.4.7

Packet Data Service Node (PDSN) IP Network Authentica-tion, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) Server Introduction Overlay Deployment Stand-Alone Deployment, Coverage Design

4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-19

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5 5.1 5.2
5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.4.1 5.2.4.1.1 5.2.4.1.1.1 5.2.5 5.2.5.1 5.2.5.2 5.2.5.3 5.2.5.3.1 5.2.5.3.2 5.2.5.3.3 5.2.5.4 5.2.5.4.1 5.2.5.4.2 5.2.5.5 5.2.5.5.1 5.2.5.5.1.1 5.2.5.5.1.2 5.2.5.5.2 5.2.5.6 5.2.5.7 5.2.5.7.1 5.2.5.8 5.2.5.9

RF Coverage and Capacity Introduction Reverse Link Budget Analysis


Introduction Reverse Link Similarity with 3G-1X Forward and Reverse Link Limitations Maximum Path Loss Components Maximum Path Loss Calculation Maximum AT Transmit Power Shadow Fading Reverse Link Budget Effective Isothropic Radiated Power (EIRP) Receiver Antenna Gain Minus Cable and Connector Losses Total Effective Noise plus Interference Density Receiver Noise Figure Receiver Noise Density Receiver Interference Margin Receiver Sensitivity Smin Signal Quality Information Rate (10logRb), Item k Required Eb/Nt, Item l Vehicle Speed Effect on Eb/Nt Value Effect of Power Control at Low Vehicle Speeds Effect of Bit Interleaving at High Vehicle Speeds Data Rate Effect on Eb/Nt Value Soft Handoff Gain Log-Normal Fade Margin, Item p Fade Probability Building/Vehicle Penetration Loss, Item q Maximum Path Loss with Respect Isotropic Antennas, Item r

5-1 5-1 5-5 5-6


5-6 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-8 5-9 5-9 5-11 5-12 5-12 5-13 5-13 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-15 5-15 5-16 5-16 5-17 5-17 5-17 5-18 5-19 5-20 5-20

5.3
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3

Forward Link Budget Analysis


Introduction RF Conditions Evaluation by the AT AT Minimum Performance Specification

5-21 5-21 5-21 5-22

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5.3.3.1 5.3.3.2 5.3.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.4.1 5.3.4.2 5.3.4.2.1 5.3.4.2.2 5.3.4.3 5.3.4.3.1 5.3.4.3.2 5.3.4.3.3 5.3.4.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.7.1

Forward Link Signaling Channel Different Repetition Factors Link Budget Calculation Forward Link Budge Spreadsheet Transmit Power Calculation AT Receiver Power Determining the Delta Pathloss Value Computing Delta Pathloss for Coverage Area Total Interference Interfering from Other Cells/Sectors Total Thermal Noise Power Total Interference on the Traffic Channel Forward Link Receiver Sensitivity Introduction Capacity/Coverage Trade-off Pole Capacity Forward vs. Reverse Link

5-22 5-22 5-23 5-24 5-27 5-27 5-27 5-28 5-28 5-29 5-31 5-31 5-31 5-31 5-31 5-32 5-33 5-34 5-34 5-34 5-34 5-35 5-35 5-35 5-36 5-36 537 5-37 5-38 5-39 5-39 5-40 5-42 5-43 5-43 5-44 5-44 5-44 5-45 5-46 5-47 5-49 5-49 5-49

5.4
5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.2.1 5.4.2.1.1 5.4.2.1.2 5.4.2.2 5.4.3 5.4.3.1 5.4.3.1.1 5.4.3.1.2 5.4.3.1.3 5.4.3.2 5.4.3.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.4.6.1 5.4.6.2 5.4.6.3 5.4.6.3.1 5.4.6.3.2 5.4.6.4 5.4.7

Reverse Link Capacity


Introduction Pilot Channel Ec/Nt Spectral Noise Density Base Station Noise Power Interference From All Other CDMA Users Pole Capacity Calculation Determining Theoretical Maximum Number of Users Channel Gain Required Pilot Channel Ec/Nt () Traffic Channel Gain DRC Channel Gain InterferenceRatio (f ) Channel Activity Factor (a ) Traffic Model Pole Point Based Capacity Calculation Determining Target Capacity Acceptable Call-blocking Objective Acceptable Queue Delay Objective Data Traffic Load in Erlangs General Erlang Model Erlang B and C Models Determining Average Number of Reverse Link Channels Required Active Users vs. Total Users

5.5
5.5.1 5.5.2

Forward Link Capacity


Introduction Geometry

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5.5.3

Sector Throughput

5-49

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6 6.1
6.1.1 6.1.2

Frequency Assignment Deployment


Overlay Designs Standalone Designs

6-1 6-1

6-3
6-3 6-3

6.2
6.2.1 6.2.1.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.3.1 6.2.3.2

Frequency Assignment
Band Class 0 (Cellular Band, 850MHz) Carrier Waveform Cellular Band PCS Band Guard Band Carrier Spacing

6-4 6-4 6-4 6-5 6-8 6-9 6-10

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7 7.1
7.1.1

Call Propcessing 1xEV-DO Call Processing Overview


Connection Layer Protocol

7-1 7-1

7-4
7-4

7.2
7.2.1 7.2.1.1 7.2.1.2 7.2.1.3 7.2.1.3.1 7.2.1.3.2 7.2.1.3.3

Air Link Management Protocol


Access Mode Persistent Test Reverse Link Silence Period Access Probe Structure Access Probe Sequence Inter-Probe Backoff Inter-Sequence Backoff

7-6 7-6 7-8 7-8 7-9 7-9 7-10 7-10 7-12 7-14 7-14 7-14 7-15 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-19 7-22

7.3 7.4
7.4.1 7.4.1.1 7.4.1.2 7.4.2 7.4.2.1 7.4.2.1.1 7.4.2.1.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.5 7.4.6

Initialization State Idle State


Registration and Location Report UATIRequest Message RouteUpdate Message Idle Mode Sub-States Monitor Sub-State AT Monitor Sub-State Forward Link Control Channel Sleep Sub-State Suspend Mode of Operation Idle State Pilot Channel Supervision Connection Setup Sub-State

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7.4.6.1 7.4.6.2

Normal Setup Fast Connect Setup

7-22 7-24 7-25 7-25 7-26 7-27 7-28 7-29 7-30 7-31
7-31 7-32 7-32 7-32 7-33 7-33 7-33 7-33 7-34

7.5
7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 7.5.6

Configuration Negotiation to Open a Session


IS-856 Session Layer Configuration Negotiation Procedure PPP Connection Session Maintenance Keep Alive Function Dormant /Active Function

7.6
7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4 7.6.5 7.6.6 7.6.6.1 7.6.6.2 7.6.6.3

Traffic Channel Resource Allocation


Frame Offset DRC Length/DRC Channel Gain Ack Channel Gain MAC Index DRC Cover RAB Offset/RAB Length RAB Offset RAB Length Controlling Interference in each Sector

7.7
7.7.1 7.7.1.1 7.7.1.2 7.7.1.3 7.7.1.3.1 7.7.1.3.2 7.7.1.4 7.7.1.5 7.7.1.5.1 7.7.1.5.2 7.7.1.6 7.7.1.7 7.7.2 7.7.3

Handoff
Forward Link Handoff Introduction Pilot Sets IPilot Drop Timer Maintenance Active Set Management Adding or Dropping a PN Offset To or From an Active Set Conditions for Dropping and Adding Pilot PN Offsets from/to the Active Set Candidate Set Management Neighbor Set Management NeighborList Message Neighbor List Selection Algorithm Virtual Soft Handoff Inter-PCF Handoff Reverse Link Handoff Handoff Between 1xEV-DO and 3G-1X Systems

7-35 7-35 7-35 7-36 7-37 7-37 7-38 7-39 7-40 7-40 7-41 7-42 7-43 7-43 7-44 7-45 7-45 7-45 7-45 7-45 7-46 7-46 7-47 7-47

7.8
7.8.1 7.8.2 7.8.3 7.8.3.1 7.8.3.2 7.8.3.3

Power control
Introduction Open loop power Closed loop Outer loop power control Inner loop power control RPC Channel and DRCLock Channel

7.9
7.9.1

Overload control
Introduction

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7.9.2 7.9.3 7.9.4

Reverse link loading constraints Overload detection Overload control implementation

7-47 7-48 7-48

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Figures
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-22 4-1 4-2

ITUS IMT-2000 Vision Minimum Data Rates Interpretability of Standard IMT-2000 Services Global Wireless Standards Evolution Turbo Coder Radio Access System (RAS) OSI to TCP/IP Reference Model Map AT Protocol Stacks Interface 1xEV-DO Protocol Architecture IS-856 RAN Protocol Interface RAN to VPN Connectivity via the Internet Simple IP Connection with Private Network, Protocol Stack Mobile IP Internet Access Mobile IP Internet Access, Protocol Stack 1xEV-DO Channel Structure Comparison of 3G-1X and 1xEV-DO base station Transmit Power Sharing 1xEV-DO Frame and Time Slot Structure Idle Time Slot Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Constellation 8 Phase Shift Keying (8PSK) Constellation 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16QAM) Constellation Traffic Data Channel Physical Layer Packet Bit Size Control Channel Timing Control Channel Structure Physical Layer Packet Bit Size Pilot Pulse Burst Timing Preamble Bits Insertion for data rates of 38.4 kbps and 76.8 kbps Multi-Slot Data Interlacing with Normal Termination Multi-Slot Data Interlacing with Early Termination Virtual Soft Handoff Reverse Channel Structure Generation of Reverse Traffic Channel Reverse Traffic Sub-Channels Reverse Traffic Data Channel Physical Layer Packet Bit Size Reverse Access Channel Physical Layer Packet Bit Size Access Probe Generation of Reverse Access Channel Flexent CDMA Modular Cell Cabinet Structure CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for IS-95 and 3G-1X

1-9 1-11 1-13


1-16

2-4 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-17 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 3-5 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15
3-16

3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-24 3-26 3-27 3-30 3-32 3-32 3-34 4-5 4-6

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4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 6-1 6-2 6-3 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19

CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for 1xEV-DO Modular Cell 4 Cabinet Digital Shelf Signal Flow Modular Cell 4 Digital Shelf Card Location Collocation of 1xEV-VO Modular Cell with PCS CDMA Minicell Collocation of 1xEV-DO Modular Cell with CDMA AUTOPLEX Series II DDGF Cells 1xEV-DO Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) Cabinet 1xEV-DO Application Processor (400S Server) Components of Net Path Loss from AT to Base Station Path Loss Slope Determining Receiver Interference Margin Relationship Between Vehicle Speed and Eb/Nt Value Propagation Loss Percentage of Area Covered Vs. Data Rate Determining Receiver Interference Margin General Erlang Model Aggregated Sector Throughput Cellular Carrier Waveform Centered on Channel 283 at 878.49 MHz Distribution of Cellular Frequency Bands Distribution of the Personnel Communication System (PCS) Spectrum Connection Layer of 1xEV-DO IS-856 Protocol Architecture 1xEV-DO Operation Access Probe Structure Access Probe Sequence Initialization State Flow Diagram UATIRequest Message Idle Sub-States Sleep Mode Slotted Control Cycle Idle State Pilot Supervision Traffic Channel Request Response to Page Fast Connection Setup IS-856 Session Layer Session Configuration Negotiations Establishing PPP Connection Dynamic Pilot Drop Threshold Adding A Pilot PN to the Active Set Neighbor List Ranking Combined Neighbor List Virtual Soft Handoff

4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-15 5-7 5-12 5-13 5-16
5-18

5-20 5-32 5-44 5-49 6-4 6-5 6-9 7-4 7-5 7-9 7-10 7-13 7-14 7-16 7-18 7-21 7-23 7-24
7-26

7-27 7-28 7-37 7-38 7-41 7-42 7-42

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Tables
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1-1 1-2 3-1 3-2 3-3 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-16 5-17 6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 7-1

Fundamental Differences between 3G-1X and 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO Forward Link Data Rates Relationship Between Physical Layer Packet Bit Size and Code Symbol Bit Size at Different Data Rates DRCRATE Values Test Duration Code Maximum AT Transmit Power PCS Reverse Link Budget Spreadsheet Reverse Link Required Eb/Nt Values Probability Of Edge Coverage vs. Fade Margin Required Traffic Channel Forward Link Eb/No Value Forward Link Budget Spreadsheet for PCS Band Edge Coverage For Interference Limited Case Required Pilot Channel Ec/Nt (d) Traffic Channel Gain DRC Gain Interference Ratio Reverse Link Net Throughput HTTP Traffic Model Parameters Maximum Active Data Sessions at 72% Loading for Full Buffer Traffic Model Maximum Active Data Sessions at 72% Loading for Web Browsing Traffic Model Erlang capacity (Delay Ratio = 0.2, a = 1) Erlang Capacity (Delay Ratio = 0.2, a = VAF) AMPS and CDMA Channel Numbers and Corresponding Frequencies For Band Class 0 Recommended A-Band CDMA Center Frequency Assignments Recommended B-Band CDMA Center Frequency Assignments 1xEV-DO Channel Allocation Availability For Band Class 1 Preferred CDMA Channels For Band Class 1 Access Probe Related Translation Parameters

1-14
1-21

3-29 3-37 3-38 5-8 5-10 5-15 5-19 5-21 5-25 5-29 5-36 5-36 5-37
538

5-39 5-40 5-41 5-42 5-45 5-46 6-6 6-8 6-8 6-10 6-11 7-7

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Introduction

Contents
1.1
1.1.1 1.1.2

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

3G Technology
Introduction Reason for Reissue

1-3
1-3 1-4

1.2
1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.4.1 1.2.4.2 1.2.4.3 1.2.5

Wireless Evolution to Third Generation (3G) Technology


ITU 3G Vision Radio Operating Environments Data Rate vs. Coverage IMT-2000 Standards Mix and Match CDMA2000, Multi-Carrier Mode 1xEV-DO

1-5
1-5 1-5 1-6 1-6 1-8 1-10 1-11

Worldwide Support for the Three Terrestrial Technologies 1-8

1.3
1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4

Evolution from IS-95 to 3G-1X


Uplink Pilot Channel Turbo Coder Forward Power Control Supplemental Channel

1-12
1-12 1-12 1-13 1-14

1.4
1.4.1 1.4.2

Introduction to 1xEV-DO
Introduction to 1xEV-DO Elimination of Voice Transmissions

1-15
1-15 1-15

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Contents
1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 1.4.2.3 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.4.1 1.4.4.1.1 1.4.4.1.2 1.4.4.1.3 1.4.4.2 Trade-off with Quality, Coverage, and Capacity Limitation of Real-Time, Uninterrupted Voice Transmissions Increased Data Rates Overlay Solution 1xEV-DO Characteristics Forward Link Data Traffic Channel Dynamic Rate Control Packet Data Transmission Scheduling Algorithm Reverse Link Data Traffic Channel

Introduction

1-15 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-17


1-17 1-17

1-18 1-18 1-18

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1.1 3G Technology
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1.1.1 Introduction

The evolution to 3G technology is guided by a set of recommendations proposed by wireless service providers and manufacturers in response to a circular letter solicited by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a UN-charted organization. Large investments in various 2G technologies and equipment, held by service providers and equipment venders responding to the ITU C-circular letter that wanted to leverage their knowledge and investment into the new 3G technology, delayed the ITU original vision of single third-generation wireless technology. Consequently, three 3G terrestrial solutions, two CDMA, and one TDMA was adapted by the ITU for its third generation wireless technology. 1xEV-DO is an evolutionary outgrowth of CDMA2000, which is one of the two 3G CDMA solutions adapted by the ITU. This chapter is divided into three section. The first two sections provide sufficient background information to foreshadow the logic and reasoning behind the third section, Introduction to 1xEV-DO. In the first section, Wireless Evolution to Third Generation (3G) Technology, the ITU vision for 3G wireless technology is described. Here, the goal of third generation wireless is defined. In addition, this part describes the difference between wideband CDMA (WCDMA) and CDMA2000, which are two CDMA solutions adapted by the ITU as part of 3G technology. The second section, Evolution from IS-95 to 3G-1X, reviews the evolution from wireless second generation IS-95 technology to wireless third generation 3G-1X technology (3G) to provide a common reference to introduce 1xEV-DO. This is done by identifying some of the improvements offered in 3G-1X. The third section, Introduction to 1xEV-DO, describes how higher transmission data rates and greater capacity can be achieved from a 1xEVDO system, which permits data transmission only. Unlike 3G-1X systems, which permit voice and data transmission, 1xEV-DO provides more efficient use of the spectrum for data transmission by eliminating voice. Because voice must be transmitted uninterruptedly, in real time, the high quality characteristics required for voice transmission results in data rate and coverage limitations. The elimination of uninterrupted, real-time voice transmission constrains allows 1xEV-DO systems to time-multiplex the distribution of downlink data to each on-line subscriber in a particular service area. Unlike IS-95 and 3G-1X systems, where base station transmit power must be shared among all active mobiles within a sector to maintain simultaneous, continuous downlink voice channels, time-multiplexing allows 1xEV-DO systems to concentrate their full downlink transmit power to a single on-line user at any one time. This allows the base station to transmit user data at the highest data rate, up to 2.4-Mbps peak data rate, provided a discernible Eb/No level is maintained.

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The third section of this chapter also describes the 1xEV-DO air interface, its IP protocol (Internet Protocol) for seamless data transfer over the Internet or any privet IP network, and its downlink and uplink asymmetrical data flow rates.

1.1.2 Reason for Reissue

This manual has been reissued to describe the Test Application Feature introduced as part of Release 20.1. The Test Application feature, which is described in Section 3.5, provides end to end performance testing of the system and is an OA&M function. Therefore, a set of procedures to conduct forward and reverse link performance measurements using this feature in a field environment is presented in CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Radio Networks Controller Application Processor Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OA&M), 401-614-102. The Test Application feature provides various testing capabilities for the forward and reverse links, providing a collection of data statistics which were not available prior to the introduction of this feature, such as the number of physical slots used in receiving the forward link packet. Three tests that can be run: Forward Test (TAF) Reverse Test (TAR) Combined Forward and Reverse Test (TAA).

The describe the Test Application Feature in Section 3.5 is supported by a Call Processing Chapter 7, which new for the issue.

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1.2 Wireless Evolution to Third Generation (3G) Technology


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1.2.1 ITU 3G Vision

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) original vision was for one unifying terrestrial air and core network system for the next generation of wireless communication. Some of the major aspects of the ITU vision, which help define 3G technology, include: Global Roaming with Fixed Wireless Services - Would allow a mobile user from anywhere in the world to expect the same standard set of wireless services and features, regardless of where the user travels and the country visited High Circuit Mode and High Packet Data Rates - Data rate optimization for three terrestrial radio environments: Vehicular, high-speed mobile environment Pedestrian low-mobility Indoor environment Internet Accessibility - Provide Internet connectivity and services comparable with direct landline connection. Patterned services in accordance with the Internet model, such as: Asymmetric link - Providing a low uplink data rate (narrow bandwidth) for request and a high downlink data rate for web page download E-mail push -User does not have to connect to system to receive e-mail Multi-tasking - User may be on a video conference and receive mail at the same time Quality of Service (QoS) - Allowing the user to negotiate the QoS with regard to data rate, bit error rate, and latency Variable Data Rate - Allowing user to get a higher data rate when the system is less busy Bandwidth-on-Demand - Allowing users willing to pay extra to negotiate for a wider bandwidth when needed Support of Multimedia Services- Provide video and audio services for video conferences and streaming video.

1.2.2 Radio Operating Environments

The ITU envisioned four very distinct radio operating environments as shown in Figure 1-1, one satellite and three terrestrial, where the minimum data rates and coverage differ for each radio operating environment: 9.6 kb/s for global satellite megacell coverage 144 kb/s for high-mobility vehicular macrocell coverage 384 kb/s for low-mobility pedestrian microcell coverage 2 Mb/s for indoor picocell coverage.

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> 9.6 kb/s > 144 kb/s > 384 kb/s MEGA CELL > 2.048 Mb/s MACRO CELL Global Regional Local Area PICO CELL
*
7

MICRO CELL

Figure 1-1

ITUS IMT-2000 Vision Minimum Data Rates

1.2.3 Data Rate vs. Coverage

There is an inverse relationship between data rate and coverage; the higher the data rate, the smaller the coverage area. This is, because to ensure an acceptable level of quality, the receive bit error (BER) must be kept to a minimum. In CDMA transmission, this is accomplished by maintaining a high energy per bit level at the receiver. This level is directly proportional to the transmit power and inversely proportional to the transmit distance and the transmit data rate. Hence, to insure an acceptable receive high energy per bit level for a given transmit power level, as the data rate increases, the distance between the transmitter and receiver must decrease. Consequently, because the mobile transmit power is limited, the coverage areas of the three terrestrial radio environments is a function of their respective data rates. The first two rates, 144 kb/s and 384 kb/s, were adapted from the ISDN network, which the ITU had originally envisioned for the 3G core network. The 2Mb/s rate was considered the data rate required to produce the look and feel of todays LAN line Internet connections.

1.2.4 IMT-2000 Standards

Because of large investments in various 2G technologies and equipment, service providers and equipment venders responding to the ITU circular letter wanted to leverage their knowledge and investment into the new 3G technology. In short, the service providers from around the world proposed 3G solutions that provided

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a graceful evolution from their current 2G terrestrial radio interface and core network technologies. As a result, a variety of proposals were submitted to the ITU. The next step for the ITU was to build a consensus among all participants to harmonize the different 3G proposals into three major terrestrial radio interface proposals and two core network technologies, which became the International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT) family of 3G technologies standards that are documented into the IMT-2000 Standards. The three major terrestrial proposals and their primary deployment global region, which are illustrated in Figure 1-2, are: W-CDMA, proposed by GSM service providers and primary deployed in Europe CDMA2000, proposed by IS-95 CDMA service providers and primary deployed in North America UWC-136, proposed by IS-136 TDMA service providers and primary deployed in North America.

The core network defines the Mobile Application Part (MAP) that insures the operability between service providers.The two core network technologies are: GSM MAP, proposed by GSM service providers ANSI TIA/EIA - 41 MAP, proposed by IS-136 TDMA and CDMA IS-95 service providers.

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3G cdma2000 ANSI-Based Handset

3G W-CDMA GSM-Based Handset

ANSI TIA/EIA-41 - Based Core Network

GSM-Based Core Network

3G UWC-136 ANSI-Based Handset

Figure 1-2

Interpretability of Standard IMT-2000 Services

1.2.4.1 Mix and Match

To permit service providers the freedom to chose any of the three terrestrial technologies regardless of its present 2G radio interface, either core network may be used with any of the three terrestrial technologies in a mix-and-match fashion. For example, a TDMA 2G service provider closing to deploy W-CMDA is not compelled to use GMS MAP, and may use the ANSI TAI/EIA-41 MAP core network solution. There is worldwide support for each terrestrial proposal, making core network interpretability and standard compatibility absolutely essential for achieving the ITU vision of global communication. The wideband CDMA or W-CDMA proposal comes primarily from Europe, where GSM technology is widely deployed. Two official IMT standards are derived from this proposal: IMT-DS (Direct Spread), which is a frequency division duplex (FDD) scheme where separate carriers are used for uplink and downlink and IMT-TC (Time Code); and a time division duplex (TDD) scheme, where uplink

1.2.4.2 Worldwide Support for the Three Terrestrial Technologies

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and downlink data is transmitted on a single carrier separated by time. Although GSM uses a time division multiple access radio interface, which is not compatible with CDMA, W-CDMA will be backward-compatible with GSM on the core network side, thus protecting the existing GSM infrastructure. In addition to Europe, there is a great support for W-CDMA from GSM carriers on a worldwide basis. Asian service providers such as Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) express strong support for WCDMA. The North America GSM Alliance and Microcell of Canada are conducting W-CDMA trials on behalf of the North American carriers. Support for CDMA2000, which is officially known in the IMT Standards as IMT-MC (Multi-Carrier), comes from those service providers currently using cdmaOne (IS-95) technology. This support is primarily in the United States. CDMA2000 is also supported Korea and Japan. Lastly, the UWC-136, officially known as IMT-SC (Single Carrier), was originally supported by TDMA service providers and manufacturers in the United States. This support has dwindled considerably, and may play a minor role in the IMT2000 family.

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2G

2.5G

3G CDMA IMT - 2000 Compliant CDMA2000 1xEV-DO CDMA2000 1xEV-DV


High Capacity Voice and Packet Data RF Backward Compatible

CDMA IS-95-A
Voice & 14.4 kbps Circuit Switched Data

CDMA IS-95-B
Voice & 64 kbps Packet RF Backward Compatible

CDMA2000 3G-1X
High Capacity Voice & 153 kbps Packet Data RF Backward Compatible

2.4 Mbps Packet Data RF Backward Compatible

CDMA2000 3G-3X
High Capacity Voice & Packet Data Multi-carrier

TDMA IS-136
Voice & 9.6 kbps Circuit Switched Data

EDGE (USA) EDGE (Europe) GSM


Voice & 114 kbps Packet Data RF Backward Compatible 384 kbps Packet Data

GSM
Voice & 9.6 kbps Circuit Switched Data

W-CDMA (Europe)
High Capacity Voice and 384 kbps+ Packet Data New RF Interface

PDC
Voice 9.6 kbps

PDC
Voice 28.8 kbps RF Backward Compatible

W-CDMA (Japan)
High Capacity Voice and 384 kbps+ Packet Data New RF Interface

1995

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003+

Figure 1-3

Global Wireless Standards Evolution

1.2.4.3 CDMA2000, MultiCarrier Mode

Both of the two different CDMA technologies emerging from wireless thirdgeneration CDMA2000 and wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) recognize that higher data rates may be achieved through wider carrier bandwidths. While W-CDMA uses the direct spread solution on carrier bandwidths ranging from 5-MHz and upwards, CDMA2000 provides a multi-carrier solution using multiples of the IS95 1.25 MHz carrier bandwidth to achieve wider bandwidths. The multi-carrier solution leverages from IS-95 hardware and technology. In this scheme, the carrier bandwidth is designated by the IS-95 carrier multiplier: 1x designates 1.25 MHz, and 3x designates 3.75 MHz up to 12x, which designates a 15-MHz carrier.

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1.2.5 1xEV-DO

1xEV-DO is a CDMA air interface and is an evolution of CDMA200 to provide high- speed packet data service to wireless users. The 1xEV-DO air interface is capable of providing peak rates in excess of 2 Mbps to 1xEV-DO users. Even though the channel structure and channel encoding of 1xEVDO is different from the IS-95 interface, the 1xEV-DO RF signal is compatible with the IS-95 RF signal. So, the same radios, amplifiers, and filters used for IS-95 service can also be used for 1xEV-DO service. The 1xEV-DO RF signal fits into the standard IS-95 spectrum and the parameters of 1xEV-DO are adjusted to make the RF footprint of an 1xEVDO base station equal to that of an IS-95 base station. The evolution differences between 3G-1X and 1xEV-DO are shown in Table 1-1

Table 1-1

Fundamental Differences between 3G-1X and 1xEV-DO

3G-1X
Low to medium data rate (144kbps) High capacity voice May require OEM equipment Treats data just like voice, designed for symmetrical forward and reverse capacity

1xEV-DO
High data rate (2.4Mbps) No voice capability Many off-the-shelf IP products Treats data like data, designed for asymmetrical forward and reverse capacity

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1.3 Evolution from IS-95 to 3G-1X


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CDMA2000 is introduced at 1x (1.25 MHz), designated 3G-1X, and allows voice and data on the same carrier (bandwidth). The advent of CDMA2000 brought about a number of air interface improvements over IS-95 to increase capacity, data rate, and transmission quality while maintaining the same IS-95 1.25-MHz carrier bandwidth. The improvements in 3G1X over IS-95 include the following.

1.3.1 Uplink Pilot Channel

Faster data rates are achieved through the use of uplink pilot channels. IS-95 employed a blind detection technique in which the cell came up with its own timing to determine the phase reference of the mobile signal. In 3G-1X, the mobile sends a pilot signal to indicate the phase reference to the base station. This is referred to as coherent demodulation or coherent detection, because the base station uses the timing on the uplink pilot channel to demodulate the uplink traffic signal. As a result, the uplink traffic channel can be transmitted at a lower power level, introducing less interference in the environment to allow for increased capacity and data rate. The uplink pilot channel provides a significant power savings of up to 3 dB. This means that the pilot channel enables a 3G mobile to transmit at twice the data rate, at same the power level. To state it another way, a 3G mobile can transmit at the same data rate at half the power level.

1.3.2 Turbo Coder

IS-95 technology uses a K = 9 convolution coder to perform forward error correction (FEC). FEC is a technique used to lower the minimum received signalto-interference level, referred to as Eb/No level, required to ensure quality reception. This is done in a convolution coder by adding redundancy into the transmitted data bit stream. The interrelationship of every bit with its preceding bits in the bit stream provides redundancy at the receiver decoder, resulting in the ability to recover input data when a few bits are corrupted. Bit recovery will be valid as long as the error in transmission is restricted to a few bits at a time. The K = 9 convolution coder is operated in IS-95 as half-rate or third-rate coder. For every information bit input, when operating as a half-rate coder, a 2-bit coded output symbol is generated, producing 100 percent redundancy. Similarly, when operating as a third-rate coder, for every information bit input, a 3-bit output symbol is generated, producing 200 percent redundancy. The 3G technology introduces a turbo coder that can be used as a half-, third-, fourth-, and fifth-rate coder. On average, a turbo coder effectively reduces the minimum required Eb/No by 1 dB to 2dB. Without a turbo coder, the exponential complexity for a K = 10 coder, which would be required for a fourth-and fifth-rate coder, does not offset its Eb/No benefits. This design complexity is minimized with a turbo coder. In 1xEV-DO, the turbo coder is operated at a third- and fifthrate in the forward link, and at a half- and fourth-rate in the reverse link.

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A turbo coder consists of two K = 4 half-rate convolution coders and a turbo interleaver, as shown in Figure 1. Every information bit is routed through the turbo coder unchanged to become one of the coder output symbol bits. The information bit is also coded by the K = 4 half-rate coder, producing two symbol bits on lines A and B. The K = 4 half-rate coder is not as complex as the K = 9 coder, and its output is a function of the previous three bits. In addition, the input information bits are scrambled by the turbo interleaver and are coded by the interleaver K = 4 half-rate coder, producing two addition symbol bits on lines C and D. The coder rate selection is implemented through the puncture control. When a half-rate coding is selected, the puncture control inhibits the bit streams on lines B, C, and D. Thus, the turbo coder generates only two coded symbol bits: the original instruction bits and the bits on line A. When third-rate coding is required, the 2-bit symbol output of the K = 4 half-rate coder is enabled along with the original information. When fourth-rate coding is required, in addition to the 2-bit symbol at the output of the K = 4 half-rate coder and the original information bit, the bit stream on line C is enabled.

Information Bit

Original Information Bit Encoded Bits A K = 4 Half-Rate Coder B


Puncture Control

Turbo Interleaver

Interleave K = 4 Half-Rate Coder

C D

Figure 1-4

Turbo Coder

1.3.3 Forward Power Control

Another difference between IS-95 and 3G-1X technology is the implementation of forward power control. Forward power control allows for an increase or decrease of the signal power as a function of the signal level received at the base station. Because of the high data rate capabilities in 3G-1X, tighter power control is required. In IS-95, the mobile sends a power control request to the base station over the traffic channel every 20 ms, or 50 times a second. In 3G1X, the mobile sends a power control request every 1.25 ms, or 800 times a

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second, over the reverse pilot channel. More frequent power control requests lead to more accurately adjusted power.

1.3.4 Supplemental Channel

Supplemental channels were introduced in 3G-1X for high data rate transmission, such as for Internet or multimedia applications. The channel carries data only, and messages must be transmitted with either the fundamental channel and/or the dedicated control channel, which are also introduced in 3G1X. A fundamental channel is operated as a traffic channel in IS-95 and, in addition to providing control data for the supplemental channel, the fundamental channel is primarily used to carry voice traffic. Rather than using a fundamental channel, a dedicated control channel may be set up to support (provide signaling for) the supplemental channel. A dedicated control channel may also be used for short messages.

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1.4 Introduction to 1xEV-DO


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1.4.1 Introduction to 1xEV-DO

Higher transmission data rates and greater capacity can be achieved from a 1xEV-DO system, which permits data transmission only, than from a 3G-1X system, which permits voice and data transmission. In both direct spread and multi-carrier solutions employed by W-CDMA and CDMA2000, respectively, a wide band is required to achieve high data rates while a number of users are simultaneously sharing the same carrier for voice and high data rate traffic. Rather than allowing multiple users to simultaneously share a single carrier for both uplink and downlink transmission, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO uses a different approach to achieve high data rates. 1xEV-DO recognizes the asymmetrical nature in which data is moved over an IP network. Higher volumes of data are downloaded from the network to the user than are uploaded from the user to the network. The download to upload ratio may vary between four-to-one and six-to-one, and is in some cases even higher. To take advantage of this asymmetrical pattern, 1xEV-DO technology uses different multiple access division techniques for uplink and downlink data transmission. For uplink data transmission, 1xEV-DO uses the classical CDMA code division technology similar to IS-95 and 3G-1X, and for downlink transmission, a time division techniques where, a single 1.25-MHz carrier is time-shared with a maximum of 59 users, is used. Because voice transmission requires continuous use of the carrier, voice transmission is not implemented in 1xEV-DO. This document will focus on CDMA2000 1xEV-DO which, as in 3G-1X technology, also leverages from IS-95 hardware and technology. While the Physical Layer of 1xEV-DO, identifying channel encoding and channel structure differs greatly from IS-95 and 3G-1X, the RF signal and 1.25-MHz bandwidth is compatible with IS-95. Therefore, the same RF equipment (amplifiers, filters, etc.) used to provide IS-95 service can be used to provide 1xEV-DO service.

1.4.2 Elimination of Voice Transmissions


1.4.2.1 Trade-off with Quality, Coverage, and Capacity

To fully appreciate how the elimination of voice transmissions can improve data rates, which is often defined as capacity or the amount of data transmitted in a unit of time, it is appropriate to review the trade-off with quality, coverage, and capacity that is inherent in CDMA systems. The quality of the transmission is directly proportional to the transmit power, and is commonly expressed as the amount of energy transmitted in each bit (Eb) over the ambient noise and interference (Eb/No) level. Increasing the data rate increases the capacity, which is the number of bits transmitted in a unit of time, and therefore requires more energy or transmit power. After the transmitter reaches its maximum power output, any further increase in the data rate will result in reducing the transmit Eb/No level quality, thereby reducing the overall quality of the received signal. As a result, the quality of the received signal at the outer coverage fringe will fall below levels acceptable to maintain calls. Consequently, the transmitter range decreases, and the coverage area shrinks. If the data rate is still increased,

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the Eb/No levels in larger coverage will continue to drop, further reducing the quality of the received signal and increase cell shrinkage.

1.4.2.2 Limitation of Real-Time, Uninterrupted Voice Transmissions

Voice quality is the ultimate criterion to consider in IS-95 and 3G-1X systems. Because voice must be transmitted uninterruptedly, in real time, the high quality characteristics required for voice transmission results in data rate and coverage limitations. Whereas the relaxed time constraints allow corrupted received packet data to be retransmitted, the uninterrupted, real-time constraint of voice transmission prohibits retransmission. Because retransmission is prohibited, voice transmission is less tolerant to high bit error rates (BERs), demanding high quality transmission by forcing transmission at higher Eb/No levels than allowed for data transmission. The higher transmission Eb/No levels create more interference in the environment, consequently imposing major limitations on CDMA transmission data rates.

1.4.2.3 Increased Data Rates

The elimination of uninterrupted, real-time voice transmission constrains allows 1xEV-DO systems to time-multiplex the distribution of downlink data to each online subscriber in a particular service area. Unlike IS-95 and 3G-1X systems, where the base station must be able to maintain simultaneous, continuous downlink voice channels within a sector, time multiplexing allows 1xEV-DO systems to concentrate its full downlink transmit power to a single on-line user at any one time. This allows the base station to transmit user data at the highest data rate, up to 2.4-Mbps peak data rate provided that a discernible Eb/No level is maintained.

1.4.3 Overlay Solution

An 1xEV-DO system can coexist with any voice technology and is optimized for packet data services using flexible architecture based on standard Internet Protocols (IP). By using voice and data on separate dedicated carriers, the 1xEVDO overlay solution allows service providers to optimize wireless systems to provide the higher traffic capacities without negatively impacting voice service and performance. While 3G-1X provides high-capacity voice and low to medium rate data services, 1xEV-DO provides additional capacity for data users where data becomes a significant portion of the traffic on a network. A 3G-1X network can provide operators with substantial advantages for high capacity, high quality voice services and packet data services of 144 Kbps user rate for mobile subscribers. The 1xEV-DO systems will complement a 3G-1X network offering in areas where high speed, high throughput data traffic is expected. Users with muti-mode terminals will be able to access data over the Internet while maintaining a voice conversation over the 3G-1X network. The 1xEV-DO architecture provides an overlay solution to voice networks running in cellular or personal communications services (PCS) spectrums and requires a dedicated 1.25-MHz channel. Although designed to leverage from IS95 and 3G-1X systems, protecting current investments in existing Lucent Flexent, and AUTOPLEX infrastructures, the 1xEV-DO does not require any signaling or backhaul interaction with the MSC and can co-exist with any voice technology such as GSM and TDMA.

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1.4.4 1xEV-DO Characteristics

1xEV-DO is a high data rate air interface providing high speed, high capacity packet data service for wireless users. This service employs the IP protocol (Internet Protocol) for seamless data transfer over the Internet or any private IP network. Rather than using mobiles, users access the system with a hand-held Access Terminal (AT). Because experience with the Internet indicates asymmetrical data flow, where downlink data flow is much higher than uplink data flow, downlink and uplink data flow between AT and the base transceiver station (BTS) is asymmetrical. The peak data rates for 1xEV-DO are: Forward Link (Downlink) = 2, 457.6 Kbps Reverse Link (Uplink) =153.6 Kbps.

Forward link average aggregate throughput can be from 350 to 550 kbps per carrier-sector for high mobility (vehicle) end-users, and up to 650 kbps per carrier-sector for low-mobility and stationary end-users. 1xEV-DO supports a host of new higher-rate services such as faster speeds for corporate access, as well as streaming multimedia content. Although a 1xEV-DO base stations can be collocated with a IS-95 or a 3G1X system, 1xEV-DO requires separate CDMA carriers that cannot be used by either IS-95 or 3G-1X. This is because1xEV-DO air interface channel protocol that defines the forward and reverse link data traffic channels is not compatible with the IS-95 and 3G-1X forward and reverse link data traffic channels. The following is an overall description of the forward and reverse data link traffic channels as defined by the 1xEV-DO air interface. A detailed discussion of the traffic channels and the air link interface is given in Chapter 3.

1.4.4.1 Forward Link Data Traffic Channel

A single forward link data traffic channel is used on each CDMA carrier designated for 1xEV-DO operation, and is time-shared by a maximum of 59 users on the carrier. This means that at any one time, only one user is actively receiving data over the traffic channel. With only one user, there is no need for transmit power sharing as in IS-95 and 3G-1X, and the BTS software does not need to be concerned with co-channel interference. Therefore, the BTS can transmit at full power to produce the highest carrier to noise (Eb/No) ratio possible, allowing high data rate transmission.

1.4.4.1.1 Dynamic Rate Control


Data rate is assigned based on the signal strength measured at the AT. The data rate that is actually transmitted to any one AT is a function of that AT RF environment. The AT continuously monitors the quality of its receive pilot signal, in addition to monitoring the pilot signal from other neighboring sectors. As with IS-95 and 3G-1X, the pilot signal transmitted by each sector is distinguished by an offset of the PN short code. Because the received pilot signals from the different sectors are predictable, the AT can acquire the pilot signal and measure the pilot channel carrier-to-interference

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(C/I) ratio. By measuring the C/I ratio, the AT is able to determine its current best serving sector and the highest data rate it may be able to receive reliable data from that sector. As a result of this determination, the AT sends back a data rate control (DRC) report to the BTS. The DRC identifies the serving sector and the highest rate in which the AT can receive quality data from the sector. The serving sector transmits to a scheduled AT at the rate indicated in its DRC report then following the scheduling algorithm described in Section 1.4.4.1.3. As shown in Table 1-1 forward link data can be transmitted at nine different data rates that are chosen to provide efficient coverage under a full range of conditions experienced at typical cellular/PCS cell sites. The data starts at 38.4 kbps and doubles itself up to 2.457.6 kbps. Each data rate is associated with a particular packet bit size and modulation type.

Table 1-2

1xEV-DO Forward Link Data Rates 153.6 1024 307.2 1024 614.4 1024 QPSK 921.6 3072 QPSK 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6 2048 QPSK 3072 4096

Data Rate (kbps) Bit per Packets Modulation Type

38.4 1024 QPSK

76.8 1024

QPSK QPSK QPSK

8 PSK 16 QAM

1.4.4.1.2 Packet Data Transmission


Forward link data is transmitted in successive 26.67-ms frames, which are divided into sixteen 1.667-ms slots in which packets of data are transmitted. The transmission duration of a single packet may vary from 1 to 16 slots as a function of the data transmission rate. Pilot and control information are inserted (punctured) within each frame at fixed intervals for AT extraction. The packet AT destination is specified within the packet. Upon receiving the packet, the AT transmits an acknowledge (ACK) signal indicating that the packet is received and its data is uncorrupted.

1.4.4.1.3 Scheduling Algorithm


To maximize the overall sector throughput, 1xEV-DO uses a scheduling algorithm that takes advantage of a multi-user pool vying for time on the carrier. Based on the DRC reported by each AT, the scheduling algorithm will schedule data transfer with only those ATs operating in favorable RF conditions, so that the data is transferred at the highest possible rate. ATs operating in less favorable RF conditions are served later, hopefully when their RF conditions improve.

1.4.4.2 Reverse Link Data Traffic Channel

As in 3G-1X, 1xEV-DO uses reverse link (uplink) pilot pulses permitting coherent detection by the BTS of the reverse link data from the AT. Uplink data is transmitted in successive 26.67-ms frames at data rates from 9.6 kbps to 153.6 kbps. The initial transmit rate of an AT is 9.6kbps. Subsequently the transmit rate

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Introduction

can be increased or decreased depending on the total traffic activity in the sector. A Reverse Rate Indicator (RRI) transmitted by the AT is used by the BTS to identify the rate in which the AT is transmitting traffic data.

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Introduction

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Contents
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2.1 2.2
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.3.2.1 2.2.3.2.2 2.2.4

Overview Network Data Flow


Access Terminal. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) FMS Frames IP Address Assignment Simple IP Mobile IP Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA)

2-3 2-4
2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5
2-6

2-6 2-7 2-7

2.3
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2 2.3.3.2.1 2.3.3.2.2 2.3.3.3 2.3.3.3.1 2.3.3.3.2 2.3.3.4

Data Interface Protocols


TPC/IP Reference Model AT Protocol Stack Network Data Transfer Application Layer Transport Layer Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Internet Layer Internet Protocol (IP) Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Host-to-Network Interface

2-8
2-8 2-9 2-11
2-11 2-11

2-11 2-12
2-12 2-12

2-13
2-13

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Contents
2.3.3.4.1 2.3.3.4.2 2.3.3.4.3 2.3.3.4.4 2.3.3.4.5 2.3.3.4.6 2.3.3.4.7 Application Layer: Stream Layer Session Layer Connection Layer Security Layer MAC Layer Physical Layer:

Radio Access Network (RAN) Architecture

2-14 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16

2.4
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.2.1 2.4.2.2 2.4.2.3 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5

Simple IP and Mobile IP Internet Access


Peer-to-Peer Communication PPP Connection Between the AT and PDSN Radio Link Protocol (RLP) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) Protocol Unicast Access Terminal Identifier (UATI) Simple IP Connection Simple IP Connection with Private Mobile IP Connection Network

2-17
2-17
2-18

2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-21

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2.1 Overview
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The chapter discusses the major components in the Radio Access Network and how data is propagated from source to destination. An overall description of each major network component is presented in terms of its physical and functional makeup. The importance of protocol stacks associated with each component is presented along with a description of each protocol layer. This chapter also describes IP address assignments and the difference between simple and mobile IP addresses. A good understanding of the Radio Access Network and its major network components, and how the data interface protocols are used to move data from source to destination, is important for the efficient design of a system, maximizing the air interface to increase capacity and performance.

Network Data Flow

Radio Access Network (RAN) Architecture

2.2 Network Data Flow


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Air interface and data traffic connection for 1xEV-DO is provided by a wireless IP network that is independent and different from the IS-41 network model used for IS95 and 3G-1X. In 1xEV-DO air interface and data connection to and from the public packet switched network (Internet) and in private IP networks is provided by the 1xEV Radio Access System that is shown Figure 2-1. This figure shows network hardware providing the air interface and data traffic connections through the network.

OMP FX (Element Management System)

Radio Access Network (RAN)

T1/E1 Lines

Router 1x EV-DO BTS 1

Ethernet

AAA
Uplink Input Router Flexent Mobility Server (FMS0) Downlink Input Router

1x EV-DO BTS 48

Packet Data Service Node (PDSN)


T1/E1 Lines

Internet

1x EV-DO BTS 240

Uplink Input Router

Flexent Mobility Server (FMS5)

Downlink Input Router

Ethernet

1x EV-DO BTS 288

Figure 2-1

Radio Access System (RAS)

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2.2.1 Access Terminal.

Users will access the system, which is referred to as the Radio Access Network (RAN), through an Access Terminal (AT) that maintains an air interface with a 1xEV-DO base station. The AT may be used in a laptop computer, a hand-held device such a Palm Pilot or personal digital assistant, or multi-mode mobile with AMPS/IS-95 and 3G-1X/1xEV-DO capabilities. The base station (sometimes refer to on maintenance and configuration data displays, such as RC/V screens as Base Transceiver Station, BTS) receives and transmits a CDMA signal from and to all of the ATs in its service area. As stated in Chapter 1, downlink transmission from the base station to the AT is on a time- share basses or time division, and uplink transmission is classical CDMA code division. All call processing negotiated between the AT and the base station is covered in later chapters and is defined by 1xEV-DO Protocol Architecture IS-856, which is introduced later in this chapter. The objective of this present discussion is to describe data flow between the AT and a land IP network such as the Internet. To that extent, the IS-856 architecture provides a Radio Link Protocol (RLP) that encapsulates small chunks of transmitted and received data bits into datagrams. The 1xEV-DO base stations within the RAN coverage area, which may be stand-alone devices or co-located with 2G or 3G-1X base stations, are connected by a Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) through a network router via a T1or E1 line. The FMS provides the interface to complete the call control functions required by the AT to acquire the RAN network. This interface is defined by the 1xEV-DO IS-856 Protocol Architecture. Two network routers are physically housed with an FMS in the same frame. The routers shown in Figure 2-1 are functionally located and do not necessarily represent individual routers. The routers are bi-directional devices, and for this discussion will be identified in terms of its uplink data path from the ATs to the RAN network. Therefore, the routers receiving input commands and data stream from the base stations are functionally identified as uplink input routers. These routers, which provide a common point to terminate back haul T1/E1 lines from all 1xEV-DO base stations, steer and convert the uplink data stream received over the T1/E1 line to the FMS via an ethernet line.

2.2.2 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

2.2.3 Flexent Mobility Server (FMS)

2.2.3.1 FMS Frames

The RAN network may contain up to six FMS frames, designated FMS0 through FMS5. The FMS frame houses up to four primary and four backup A servers. Each A-Server contains one Application Processor (AP) running on the Sun Solaris Operating System (OS), Version 8. The A Server also contain up to two Traffic Processors (TPs), one Alarm Card, and one local boot disk. The APs runs the 1xEV Controller software to perform overhead channel management signaling processing and OA&M control functions. These functions include session establishment and release, frame selection, and radio link protocol (RLP) processing. The TPs run VxWorks to perform traffic processing and the Packet Control Function (PCF) to handle the packet data interface between the base station the PDSN components. The 1xEV controller software also performs the packet control function (PCF) to process the data for standard A10/A11, Radio-Packet (R-P) interface with

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the Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN). This interface is maintained either via a 100 Mbps ethernet connection or an ATM interface to the Internet service provider backbone IP network. The A10/A11 R-P interface terminates the mobility management defined by the air interface protocol (IS-856) and is the demarcation point between the RAN and IP packet networks. The FMS-processed data is connected to PDSN via the downlink input router, and because the PDSN is located at Internet serving network, the router is connected to the PDSN over an ethernet connection. Each FMS frame is capable of interfacing and handling the call processing function for 48 base stations. User maintenance and controls for the six FMS within the RAN are provided through Element Management System (EMS), which runs on the Flexent OMP FX platform. The Flexent OMP FX, which is located on-site with the FMS frames, is connected to each frame via a router over an ethernet connection. When some 1xEV-DO base stations are collocated with 3G-1X/IS-95 cell sites, the same Flexent OMP FX may also be used to run the Flexent EMS for the 3G-1X/IS95 cell sites.

2.2.3.2 IP Address Assignment

The PDSN is operated as a Home Agent (HA) for the serving network in which it resides. As its agent, the serving network allocates the PDSN to open an IP session with a petitioning AT. The IP address defines a physical location on the Internet. When an IP session is established with an AT, the most significant digits of the IP address, which are listed in the Internet routing tables, are used to direct Internet data traffic associated with the AT to and from the PDSN. The PDSN maps the AT to the IP address so that data reaching the PDSN is directed to the AT. IP address values are classified into two categories: dynamic and static. A dynamic IP address is a temporary address generally issued by the host serving network to the petitioning user machine for the duration of the session. When the session is terminated, the IP address is surrendered back to the host serving network for use by another machine. If the user petitions to open another session, its machine would most likely be assigned a different dynamic IP address value. A static IP address is a permanent address assigned by a serving network to a machine. The serving network may or may not be the serving network that is currently hosting the session. Each time a machine with a static IP address opens a session, it uses the same IP address value.

2.2.3.2.1 Simple IP
Unless the AT requests otherwise, when a session is allocated, a dynamic IP address is assigned to the AT. The IP address belongs to the host serving network, and it is assigned by that serving network Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). The IP address, which is called a Simple IP (S-IP), is assigned to the AT for the duration of the session as long as the AT remains within the domain of the PDSN. The PDSN is operated as a Home Agent (HA) for the DHCP. The IP address provides the AT with a source/destination location address, allowing packet data to be moved to and from the AT during the session. Although an IP address, which is a series of multi-decimal octal numbers, is ideal for machines such as network routers to steer packet data between source and destination, the IP

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address is not friendly for human recognition. That is why the serving network uses a Domain Name Server (DNS) for the human interface that maps the IP address to a recognizable name, such as jane@wirelessat.com.

2.2.3.2.2 Mobile IP
Rather that accepting an S-IP address, an AT may request a mobile IP (M-IP) address. Typically in this case, the AT would be programmed or hard-wired with it own static IP address. When the AT petitions the PDSN to open an Internet session, rather than accepting a dynamic IP address, the AT may identify its static IP address, which the PDSN uses as an M-IP address to open the session. If the AT moves out of the service area of its current PDSN, the AT can maintain the same static IP address, rather than accepting a different IP address from the new PDSN. The benefit of having an M-IP address is that the AT is allowed to roam in and out of different serving networks without the need to use different IP addresses in different service areas. The M-IP address provides an advantage if the AT user maintains a session through the firewall of a private IP network. Without the M-IP, the AT would have to renegotiate its way through the firewall each time the IP address changes. If the AT is roaming from its home RAN, most likely its static IP address will be foreign to the serving network currently hosting the session. In this case, the PDSN in the host serving network will be operating as a Foreign Agent (FA) for the serving network having domain over the static IP address. Data transmitted between the AT and the Internet will be directed via the FA PDSN and the Home Agent (HA) PDSN that has domain over the static IP address used by the AT. If the AT requires an M-IP and does not have it own static IP address, upon starting a session, an AT can request an M-IP address. In this case, the AT is assigned a dynamic IP address that it is allowed to keep (just as a static IP address) for the entire session even when the AT enters the domain of another serving network. If the AT enters the domain of another PDSN, the PDSN becomes a Foreign Agent for the serving network that issued the dynamic IP address.

2.2.4 Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA)

Prior to allowing an AT network access, the AT is challenged for authentication to determined if the AT is not masquerading under a false ID, and also for authorization to determine if the AT is permitted (authorized) to access the network. This challenge is implemented by the Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA) server via a server/client relationship with the PDNS client. The AAA maintains a subscriber database which is used to validate the users ID and password. The PDSN records AT data usage to provide accounting information to the AAA Server.

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2.3 Data Interface Protocols


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

User traffic data is moved across the RAN network in discrete packets, which are data parcels containing a specified number of data bits in accordance with the TCP/IP reference model, which is universally adapted for Internet use. This reference model is similar to the Open System Interface (OSI) reference model. The OSI reference model separates and groups the different functional network tasks to be performed into layers. The processing of user traffic data at each layer is governed by one or more protocols. Protocols are sets of rules and procedures that each network entity must agree to follow in order to achieve seamless data traffic across different network entities.

2.3.1 TPC/IP Reference Model

The difference between the OSI and TCP/IP reference models is shown in Figure 2-2. Both the OSI and the TCP IP reference model use independent protocol stacks. The TCP/IP reference model is named after its two primary protocols: TCP: Transmission Control Protocol used in the transport layer IP: Internet Protocol used in the internet layer.

Figure 2-2

OSI to TCP/IP Reference Model Map

Because experience with the ISO reference model has shown little use for the functionality of the presentation and session layers, these layers were eliminated from the TCP/IP model. In addition, the TPC/IP ignores defining the physical and data link layers, which is designated the Host-to-Network interface, and its definition is left up to the user as long it services the Internet layer in accordance with its

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protocol. In 1xEV-DO, the Host-to-Network layer is provided by 1xEV-DO Protocol Architecture IS-856, which defines an additional seven layers. These additional layers will be described later in this chapter.

2.3.2 AT Protocol Stack

The set of protocols used in any network entity are typically represented by a protocol stack, where the protocols are stacked vertically in accordance with their functional layers. The protocol stack in the AT device is shown in Figure 2-3.

Operates with the PC operated system and contains a number of protocols to interface the user network applications. Examples are:

Application

, , , , ,

SMTP, servicing e-mail browse TELNET, enabling remote login DNS, for mapping host name to network address FTP, for file transport services HTTP, for fetching pages on the World Wide Web

Transport

Organizes the data into segments for network delivery. Two primary protocols are used on this layer: TCP and UDP Primarily concerned with the movement of data from point A to point B; that is, from the data source to its destination Handles the transport of protocol messages and user data This layer adds header to each stream to be transmitted and removes the receive stream headers Provides access terminal (AT) contact address information management, and session configuration and management Provides connection management to maintain the established AT/RAN air-link. Provides air interface security using authentication and encryption of AT traffic, control, and access channel data Identifies the procedures used to receive the transmit data over the physical layer Provides channel structure, frequency, power output and modulation specifications for the forward and reverse links

Internet Application Stream


Session

Host to Network Defined by IS-856

Connection Security MAC Physical

Figure 2-3

AT Protocol Stacks Interface

The TCP/IP reference model forms the top layers of the laptop computer/AT protocol stack, where the host-to-network layer is provided by 1xEV-DO Protocol Architecture IS-856 to form the bottom layers. The 1xEV-DO Protocol Architecture provides a suit of protocols in most layers, as shown in Figure 2-4.

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Figure 2-4

1xEV-DO Protocol Architecture IS-856

Except for Radio Link Protocol (RLP) in the Application Layer and the Physical and MAC layers, most of the top and upper layers of this architecture are used for call processing rather then network interface. The MAC and Physical layer govern the

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radio link between the AT and the base station, and are discussed in this chapter and the following chapters.

2.3.3 Network Data Transfer

Data from the user AT starts its journey at its application layer installed on a AT/laptop PC, and functionally moves down and up the layers in the protocol stacks to reach its destination. As the data is processed through each layer, header information is appended to the data parcel to direct it through its peer layers at each network entity in the path of the data parcel as it travels to its intended destination. One or more protocols are used at each layer to perform specific functions to reliably deliver the data parcel to its destination. The following is a brief description of each layer and the functions of the primary protocol at each layer.

2.3.3.1 Application Layer

The application layer operates with the AT/PC-operated system and contains a number of protocols to interface with the user network applications, such as an e-mail browser, with the transport layer. Protocols commonly found in the application layer are: SMTP, servicing e-mail browser TELNET, enabling remote login DNS, for mapping host name to network address FTP, for file transport services HTTP, for fetching pages on the World Wide Web.

The data stream sent to the transport layer will be proceeded by an application header. This header contains information that is used at the data destination to inform its application layer of the type of data being transmitted, and the protocol used on the data.

2.3.3.2 Transport Layer

The transport layer organizes the data into segments for network delivery. In addition, this layer is used to insure reliable data delivery. Rather than transmitting data as a long stream of binary bits, the binary bit stream from the application is segmented by the transport layer into discrete message parcels know as datagrams or packets. Header data is added to each packet to identify the protocol used, its checksum value when applicable, and the packet number in the transmission series. Two primary protocols are used on this layer: TCP and UDP.

2.3.3.2.1 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)


The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides a reliable connection oriented protocol to insure that the data originating at the source machine is delivered to its destination free from any errors that may be introduced by other machines and network router in its path. In addition to fragmenting the data stream being sent in to packets, the TCP protocol computes a checksum value on the packet. The checksum value is a value related to the number of 1 bits within the packet. A transport header is appended to each packet and identifies, among other things, the packet number within the data stream and the checksum value.

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At the packet destination, the checksum algorithm is again performed on the received packet and its result is compared with the checksum value inserted in the packet transport layer header. If the two checksum values match, there is a reasonable assurance that the message data is received uncorrupted. As a result, the receiving machine sends back an acknowledgement indicating that the transmission is successful. If the checksum values do not match, the received data packet is assumed to be corrupted. Consequently, a request for retransmission is sent back to the data source.

2.3.3.2.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)


Whereas TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is an unreliable connectionless-oriented protocol. This protocol allows the user to turn off its checksum feature (flag), rendering an unreliable source-todestination datagram delivery system. The advantage of UDP over TCP is realized by eliminating the calculation and handshaking operation required for checksum reliability; a faster packet delivery data stream is achieved. Unlike TCP, which would be used to transmit numeric data or text requiring a high degree of reliability, UDP is generally used for streaming audio or streaming video, where corrupted packets now and then result in momentary glitches in the audio or video. The UPD also appends each datagram with a header containing very little information other than destination address.

2.3.3.3 Internet Layer

This layer is primarily concerned with the movement of data from point A to point B; that is, from the data source to its destination. Each terminal device on the Internet or any IP network is located by a unique logical address. The physical paths from source to destination are provided via network routers and gateways which are interconnected to each other to form the Internet infrastructure. Names and logical addresses of devices on the public Internet are listed with an accredited registrar that periodically updates and circulates routing tables over the Internet. These tables allow the network routers and gateways to translate the logical address of each packet it receives to a physical path that will ultimately lead the data packet to its destination. For 1xEV-DO, the network layer may be considered as being divided into two sublayers. The top sub-layer is the Internet Protocol (IP) sub-layer, and the bottom is the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) sub-layer.

2.3.3.3.1 Internet Protocol (IP)


The IP protocol defines the addressing scheme that is used over the public Internet, or any IP network. This scheme requires that every terminal device on the network be assigned a unique, four-byte logical IP address where each byte, which is commonly referred to as an octet, is 8 bits long. For human readability, each octet is represented by its decimal equivalent and is separated by periods. The IP protocol encapsulates (groups) each packet or datagram together with its transport layer head, and adds its IP network header to identify the data source and designation IP addresses.

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Radio Access Network (RAN) Architecture

Unlike the IP protocol that allows data delivery over the Internet, the PPP protocol establishes connection between two discrete points. The PPP protocol provides a standard method for transporting multi-protocol datagrams from one point to another. In this case, multi-protocol datagrams implies wrapping a datagram or packet within (encapsulating) another packet having a different network-layer transport protocol. This would be done to support tunneling where the inner wrapped packet and its transport protocol are routed (tunneled) through a network that supports a different transport protocol, which is the transport protocol of the outer wrapped packet. When the packet reaches the tunnel terminal point, which is the junction of two networks having different transport protocols, the outer packet is stripped, allowing the inner packet to continue its journey using its transport protocol. In 1xEV-DO, the PPP protocol is used to transport datagram packets between the AT and the PDSN. The AT datagram packets, which carry the transport protocol IP address of its destination network rather than the RAN network, is wrapped in a PPP parcel to navigate its way through the RAN network. The PDSN unwraps the PPP parcel to uncover the datagram destination IP address prior to releasing the data over the Internet. The most common use of PPP today is when a dial-up network is established between a personal computer (PC) user and an Internet service provider (ISP) via the public telephone switch network. At this time, a tunnel is established; the PC user is at one end, and the ISP modem at the other end. The TCP (or UDP) packets to and from the PC are encapsulated in a PPP datagrams that travels the tunnel route between the PC and the ISP modem. When a message from the PC is sent out over the Internet, the ISP modem strips away the PPP encapsulation on datagrams from the PC, and assigns an IP source address to each TCP (or UDP) before the message is sent out over the Internet. The reverse occurs when Internet data is received by the PC. Data targeted to the PC is steered to its ISP which has dominion over the PC-assigned IP address. The ISPencapsulated packet data is received on the Internet in a PPP datagram and uses the IP address to direct the datagram to the modem servicing the PPP tunnel to the PC. In 1xEV-DO, the PPP protocol is used to provide a direct connection between the user and the PDSN, which is the demarcation point between the air interface and the public Internet. The connection, which is referred to as a tunnel connection, is supported by the 1xEV-DO IS-856 architecture that provides the Host-to-Network Interface.

2.3.3.4 Host-to-Network Interface

The PPP connection is supported by the Radio Link Protocol (RLP), which is part of the application layer in the 1xEV-DO IS-856 architecture installed on the AT device. If the user terminal is a laptop PC, then the AT device is the plug-in PCMICIA card, and the PPP payload is passed to the 1xEV-DO IS-856 Application Layer via an internal connection. The RLP maintains the air interface between the AT and the FMS. The Application Layer provides a suite of protocols that ensure reliability over the airlink. As mentioned earlier, the host-to-network layers are defined by the 1xEV-DO IS-856 architecture, of

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which the RLP and the MAC and Physical layers are instrumental for data transfer. The following is a brief description of each 1xEV-DO IS-856 architecture layers and the protocols within.

2.3.3.4.1 Application Layer:


Handles the transport of protocol messages and user data. This layer covers the two default applications that are supported by 1xEV-DO compliant ATs RAN networks. Protocols provided by the application layer are:

Default Signal Application: Provides transport of protocol message and user data
Signaling Network Protocol (SNP): Provides message transmission services for signaling messages Signaling Link Protocol (SLP): Provides fragmentation mechanisms, along with reliable and best-effort delivery mechanisms for signaling messages. When used in the context of the Default Signaling Application, SLP carries SNP packets

Default Packet Application: Provides an octet stream used to carry packets between the access terminal and the access network. The default packet application provides three protocols:
Radio Link Protocol (RLP): Provides retransmission and duplicate detection for an octet aligned data stream. Location Update Protocol: Defines location update procedures and messages in support of mobility management for the Default Packet Application. Flow Control Protocol: Defines flow control procedures to enable and disable the Default Packet Application data flow.

2.3.3.4.2 Stream Layer


The air interface can support up to four parallel application streams. This layer adds headers to each stream to be transmitted and removes the receive stream headers. The first stream (Stream 0) always carries signaling, and the other three can be used to carry applications with different Quality of Service (QoS) requirements or other applications.

2.3.3.4.3 Session Layer


Provides Access Terminal (AT) contact address information management, and session configuration and management. A session is an AT/AN-shared state, and the session layer is used to store the protocols and protocol configurations that must be negotiated and are used for AT/AN communications. Protocols provided by the session layer are:

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Session Management Protocol: Provides a means to control the activation and deactivation of the Address Management Protocol and the Session Configuration Protocol. It also provides a session keep-alive mechanism. Address Management Protocol: Provides Access Terminal Identifier (ATI) management Session Configuration Protocol: Provides negotiation and configuration for the protocols used in the session.

2.3.3.4.4 Connection Layer


Provides connection management to maintain the established AT/RAN air link. The connection layer manages the forward and reverse traffic channels, and the control channels assigned to the AT. Protocols provided by the connection layer are: Air Link Management Protocol: Provides the overall state machine management that an AT and an RAN follow during a connection Initialization State Protocol: Provides the procedures that an AT follows to acquire a network and that an RAN follows to support network acquisition Idle State Protocol: Provides the procedures that an AT and an RAN follow when a connection is not open Connected State Protocol: Provides the procedures that an AT and a RAN follows when a connection is open Route Update Protocol: Provides the means to maintain the route between the AT and the RAN Overhead Messages Protocol: Provides broadcast messages containing information that is mostly used by Connection Layer protocols Packet Consolidation Protocol: Provides transmit prioritization and packet encapsulation for the Connection Layer.

2.3.3.4.5 Security Layer


Provides air interface security using authentication and encryption of AT traffic, control, and access channel data. Protocols provided by the security layer are: Key Exchange Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the AT and the RAN to exchange security keys for authentication and encryption Authentication Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the AT and the RAN for authenticating traffic Encryption Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the AT and the RAN for encrypting traffic Security Protocol: Provides procedures for generation of a cryptosync that can be used by the Authentication Protocol and Encryption Protocol.

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Data Interface Protocols 2.3.3.4.6 MAC Layer

Radio Access Network (RAN) Architecture

Identifies the procedures used to receive the transmit data over the physical layer. Protocols provided by the MAC Layer are: Control Channel MAC Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the RAN to transmit and by the AT to receive the Control Channel Access Channel MAC Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the AT to transmit, and by the RAN to receive the Access Channel Forward Traffic Channel MAC Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the RAN to transmit, and by the RAN to receive the Forward Traffic Channel Reverse Traffic Channel MAC Protocol: Provides the procedures followed by the AT to transmit, and by the RAN to receive the Reverse Traffic Channel.

2.3.3.4.7 Physical Layer:


Physical Layer Protocol: Provides channel structure, frequency, power output and modulation specifications for the forward and reverse links. At the RF engineering level, this course is primarily concerned with the physical and MAC layers.

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2.4 Simple IP and Mobile IP Internet Access


.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Using protocol stacks, the RAN network interface with the PDSN can be represented as shown in Figure 2-5 for a simple IP access, where the wireless service provider is the Internet service provider. The major difference between simple and mobile IP access occurs at the interface between the PDSN and the connecting IP network. This figure assumes a laptop PC connected an AT PCMCIA card via a 10BaseT connection; therefore, the network protocols provided by the laptop PC /AT PCMCIA card is considered a single network entity.

Laptop/AT

BTS

Uplink RAN Router

FMS

Downlink RAN Router

PDSN

Internet

Fixed End System

Application Transport Network


TCP UDP S-IP PPP TCP UDP S-IP PPP S-IP IP

RLP

RLP TCP UDP IP TCP UDP IP HDLC T1/E1 Ethernet IP IP GRE GRE

Host to Network
MAC PHY MAC PHY

L2

L2

IP

IP

IP

HDLC T1/E1

IP

Ethernet Ethernet

Ethernet

Ethernet

PHY

PHY

Air Intrface

T1/E1 Line Backhaul

100Base T

R-P A10/A11

IP Network

* May be an ATM over SONET or similar type connection

Figure 2-5

RAN Protocol Interface

2.4.1 Peer-to-Peer Communication

When a message entered on the laptop/AT is sent over the Internet, its data parcels, which are referred to as the payloads, are functionally passed down the laptop/AT protocol stack and subsequently up and down each protocol stack between the laptop and its ultimate destination. As each payload is passed down the stack layers, the payload is encapsulated, and a header, and sometimes a trailer, is appended to the payload. The header contains information that is only useful to its peer (corresponding) layer at each network entity in the path of the data as its payload travels to its intended destination. As the payload and appended header is passed down to the next layer, the receiving layer does not distinguish between header and payload, and regards the entire parcel as being passed down as the payload. The receiving layer will then encapsulate the parcel passed down in order to append its header to the payload.

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This process is repeated until the payload is passed between the Physical Layers (the bottom layer of each stack) of adjacent network entities. For example, after the Physical Layer (PHY) in the laptop/AT protocol stack, the Physical Layer appends its header on the payload passed down from the MAC layer, and the data parcel is transmitted over the air interface to the base station. The Physical layer in the base station protocol stack will use the appended Physical Layer header to identify the individual control and traffic channel being transmitted, and will strip off this header before passing the data parcel (payload) up to its MAC layer. Therefore, the payload passed up to the MAC Layer in the base station stack is identical to the payload passed down from the MAC to Physical layers in the laptop/AT stack. Because the payloads passed between the two MAC layers are identical, a peer-to-peer connection between the two corresponding layers can be assumed.

2.4.2 PPP Connection Between the AT and PDSN

The payload encapsulated for PPP transmission between the laptop/AT and the PDSN is transported by two concatenated protocols: the Radio Link Protocol (RLP) and the Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) protocol. The RLP protocol carries the PPP payload received from the laptop PC between the AT and the FMS, and the GRE protocol carries the payload between the Packet Control Function (PCF) in the FMS and the PDSN. Both the RLP and the GRE are processed on the same single board computer in the FMS, and the paths between the two protocols are connected by data transfers in memory. Therefore, a peer-to-peer PPP connection is established between the laptop PC and the PDSN. The RLP connection between the AT and the FMS has negative acknowledgement (NACK) capabilities, indicating when missing frames are discovered. This NACK capability, which reduces the amount of signaling required, allows for the retransmission of frames that were lost. While this capability will not totally eliminate lost frames, it will significantly decrease the probability of incurring lost frames. If frames are lost anyway, a high-level protocol or mechanism, such as TCP should recover from that problem as it does now in wire Internet connections. The physical layer between the base station and uplink RAN route is provided across T1/E1 lines. Up to two T1/E1 lines are supported for each carrier for a threesector base station deployment. Backhaul non-channelized data interface over the T1/E1 lines is controlled by the High Data rate Link Control (HDLC) protocol, which is operated on the MAC layer. The uplink RAN router unwraps the HDLC protocol from the datagram, and the datagram is then sent to the proper FMS in accordance with its IP address via an Ethernet connection. In this case, the IP address is a local IP, identified an UATI (Unicast Access Terminal Identifier) so that the AT can be addressed by the RAN and subsequently direct the datagram packets to and from the AT through the RAN network. The UATI should not be confused with the dynamic IP address provided by the PDSN for a simple IP connection. In the FMS, the TCP/IP headers encapsulated by the base station are removed to restore the RLP datagram transmitted by the AT. If the RLP datagram is not properly received, the FMS causes a signal to be sent back to the AT, and the RLP datagram is retransmitted.

2.4.2.1 Radio Link Protocol (RLP)

2.4.2.2 Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) Protocol

The datagram is then converted from the RLP protocol to a Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) protocol for transferring to the PDSN. Data transmission between the FMS and PDSN is via the output RAN router, which operates in the same manner as the input RAN router. In a drawing such as Figure 2-5, it may

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become difficult to visualize the need and function for the uplink and downlink RAN routers without considering that a RAN may consist of six FMSs, each servicing up to 48 base stations at any one time. At the PDSN, the GRE encapsulation is stripped from the received datagram to complete the PPP protocol between the AT and the PDSN.

2.4.2.3 Unicast Access Terminal Identifier (UATI)

The UATI is 128 bits long and consists of two fields: UATI104 and UATI024. This address is modeled after the IPv6 address, which is expected to be widely in use as a public Internet standard. The UATI104 field provide the104 most significant bits (MSB, higher order bits) of the UATI address and is used to steer data packets through the RAN network between the base station and the PDSN. The 104-bit value is used as part of the base station sector identification, therefore, each sector has a unique UATI104 value The 24 least significant bits (LSB), which make the UATI024 are assigned by the base station sector to identify each AT user in its sector area. Whenever an AT enters (or registers) into a subnet it is assigned a new UATI address to index its sector location. For a simple IP (S-IP) connection, the PDSN assigns an S-IP address to the AT for the duration of the session as long as the AT remains in the PDSN domain. The S-IP address is appended to the datagram received from the AT as the datagram packet source IP address.The datagram enters the Internet via the Level 2 (L2) and physical Internet layers, and is then steered to its designated fixed end system by its destination IP address, which was selected or entered by the AT user at the application level. When the datagram packet reaches the protocol stack of its intended destination, the datagram packets climb their way up its protocol stack to the application level to effect a specific communication objective. This objective might be to send or reply to e-mail, request a download, initiate an inquiry or search, etc. Prior to reaching the application layer, a checksum validation may be performed at the transport level to ensure that datagram packets are received uncorrupted. If it is determined that the content of a packet is corrupted, a request for retransmission of that packet is initiated. At this time, the source IP address appended by the datagram packet is used to route the retransmission request through the Internet back to the PDSN. The source IP address is also used in the fixed end system whenever datagram packets must be sent to the AT.

2.4.3 Simple IP Connection

2.4.4 Simple IP Connection with Private Network

Most private networks use tunneling to interconnect a number of geographically non-continuous Local Area Networks (LANs) through the ubiquitous public Internet via a firewall to create one virtual private network (VPN). The firewall, which effective separate the LANs within VPN from the public Internet, provides private network security by preventing Internet users outside the VPN from penetrating the VPN. This is done while allowing users within the VPN to access the Internet and reach across the Internet to access any LAN within the VPN. Essentially, tunneling is the process of placing an entire packet within another packet and sending it over an external network. The protocol of the outer packet must be understood by the external network at both tunnel end points (known as tunnel interface points), where the packet enters and exits the VPN.

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The firewall within the VPN provides a Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) network server (LNS) which is operated in conjunction with an AAA (Authentication, Authorization And Accounting) Server (see Figure 2-6) to ensure secure access from any environment outside the VPN. L2TP is a packet- encapsulating protocol used by VPN to tunnel datagram packets through an external network such as the Internet. When a request to establish a session comes in from the Internet or any remote-access VPN environment, the request is proxy to the AAA Server. The AAA Server then performs the following: a. b. Authentication: Identify client (user) petitioning access and verifying password Authorization: Determine clients rights to system resource (what resources are the client allowed to access, and functions the client is allowed to perform) Accounting: Maintain database tracking client activity for security auditing, billing, or reporting purposes.

c.

If the client requesting access to the VPN is authenticated by the AAA Server, access through the firewall to the VPN is permitted by LNS.

1x EV-DO BTS 1

AAA

AAA

1x EV-DO BTS 48

Radio Access Network (RAN)

Packet Data Service Node (PDSN)

Internet

aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa

L2TP Network Server (LNS)

Fixed End System

1x EV-DO BTS 240

Virtual Private Network

1x EV-DO BTS 288

Figure 2-6

RAN to VPN Connectivity via the Internet

When the AT user accesses a fixed-end system within a private IP network, PDSN strips away the GRE header to recover the original PPP-wrapped AT datagram packet. The PPP datagram is encapsulated for Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) transmission, as shown in Figure 2-7.
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When the AT user access a fixed-end system within a private IP network, the payloads received through the air interface at the base station are PPPtransferred to the PDSN via the RLP and GRE protocols as described for S-IP connectivity to the Internet (refer to Section 2.4.2). The GRE encapsulation of data packets received at the FMS is stripped by the PDSN to expose the original PPP packets. The PDSN encapsulates the PPP packet using the L2TP protocol to tunnel the PPP data packet through the Internet to the VPN using the source IP address received from the AT, as shown in Figure 2-7. If the data packets are authorized to penetrate the VPN, the data packets are routed to there designated fixed-end system via the physical and lower L1 and L2 layers defined by the VPN.

Virtual Private Network

PDSN

Internet

L2TP Network Server (LNS)

Fixed End System

APPL

To/From AT
IP
PPP

TCP UDP

IP

GRE

L2TP
UDP

L2TP
UDP

L2

L2

IP

To/From FMS

L2

L2 L1 L1

L2 Ethernet

PHY

PHY

PHY

PHY

Figure 2-7

Simple IP Connection with Private Network, Protocol Stack

2.4.5 Mobile IP Connection

As previously mentioned, an AT may have its own static IP address that is constant and issued by an agent (ISP) other than the serving PDSN. In this case, which is shown in Figure 2-8, the agent issuing the IP address is considered a Home Agent (HA) for the IP address, and the PDSN will operate as a Foreign Agent (FA) for the network having domain over the static IP address. A mobile IP provides the AT user three advantages over a simple IP address:

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Radio Access Network (RAN) Architecture

The AT user is free to roam outside of its current serving PDSN without the need to renegotiate a new IP address (Most horizontal applications with a simple IP result in momentary traffic delay between 10 and 30 seconds when renegotiating a new IP address, and some applications may require restarting) In most cases, the home agent is behind the firewall of a VPN, permitting the AT user full access within the PVN Some ATs are able to support multiple IP M-IP sessions.

1x EV-DO BTS 1

AAA

AAA

1x EV-DO BTS 48

Radio Access Network (RAN)

Packet Data Service Node Foreign Angent (PDSN/FA)

aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa

Home Agent (HA)

Fixed End System

1x EV-DO BTS 240

Virtual Private Network

1x EV-DO BTS 288

Figure 2-8

Mobile IP Internet Access

When the AT accesses the Internet to initiate a session and presents the PDSN with its own static IP address, the PDSN first validates the static IP address with the AAA Server having domain over the IP address. This is done through the AAA Server associated with the serving PDSN. To validate the static IP address, a connection is established between the AAA Server and the AAA Server associated with the static IP address. After the IP address and AT user are validated, the AT user data is tunneled via the Internet between the PDSN, which is operating as a foreign agent, and the home agent having domain over the static IP address. Because the home agent is behind the VPN corporate firewall, the home agent permits the AT user to access any fixed end system, permitted by its AAA profile, with the VPN, as well as any fixed-end system connected to the Internet. The protocol stack set up for mobile

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IP connectivity is similar to the protocol stack set up for simple IP connectivity shown in Figure 2-7. The primary difference is that when operating as a foreign agent, the serving PDSN uses an IP Security (IPSec) tunneling protocol to transfer AT user data to the VPN rather than the L2TP protocol.

Virtual Private Network

PDSN/ Foreign Agent (FA) To/From AT

Internet

VPN Home Agent (HA)

Fixed End System

APPL TCP UDP

M-IP

M-IP

IP

PPP
L2 L2

GRE IP
IP/SEC IP/SEC L1 L1

To/From FMS

L2

L2

Ethernet

PHY

L2 PHY

PHY

PHY

Figure 2-9

Mobile IP Internet Access, Protocol Stack

Internet Protocol Security Protocol (IP/Sec) provides enhanced security features such as better encryption algorithms and more comprehensive authentication. IPSec has two encryption modes: tunnel and transport. Tunnel encrypts the header and the payload of each packet, while transport only encrypts the payload. Only systems that are IPSec-compliant can take advantage of this protocol. Also, all devices must use a common key, and the firewall of each network must have similar security policies set up. The IPSec protocol is an IETF effort to add security capabilities to the IP at Layer 3, and is a natural choice for native IP traffic. Implementing IPSec is a key element of the HA solution, as it provides clear and widespread support to enterprise users, service providers, and equipment vendors.

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Air Interface

Contents
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.1 3.2
3.2.1 3.2.1.1

Introduction Introduction to 1xEV-DO Air Interface


1xEV-DO Channel Structure Frame/Slot

3-3 3-4
3-4 3-5

3.3
3.3.1 3.3.1.1 3.3.1.2 3.3.2 3.3.2.1 3.3.2.1.1 3.3.2.1.2 3.3.2.1.3 3.3.2.2 3.3.2.3 3.3.2.3.1 3.3.2.4 3.3.2.5

Forward Link Channels


Data Channel Usage Transmit Power 1xEV-DO Frame and Time Slot Structure Data Traffic Channel Forward Link Adaptive Modulation Code Rate Modulation Type Bits Per Packet Preamble Data Control Channel Control Channel Structure Physical Layer Packet Bit Size Pilot Channel MAC Channel

3-6
3-6 3-6 3-7 3-9 3-9 3-9 3-10
3-13

3-14 3-15
3-15 3-16

3-17

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Contents
3.3.3 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.2 3.3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 Multi-Slot Packet Transmission Slot Data Interlacing Normal Packet Transmission Termination Early Packet Transmission Termination Dynamic Rate Control Virtual Soft Handoff Scheduling Algorithm

Air Interface

3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-20 3-20 3-21

3.4
3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.5.1 3.4.5.2 3.4.5.3 3.4.5.4 3.4.6 3.4.6.1 3.4.6.2 3.4.6.3

Reverse Link Traffic Channel


Reverse Traffic Channel Pilot/RRI Channel ACK Channel Data Rate Control (DRC) Channel Data Channel Physical Layer Packet Size Turbo Encoder/Interleaver Walsh Code Spreading Quadrature Spreading Access Channel Generation of Access Channel Data Channel Pilot Channel

3-23
3-25 3-27 3-28 3-28 3-28 3-30
3-30

3-31 3-31
3-31 3-33 3-33

3-33

3.5
3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.2.1 3.5.2.2 3.5.2.2.1 3.5.2.2.2 3.5.2.2.3 3.5.2.2.4 3.5.2.2.5 3.5.2.2.6 3.5.2.2.7 3.5.2.2.8 3.5.2.2.9 3.5.2.2.10 3.5.2.3

Test Application Feature


Introduc-tion Test Application Forward Link Functionality CLI Input Command Syntax Link Commands UATI 0x# BTS #, SECTOR # DRCRATE # ACK NOLOOPBACK DATAPKTS DURATION # INTERVAL # TAI # MINRATE #, MAXRATE # Start All Tests Command (TAA)

3-35
3-35 3-35 3-36 3-36 3-36 3-37 3-37 3-37 3-38 3-38 3-38 3-38 3-39 3-39 3-39

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Introduction

Air Interface

3.1 Introduction
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

This chapter discusses the makeup and characteristics of the forward (dowlink) and reverse (uplink) channels. These 1xEV-DO characteristics, which are dictated by the 1xEV-DO Physical Layer protocol, vary as a function of channel type and information data rate. The chapter will introduce the 1xEV-DO scheduling algorithm, which is one of the main differentiating characteristic between 1xEVDO systems and IS-95 and 3G1X systems. Unlike IS-95 and 3G1X, which allow more than one user to simultaneously share a single carrier, the 1xEV-DO scheduling algorithm permits only one user on the carrier at any one time. Although the transmission chip rate in 1xEV-DO is the same as in IS-95 and 3G1X, a larger number of different forward link transmission data rates are offered in 1xEV-DO. Slower data rates are use to ensure validity of transmission data when the user is operating in a noisy RF environment. To increase the base station data throughput, the scheduling algorithm will schedule access to those user devices that report favorable RF conditions. Knowledge of the physical channel structure and the criteria used by the scheduling algorithm are helpful in providing an overall understanding of the deployment of base station cells.

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Introduction to 1xEV-DO Air Interface

Air Interface

3.2 Introduction to 1xEV-DO Air Interface


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1xEV-DO is a high data rate air interface providing high speed, high capacity packet data service for wireless users. This service employs the IP protocol (Internet Protocol) for seamless data transfer over the Internet or any private IP network. Users access the system with a hand-held Access Terminal (AT). Because experience with the Internet indicates asymmetrical data flow, where downlink data flow is much higher than uplink data flow, downlink and uplink data flow between the AT and base transceiver station (base station) are asymmetrical. The peak data rates for 1xEV-DO are: Forward Link (Downlink) = 2, 457.6 Kbps Reverse Link (Uplink) =153.6 Kbps.

Although a 1xEV-DO base station can be collocated with an IS-95 or a 3G-1X system, 1xEV-DO requires a separate CDMA carrier that cannot be used by either IS-95 or 3G-1X. This is because the 1xEV-DO air interface that defines the forward and reverse link data traffic channels is not compatible with the IS-95 and 3G-1X forward and reverse link data traffic channels.

3.2.1 1xEV-DO Channel Structure

The channel structure defined in the 1xEV-DO Physical Layer is shown in Figure 3-1. The following is an overall description of the forward and reverse data link traffic channels as defined by the 1xEV-DO air interface.

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Air Interface

1xEV-DO Channels

Forward Channels

Reverse Channels

Pilot

Medium Access Control

Traffic

Control Channel

Traffic Channel

Access Channel

DRC Lock

Reverse Activity

Reverse Power Control

Pilot Channel

Medium Access Control

Data Channel

ACK

Pilot Channel

Data Channel

Reverse Rate Indicator

Data Rate Control

Figure 3-1

1xEV-DO Channel Structure

3.2.1.1Frame/Slot

Forward link data is transmitted in successive 26.67-ms frames, which are divided into sixteen 1.667-ms slots in which packets of data are transmitted. The transmission duration of a single packet may vary from 1 to 16 slots as a function of the data transmission rate. Pilot and control information are inserted (punctured) within each frame at fixed intervals for AT extraction. The packet AT destination is specified within the packet. Upon receiving the packet, the AT transmits an acknowledge (ACK) signal, indicating that the packet is received and its data is uncorrupted.

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Forward Link Channels

Air Interface

3.3 Forward Link Channels


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

A single forward link channel, which is divided into four time-share sub-channels, is used on each of the CDMA carrier designated for 1xEV-DO operation, which are: Data traffic Control Channel Pilot Medium Access Control (MAC)

3.3.1 Data Channel Usage

Each active user is assigned one of 59 Walsh codes from a 64-ary set, where four codes are pre-assigned. Therefore, a single carrier can be time-shared by 59 active data traffic channel users. This means that although at any one time, only one user is actively receiving data over the data traffic channel, 59 users are assigned logical channels on the carrier. A traffic channel assignment indicates the air resources are assigned to the user. The actual number of channels that can be assigned is determined a Maximum Number of Users Supported EMS parameter, which can be adjusted between 0 and 59. Considering that data transfer occurs for a small fraction of the time during a typical web session, high volume users will pause for reading and think time between downloading pages, causing the AT to enter in and out of a dormant mode at which time the AT surrender is channel assignment. Therefore, the number users that during can be served during busy hour periods may be greater than Maximum Number of Users Supported value. Because the data channel is time-shared, there is no need for transmit power sharing as in IS-95 and 3G-1X. Therefore, the base station can transmit traffic data at full power to produce the highest carrier to noise (Eb/No) ratio possible, allowing high data rate transmission. In contrast, the 3G-1X base station transmit power must be shared with the pilot, paging, and sync channels as shown in Figure 3-2. Although in 1xEV-DO data transmission is time-shared with small bursts of MAC and pilot pulses, the total transmit power is devoted to the traffic data for single users.

3.3.1.1 Transmit Power

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Forward Link Channels

Air Interface

Transmit Power Maximum Power

Transmit Power Maximum Power

Control Channel

Total Data

Sync Channel Paging Channel Pilot Channel Time 3G-1X Forward Channel Structure
Figure 3-2

Control Channel

Traffic Channel

Time 1xEV-DO Forward Channel Structure

Comparison of 3G-1X and 1xEV-DO base station Transmit Power Sharing

3.3.1.2 1xEV-DO Frame and Time Slot Structure

Forward data traffic channel is transmitted within 26.6-ms frames, as opposed to 20-ms frames in IS-95. Each frame, which consists of 32,768 chips, is divided into 16 1.66-ms 2048-chip time slots as shown in Figure 3-3. The time slots are, in turn, divided into two 1024-chip half slots in which the transmission of the traffic data, pilot pulses, and MAC channels are time-shared.

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Forward Link Channels

Air Interface

Figure 3-3

1xEV-DO Frame and Time Slot Structure

The frame structure shown in Figure 3-3 represents an active time slot where traffic data is being transmitted to an AT user. When there is no traffic or control data transmitted, an idle time slot is transmitted as shown in Figure 3-4. Even though data is not transmitted during idle time slots, the MAC and pilot channels are transmitted during their correct timing sequence within the idle time slot. The forward MAC Channel is composed of up to 64 code channels, which are orthogonally covered and BPSK-modulated on a particular phase of the carrier. Each code channel is identified by a MAC index, which has a value of between 2 and 63 and defines a unique 64-ary Walsh cover and a unique modulation phase. There are two sub-channels on the forward link MAC channel: the Reverse Activity Channel (RAC) and the Reverse Power Control Channel (RPC).

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Forward Link Channels

Air Interface

Figure 3-4

Idle Time Slot

3.3.2 User data is transmitted in two 400-chip bursts during each half slot period. In Data Traffic order to maximize data throughput, AT users sharing the carrier are serviced in Channel any time slot order. Depending on the scheduler algorithm, AT users with

reporting a good RF environment will have a better chance to be allotted the time slot to receive data. Other AT users will have to wait until their RF environment improves. In this way, the base station is always transmitting at the highest rate possible to maximize its data throughput. The different data rate available in 1xEV-DO is achieved by varying the transmitted signal modulation scheme via forward link adaptive modulation and other Physical Layer characteristics, such as turbo code rate and preamble chips, as shown in Table 3-1. As indicated in the previous paragraph, the data rates used for a particular transmission are determined by the current channel conditions experienced at the AT receiver. Each data rate is associated with a particular packet bit size and modulation type.

3.3.2.1 Forward Link Adaptive Modulation

3.3.2.1.1 Code Rate


The 1xEV-DO uses parallel codes and turbo decoding techniques, enabling utilization of frame sizes larger than IS-95 and 3G-1X frames. Code rates of R= 1/5 and 1/3 are used on the forward channels, and code rates of R= 1/4 and 1/2 are used on the reverse channels. The code rate R factor identifies the ratio of the number of information bits to the total number of information bits plus overhead correction bits transmitted. An R = 1/5 factor indicates that for every one information bit transmitted, four correction bits are transmitted to greatly improve the accuracy of the information being received.

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Table 3-1

Forward Link Data Rates

Data Rate (kbps) Characteristics


Bits per Packets Modulation Type Preamble Chips Code Rate Encoded Packet duration (ms) Number of Slots 38.4 1024 76.8 1024 153.6 307.2 307.2 614.4 614.4 921.6 1228.8 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6 1024 1024 2048 1024 2048 3072 2048 4096 3072 4096

QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK 8 PSK QPSK 16 QAM 8 PSK 16 QAM 1024 1/5 26.67 16 512 1/5 13.33 8 256 1/5 6.67 4 128 1/5 3.33 2 64 1/3 6,67 4 128 1/3 6.67 1 64 1/3 3.33 2 64 1/3 3.33 2 64 1/3 3.33 1 64 1/3 3.33 2 1 1 64 1/3 64 1/3

The data rates start at 38.4 kbps and double in value up to 2.457.6 kbps, and as in the case for data rates 307.2 kbps, 614.4 kbps, and 1228.2 kbps, can be achieved through different turbo code rates or modulation schemes.

3.3.2.1.2 Modulation Type


With the exception of 921.6 kbps, rates from 38.4 kbps through 1,228.8 kbps are achieved through quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation, where transmitted data bits are distinguished by 90-degree phase separation as opposed to binary phase shift keying (BPSK) used in IS-95, where transmitted data bits are distinguished by 180-degree phase separation. The 180-degree phase separation in BPSK in a 360-degree cycle will yield two states, representing a 0 or 1 bit value. The 90-degree phase separation in QPSK in a 360-degree cycle will yield four states, representing 00, 01, 10, and 11 2-bit values; thus, producing a 2-bit symbol per cycle. This modulation scheme can be illustrated by the constellation drawing shown in Figure 3-5. The four points on this drawing are obtained by resolving the (I) in-phase and quadrature-phase (Q) components.

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Figure 3-5

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Constellation

The data rates at 921.6 kbps and 1,843.2 kbps are achieved through 8 PSK, which produces a 3-bit symbol per cycle. This is done in a manner similar to QPSK. In this case, the 8 PSK modulation scheme distinguishes 3-bit symbols by 45-degree phase separation to yield eight states, representing 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111. This modulation scheme can be illustrated by the constellation drawing shown in Figure 3-6. The eight points on this drawing are obtained by resolving the (I) in-phase and quadrature-phase (Q) components.

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Figure 3-6

8 Phase Shift Keying (8PSK) Constellation

Data rates at 1,228.8 kbps and 2,457.6 kbps are achieved through 16 quadrature phase shift/amplitude modulation (16-QAM) to produce a 4-bit symbol per cycle.The 16-QAM modulation scheme uses a combination of QPSK, yielding a 2-bit value and amplitude modulation, and also yielding a 2-bit value where the combination of both results in a 4-bit symbol. This modulation scheme can be illustrated by the constellation drawing shown in Figure 3-7. The 16 points on this drawing are obtained by resolving the (I) in-phase and quadrature-phase (Q) components.

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Figure 3-7

16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16QAM) Constellation

3.3.2.1.3 Bits Per Packet


The bit size of the transmitted traffic data channel packets is a function of the selected rate and varies from 1024 (1K) bits to 4096 (4K) bits, as indicated in Table 3-1. The bit size of the traffic data channel packets received from the MAC Layer is fixed at 1002 bits, as shown in Figure 3-8. Regardless of the size of the packet to be transmitted, a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is performed on the 1002-bit packets received from the MAC layer. The FCS is a cyclic redundancy (CRC), which is a calculation producing a 16-bit value which is a function of the distribution of all the 1 bits in the 1002-bit MAC Layer packet. When a 1024-bit packet is to be transmitted, the 16-bit CRC value is concatenated with the 1002bit MAC Layer packet and a 6-bit tail to form the 1024-bit Physical Layer packet. The six bits that provide the packet tail are tacked to the very end of the Physical Layer packet, and are always 0-bit values. The AT receiving the packet will perform its own CRC calculation on the 1002-bit MAC Layer value to validate the correctness of the transmitted Physical Layer packet. If the 16-bit CRC value computed by the AT matches the 16-bit CRC value transmitted in the Physical Layer packet, there is a good possibility that the packet received by the AT is uncorrupted. When a 2048-bit, 3072-bit, or 4096-bit packet is transmitted, the 2, 3, or 4 MAC Layer packets are concatenated together to form a single Physical Layer packet. A single FCS is calculated regardless of the number of MAC Layer packets encapsulated in the Physical Layer packet, resulting in one 16-bit CRC value which is tacked onto the end of the Physical Layer packet, just before the 6 tail bits. To fill the Physical Layer packet to its appropriate 2K, 3K, and 4K bit sizes, 22-bit padding (pad) is inserted after the 1002-bit MAC Layer packets, as shown in Figure 3-8. The 22 bit pad bits are encoded as 0 bits, which are ignored by the AT.
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Figure 3-8

Traffic Data Channel Physical Layer Packet Bit Size

3.3.2.2 Preamble Data

In order to assist the AT in synchronizing to the changing data rates, a sequence of preamble bits are transmitted prior to each traffic data and control channel packet. The preamble sequence is covered by a 32-chip bi-orthogonal sequence, which is repeated at least once depending on the transmit data rate. For example, to provide a 1024-chip preamble length required for a 38.4-kbps data rate, the 32-chip preamble sequence is repeated 32 times. The preamble chips are inserted within the data portion of the slot clock period prior to the start of the packet transmission. If the total number of preamble chips to be inserted exceeds the 400-chip data portion of the half-slot period, as is the case for data rates of 38.4 kbps and 76.8kbps, the preamble chips are time-multiplexed with the MAC and pilot chips as shown in Figure 3-12.

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3.3.2.3 Control Channel

The functions of the IS-95 sync and paging overhead channels are combined into a single control channel. The control channel, which is interlaced with the transmission of traffic data, is transmitted every 425 ms for a 13.33-ms duration as shown in Figure 3-9. The control channel is 8 slots wide, and in the same manner as the traffic data channel, each slot is divided into two 1024-chip half slots in which the transmission of the control data, pilot pulses, and MAC channels are time-shared.

426.67 ms Traffic Channel Control Channel Traffic Channel Control Channel

Data Channels

MAC Channels

13.33 ms Pilot Channels

Half Slot
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4 Slot 5
Slot 6 Slot 7 Slot 8

Figure 3-9

Control Channel Timing

3.3.2.3.1 Control Channel Structure Physical Layer Packet Bit Size


The bit size of the control channel packets transmitted to the ATs is fixed at 1024 bits. Control channel packet data received from the MAC Layer is fixed at 1002 bits, as shown is Figure 3-10. A Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is performed on the 1002-bit packets received from the MAC layer. The FCS cyclic redundancy (CRC) calculation produces a 16-bit value, which is a function of the distribution of all the 1 bits in the 1002-bit MAC Layer packet. The 16-bit CRC value is concatenated with the 1002-bit MAC Layer packet and a 6-bit tail to form the

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1024-bit Physical Layer packet. The six bits that provide the packet tail are tacked to the very end of the Physical Layer packet, and are always 0-bit values.

Figure 3-10

Control Channel Structure Physical Layer Packet Bit Size

Just as for traffic data, the AT receiving the packet will perform its own CRC calculation on the 1002-bit MAC Layer value to validate the correctness of the transmitted Physical Layer packet. If the 16-bit CRC value computed by the AT matches the 16-bit CRC value transmitted in the Physical Layer packet, there is a good possibility that the packet received by the AT is uncorrupted.

3.3.2.4 Pilot Channel

Pilot pulses are transmitted in unmodulated 96-chip bursts, occurring at predetermined fixed intervals at the center of each half slot-clock period. Figure 3-11 shows the pilot pulse burst timing with reference to the MAC and traffic data channels. The pilot pulse bursts are transmitted at the maximum power that the cell is enabled to transmit. Using the full power of the cell for the pilot provides the highest possible pilot Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) so that an accurate estimate can be obtained quickly, even during dynamic channel conditions.

Figure 3-11

Pilot Pulse Burst Timing

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3.3.2.5 MAC Channel

The forward MAC channel is composed of up to 64 code channels, which are orthogonally covered and BPSK-modulated on a particular phase of the carrier. Each code channel is identified by a MAC index, which has a value of between 2 and 63 and defines a unique 64-ary Walsh cover and a unique modulation phase. There are two sub-channels on the forward link MAC channel: the Reverse Activity Channel (RAC) and the Reverse Power Control Channel (RPC).

3.3.3 The packet data to be transmitted is redundant-coded by the turbo coder, Multi-Slot Packet increasing the number of bits transmitted by a factor of 3 or 5 in accordance with Transmission the code rate specified by the transmit data rate. To account for the increase in

data bits to be transmitted, at most transmit data rates, multiple slot periods are specified for a single packet transmission. Incremental redundancy is used, where enough data is transmitted in one time slot period so that if RF conditions improve during transmission, the receiver is enabled to reconstruct the complete packet information in less than the number of slot periods specified for the transmitted data rate. For example, even through the specification allots four time slots to send a packet when transmitting at a 153.6 kbps rate, enough packet information bits are sent in each time slot to enable the AT to recover and validate the whole packet in less than the specified four time slots. When transmitting at this rate, a redundancy factor of five is used. If the packet data received by the AT cannot be validated after the first slot transmission, the packet information transmitted in the second time slot provides more and different redundant bits to complement the data bits sent in the first time slot, providing the AT with a greater opportunity to validate the packet. If the packet still cannot be validated, different redundancy bits are transmitted in subsequent time slots to further increase the opportunity for the AT to validate the packet.

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Figure 3-12

Preamble Bits Insertion for data rates of 38.4 kbps and 76.8 kbps

3.3.3.1 Slot Data Interlacing

When data is transmitted at a data rate that is allotted for multiple-slot packet transmission, a 1-to-3 slot data interlacing pattern is used. This means that the transmission of three separate packets is performed in an alternating sequence as shown in Figure 3-13. In this scheme, each packet allotted for multi-slot transmission is transmitted every fourth slot. The three time-slot spacing between successive packet slot transmissions is required to allow the base station to receive confirmation from the AT regarding whether the AT was successful in validating the correctness of the packet data it received. Figure 3-13 illustrates what happens when the base station receives a request from an AT to transmit a packet at a 153.6-kbps rate, which is allotted four time slots. Transmission is initiated after the base station receives a data rate control (DRC) request from the AT for packet transmission at the 156.3-kbps rate. Subsequently, the requested packet is transmitted during next available time slot n. During the next three time slots (n+1 through n+3), the base station will transmit other packets to the same AT, or other ATs at different data rates.
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Figure 3-13

Multi-Slot Data Interlacing with Normal Termination

After the AT receives each slot packet transmission it performs a frame check sequence (FCS) computation to validate the correctness of the packet data information is received.

3.3.3.2 Normal Packet Transmission Termination

In a normal packet transmission termination cycle, the transmitted packet data from all four allotted time slots (n, n+4, n+8, and n+12) are required for the AT to successfully validate the packet data information; therefore, after each intervening time slot, the AT will return a negative acknowledgment (NAK) signal on the ACK reverse channel. The NAK signal indicates that the AT could not validate the correctness of the packet data information received. In a normal packet transmission termination cycle, a positive acknowledgment signal (ACK) will be received after the four slot (n+12) packet data transmission. If at this time a NAK rather than an ACK signal is returned, the complete packet transmission cycle must be re-initiated at a subsequent time, perhaps at a slower data rate, or when the AT RF environment improves. The NAK and ACK signals are 1024 PN binary-phase shift keying (BPSK)modulated chips wide, and are transmitted on the first half of the time-slot period. The NAK signal is identified when all 1 bits are transmitted, and the ACK is identified when all 0 bits are transmitted.

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3.3.3.3 Early Packet Transmission Termination

Air Interface

If during the packet data transmission cycle the AT RF environment improves, there is a possibility that the AT could validate the correctness of the packet data information after the first, second, or third time slot (refer to Figure 3-14). In this case, an early packet transmission termination occurs where rather than receiving a NAK signal after the first, second, or third time slot, the base station receives a ACK signal, indicating that the packet is successfully validated at the AT. At this time, the base station cancels transmission of the packet during the remaining time slots in the packet transmission cycle, and in their place initiates the transmission of a new packet or packets.

Initiate first packet Transmission Forward Traffic Data or Control Channel


Slot

Initiate second packet Transmission

n+1

n+2

n+3

n+4

n+5

n+6

n+7

n+8

n+9

n+10

n+11

n+12 n+13 n+14 n+15

Reverse Data Rate Control Sub-Channel


DRC Request for 153.6 kbps Rate

Half slot offset

Reverse ACK Channel


Slot

n-1

n+1

n+2

n+4 n+3 NAK

n+5

n+6

n+7 n+8 NAK

n+9

n+10

n+11

n+12 n+13 n+14 n+15

ACK

NAK

Figure 3-14

Multi-Slot Data Interlacing with Early Termination

3.3.4 Dynamic Rate Control

The rate at which data is transmitted to the AT is a function of the AT RF environment, and is subject to dynamic reselection during each 1.66-ms slot-clock period. The AT continuously monitors the quality of receive pilot pulses from all sectors in the active set (all neighboring sectors). In response, the AT sends back a data rate control (DRC) report to the base stations in the active set. The DRC report identifies the sector with the highest C/I ratio and the highest rate in which the AT can receive quality data from the sector within a margin to insure a low erasure rate. The sector identified be the DRC code than resumes transmission at the rate indicated by the DRC report. The selection from one sector to another is called virtual soft handoff. Unlike soft handoff performed in IS-95 during which the mobile may simultaneously interact with two or more sectors to realize a signal gain, this signal gain is not achieved during virtual handoff because the AT interacts with only one sector at a time. The virtual soft handoff scenario is shown in Figure 3-15.

3.3.5 Virtual Soft Handoff

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AT

Sector 1

Sectior 2

FMS

DRC Forward Data Request Data Packets Frame

DRC

Forward Data Request

Forward Stop Indicator

Flush Buffer Data Packet Frame

Figure 3-15

Virtual Soft Handoff

When the DRC report from an active AT identifies (points to) Sector 1 as its best serving sector, Sector 1 sends a Forward Data Request to the 1xEV Controller in the FMS. In response, the FMS sends the requested Data Packets to Sector 1, which are then transmitted in Frame messages to the AT. Subsequently, if the DRC reports from the AT point to Sector 2 as its best serving sector for a definable period, Sector 2 will send a Forward Data Request to the 1xEV Controller in the FMS. Sensing that it has not received best server pointing DRC reports for a period of time, Sector 1 will send a Forward Stop Indicator message to the 1xEV Controller. This message also identifies the last frame ID transmitter to the AT. After receiving indications from both sectors, the 1xEV Controller directs Sector 1 to flush the remaining un-transmitted data from its buffer. The Data Packets are then sent to Sector 2 so that transmission to the AT can continue from Sector 2.

3.3.6 To maximize the overall sector throughput, 1xEV-DO uses a scheduling algorithm Scheduling that takes advantage of a multi-user pool vying for time on the carrier. Another Algorithm primary factor in determining the data rate service received by an AT user is a

function of the C/I currently experienced by the AT. Based on the DRC reported by each AT, the scheduling algorithm is weighted to favor data transfer with only

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those ATs operating in favorable RF conditions, so that the sector data is transferred at the highest possible rate. Transmission to ATs operating in less favorable RF conditions may be delayed in the order of milliseconds, at a time, hopefully, when the ATs RF conditions improve. Even though scheduling is weighted to favor the AT with the highest measured C/I value performance, in fairness to users in less favorable RF environments, scheduling priority is based on a combination of the AT measured C/I value discernible from the AT requested data rate and the time lapsed since the AT was last serviced. By delaying service to the ATs until their RF conditions improve, the overall data throughput to the ATs is higher than if the ATs were served on a first-in, first-out basis. To maximize the AT data throughput in rapidly changing RF environments, proportional fairness scheduling is used. This is done by maintaining a running average of the data rate requested by each AT user. The Ratio of the DRC report to the running average is used to identify peak data rate opportunities for data transmission to that AT user. For example, if the running average data rate computed for an AT user is 307.9 kbps, in a rapidly changing RF environment, its DRC data rate requests will oscillate above and below this value. Peak data rate opportunities will be identified when that AT data requests are at or above 307.9 kbps; thus, the base station will service the AT with a higher probability when the requested data rate is equal to or greater than 307.9 kbps.

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3.4 Reverse Link Traffic Channel


..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The reverse channel structure consists of a Traffic Channel and an Access Channel as shown in Figure 3-16. As in 3G-1X, both 1xEV-DO reverse channels provide uplink pilot sub channels (pulse bursts), permitting coherent detection by the base station on the reverse link data from the AT. The Access channel is divided into two sub-channel channels, which are: Pilot, for coherent demodulation at the base station Data, used by the AT to initiate uplink data transmission.

The traffic channel, which as with the forward channel is divided into four subchannels, is used to transmit user data and signaling information to the base station. The sub-channels are the following: Pilot, for coherent demodulation at the base station Medium Access Control (MAC), which is further divided into two sub-channels for transmission data rate control: Reverse Rate Indicator (RRI), which indicates to the base station the rate in which uplink (reverse channel) data is transmitted Data Rate Control Data (DRC), which indicates to the base station the rate, and from which sector downlink (forward channel) data is to be transmitted Acknowledge (ACK), acknowledges if downlink data is successfully or unsuccessfully received.

Uplink data is transmitted in successive 26.67-ms frames at five different data rates from 9.6 kbps to 153.6 kbps, as indicated in Table 3-2. The base station may allow an AT to transmit at a rate higher than 9.6 kbps.The AT transmits a Reverse Rate Indicator (RRI) used by the base station to identify the rate in which the AT is transmitting on the reverse data link. Depending on the total traffic activity in the sector, the base station may allow an AT to transmit at a rate higher than 19.2 kbps.

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Reverse Channels

Traffic Channel

Access Channel

Pilot Channel

Medium Access Control

Data Channel

ACK

Pilot Channel

Data Channel

Reverse Rate Indicator

Data Rate Control

Figure 3-16

Reverse Channel Structure

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Table 3-2

Reverse Link Data Rates for Traffic Data and Access Channels

Characteristics 9.6 Bits per Packets Modulation Type Preamble Chips Code Rate PN Chips/Bit Encoded Packet duration (ms)
*

Data Rate (kbps) 19.2 512 BPSK 512 1/4 64 26.67 38.4 1024 BPSK 256 1/4 32 26.67 76.8 2048 BPSK 128 1/4 16 26.67 153.6 4096 BPSK 64 1/2 8 26.67 256 BPSK 1024 1/4 128 26.67

* This column is also applicable to the access channel

3.4.1 The generation of reverse traffic channels is illustrated in Figure 3-17. This figure Reverse Traffic is a simplified diagram, and to conserve space, some details that will be narrated Channel in text have been omitted.

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Figure 3-17

Generation of Reverse Traffic Channel

Unlike the forward channel that uses time multiplexing to separate its four subchannels, the four sub-channels that make up the reverse traffic channel are separated by Walsh code spreading at a fixed chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps. The exceptions to this are the Pilot and RRI sub-channels, which are time-multiplexed on the same sub-channel as shown in Figure 3-18.
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Figure 3-18

Reverse Traffic Sub-Channels

3.4.2 The Pilot channel, which is all 0 bits, is 7-to1, pilot-to-RRI, time divisionPilot/RRI multiplexed (TDM) with a 256-bit value representing the Reverse Rate Indicator Channel (RRI) value. The actual RRI value is a 3-bit symbol identifying the five reverse

traffic data rates. To provide for the 256-chip spreading of this value, prior to 7-to1, the 3-bit RRI symbol is converted to one of five 7-bit values, which is repeated 37 times to generate a 259-bit pattern. The last three bits of this bit pattern are punctured (truncated) to provide a 256-bit pattern which is selected by the 7:1

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TDM at the start of each slot clock period (see Figure 3-17). At the end of the first 256-chip period, the 7:1 TDM selects all 0 bits from the Pilot channel until the end of the slot clock period. The pilot/RRI-multiplexed channel is then spread by 16-chip Walsh code function W0.

3.4.3 ACK Channel

The pilot/RRI-multiplexed channel is summed with the ACK channel to form inphase (I) quadrature input for quadrature spreading. A single bit signal is transmitted on the ACK channel indicating, when 0, that slot data transmitted from the base station is successfully received. A 1-bit value identifies a negative acknowledge (NAK) to indicate that the data received by the base station is corrupted. The ACK signal received by the base station is a 1024-chip burst transmitted during the first half of the third slot clock period after the slot data is received from the base station. The ACK signal is generated to acknowledge the validity of only those data packets that are proceeded by a preamble directed to the AT. If an associated preamble is not detected, the ACK signal is gated off. In order to cover 1024-chip burst half slot-clock period, the one-bit ACK signal is first repeated 128 times by the X128 repeater, producing a 128-bit pulse burst, which is spread by 16-chip Walsh function code W8 prior to being scaled by the ACK channel relative gain control. Here, the amplitude of the ACK pulses are scaled relative the amplitude of the pilot pulses. The scaling factor for the chip sequence is specified by gain parameters as a function of the MAC protocol.The output of the ACK channel relative gain control is then summed with the pilot/RRI channel data to provide the in-phase I component for quadrature spreading.

3.4.4 Data Rate Control (DRC) Channel

In response to carrier-to-interference (C/I) measurements of the pilot pulses from all available sectors that are continuously monitored by active ATs, each AT computes a 4-bit DRC value. This value, which identifies the highest data rate that the AT can receive data from a particular sector, is converted to an 8-bit DRC code word and sent to the base stations to identify the rate in which forward channel data is to be transmitted. The sector that could best serve the AT at the specified data rate is computed by the MAC layer, and is indicated by a 3-bit DRC Cover Symbol. The 8-bit DRC code word is repeated twice by the DRC code word repeater to 8 produce a 16-bit symbol that is spread by the 8-ary Walsh function Wi , where i is a value between 0 and 7 selected by the 3-bit DRC Cover Symbol at the input of the sector identifier. As a result, the 16-bit symbol is spread to a 128-bit chip sequence. In order to cover a 2048-chip time slot, the 128-chip sequence is further spread to a 2048-chip sequence by the 16-ary Walsh function W16. The amplitude of the resulting chip sequence is scaled via the DRC channel relative gain control, by a factor relative to the amplitude of the Pilot chip sequence. The scaling factor for the chip sequence is specified by gain parameters as a function of the MAC protocol.

3.4.5 Data Channel

The bit size of the reverse traffic data channel packets transmitted to the base station is a function of the transmit data rate. The reverse traffic channel information data rate incrementally doubles from 9.6 kbps to 153.6 kbps (see Table 3-3). This is the rate in which information data is sent to the base station and should not be confused with the transmitted chip rate, which is 1.2288 Mcps.

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Table 3-3

Relationship Between Physical Layer Packet Bit Size and Code Symbol Bit Size at Different Data Rates Reverse Rate Index 1 2 3 4 5 Code Rate 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/2 Code Code Interleave Modulation Symbols Symbol Repeat Symbol Rate per Packet) Rate (kbps) Rate (kbps) 1024 2048 4096 8192 8192 38.4 76.8 153.6 307.2 307.2 8 4 2 1 1 307.2 307.2 307.2 307.2 307.2 PN Chip per Packet bit 128 64 32 16 8

Data Rate (kbps) 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6

Physical Layer Packet Bit Size 256 512 1024 2048 4096

It should be remembered that data bit redundancy is used to insure reliable information transmission. For example, when transmitting at the 9.6 kbps data, which identified as reverse rate index 1, the 256-bit packet is spread by undergoing the following: a. b. Turbo encoding at a 1/4 code rate, producing 1024 (4 X 256) code symbols that are clocked at a 38.4 kbps (4 X 9.6) code symbol rate Interleave packets are repeated effectively multiplying the 1024 symbols by a factor of 8 (8,192), producing a modulation symbol rate of 307.2 kbps (8 X 38.4) Spread by 4-chip Walsh code function W4, producing four chips per symbol which is clocked at the 1.2288-Mcps (4 X 307.2 kbps) chip rate.

c.

In accordance with the information given in Figure 3-3, at the 9.6 kbps data rate, the number of PN chips per Physical Layer packet is 128. This number is obtained by dividing the 1.2288-Mcps chip rate by the 9.6 kbps data rate. This data rate is the slowest data rate on the reverse channel. Typically, the AT will start out transmitting at this data rate to ensure that the base station can acquire the AT, regardless of the current RF environmental conditions. If the conditions are favorable, the AT is permitted to transmit at a higher data rate. Although the 1.2288 Mcps chip rate remains the same regardless of the data rate, as shown in Table 3-3 for data rate index numbers 2, 3, and 4, higher data rates are achieved by reducing packet interleave repeat rates to 4, 2, and 1, respectively. At the same time, to offset the reduction of interleave packet repeat rate, the Physical Layer packet doubles for each in increasing data rates from 512 to 1024, and from 1024 to 2049. Because the data is transmitted at the 1.2288-Mcps rate, as the Physical Layer packet size increases, the number of chips per bits is reduced, increase the transmit data rate. At reverse rate index 5, the turbo code rate is reduced from 1/4

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to 1/2 allowing the packet size to be increase from 2048 to 4096, thereby doubling the data rate.

3.4.5.1 Physical Layer Packet Size

As the transmit data rate incrementally doubles from 9.6 kbps to 153.6, the MAC Layer packet bit size used to construct the physical traffic data packet also incrementally doubles from 234 to 4074 as shown in Figure 3-19. A single Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is calculated regardless of the MAC Layer packet bit size used to construct the Physical Layer packet. The FCS calculation results in a 16-bit CRC value, which is tacked on to end of the Physical Layer packet just before the 6 tail bits.

Figure 3-19

Reverse Traffic Data Channel Physical Layer Packet Bit Size

3.4.5.2 Turbo Encoder/Interleaver

Except for when the 153.6 kbps data rate is used, the content of the data channel is encoded at a 1/4 code rate by the turbo encoder/interleaver. When the 153.6 kbps data rate is used, the content of the data channel is encoded at a 1/2 code rate. The turbo encoder, which was introduced for 3G-1X, is a redundant encoder, producing four output bits for every input bit when operating at a 1/4 code rate. The redundancy rate is reduced to two output bits for each input bit when operating at a 1/2 code rate. Thus, the turbo encoder will double and quadruple the bit size of the transmitted data. The relationship between the Physical Layer data packet bit size and the resulting code symbol bit size for each transmit data rate is given in Table 3-3. The redundancy provided by the turbo encoder enables the base station to reconstruct the received data when a small number of bits sporadically distributed throughout the received bit pattern are corrupted. To minimize the effect of RF noise spikes or shadow fading that will corrupt large clusters of bits from preventing bit pattern reconstruction at the base station, the turbo-encoded bit pattern is interleaved. Interleaving will pseudo-randomly scramble bit patterns at the output of the turbo encoder/interleaver. Prior to bit-pattern reconstruction at the base station, the received bits are unscrambled. As a result, if any large cluster of bits were corrupted during transmission, the unscrambling process will sporadically distribute the corrupted bits throughout the received bit pattern, enabling the reconstruction of the receive bits.

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3.4.5.3 Walsh Code Spreading

The output of the turbo encoder/interleave (see Figure 3-17) is spread by 4-chip Walsh code function W4, and the amplitude of the resulting chip sequence is scaled, via the data channel relative gain control, by a factor relative to the amplitude of the Pilot chip sequence. The scaling factor for the chip sequence is specified by gain parameters as a function of the MAC protocol. The output of the data channel relative gain control is summed with the DRC chip sequence at the output of the DRC channel relative gain control to provide the Q input for quadrature spreading. The I resultant from combining the pilot and the ACK channel chip sequences and the Q resultant from combining the DRC and data channel chip sequences are quadrature-spread by providing a 90-degrees phase shift between the I and Q components. Prior to phase shifting, a complex multiplication operation is performed to identify the user AT by cross-multiplying the channel I and Q component with the I and Q components of the long and short PN codes. The product is a complex number, having a real part and an imaginary part that are 90 degrees apart, as shown below:
( I + jQ ) ( PN I + jPNQ ) = ( I PN I Q PN Q ) + j ( Q PNI + I PN Q )

3.4.5.4 Quadrature Spreading

Real Component

Imaginary Component

The PNI and PNQ chip sequences are generated by multiplying the AT I and Q channel short code sequences with the I and Q channel user long code sequences. The Q product of this multiplication is modified by replacing every other bit in the sequence with the reciprocal of the bit preceding it, and then multiplying the result by PNI. This is done by decimating ever other chip in Q chip sequences and replacing the decimated chip with the value of the chip preceding it. Therefore, the decimator provides an output sequence that is constant for every two consecutive chips. The decimator output is then multiplied by two factors. First, the sequence is multiplied by Walsh function W2 to invert every other chip. Then this product is multiplied by the PNI chip sequence to produce the PNQ chip sequence for complex multiplication. The complex multiplication output I and Q products are then, respectively, multiplied by the cosine and sine functions of the 1.2288 Mcps chip rate (fc) to produce the in-phase and quadrature-phase spreading. The quadrature-spread products are summed to form the reverse traffic channel which is modulated and applied to the AT antenna.

3.4.6 The access channel data is transmitted by the AT to either initiate communication Access Channel with the radio access network (RAN) or to respond to a message directed to the
AT. The access channel, which is defined as an access probe, is divided into two sub-channels: Pilot Channel: Continuously transmitted to provide uplink coherent demodulation. Data Channel: Consisting of preamble and access message packets

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Because the access probe is used to acquire the RAN, the access channel is always transmitted at a fixed 9.6 kbps data rate. Be reminded that this is the rate in which information data is sent to the base station and is not the transmitted modulation symbol rate, which is 1.2288 Mcps. The Physical Layer access message packet is 256 bits wide and consists of a 234-bit MAC Layer packet followed by a 16-bit frame sequence check (FSC) value and a 6-bit tail as, shown in Figure 3-20.

Figure 3-20

Reverse Access Channel Physical Layer Packet Bit Size

The access probe consists of a preamble followed by one or more access channel Physical Layer packets. Because the access probe is transmitted at a 9.6 Kbps data rate, a signal access channel Physical Layer packet is transmitted during a 16-slot frame. Only the pilot channel is transmitted at a high power level during the preamble. During the data portion of the access probe, the amplitude of the data channel is in proportion to the pilot transmit amplitude so that the sum of the data and pilot channel transmit power is equal the pilot channel transmit output transmitted during the preamble period, as shown in Figure 3-21.

Figure 3-21

Access Probe

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3.4.6.1 Generation of Access Channel 3.4.6.2 Data Channel

The generation of the reverse access channel is illustrated in Figure 3-22. This figure is a simplified diagram similar to Figure 3-17, and to conserve space, omits some detail that will be narrated in text. The access Physical Layer is encoded by the turbo encoder at a 1/4 code rate, producing a 1024-bit symbol. Therefore, the code symbol rate, which is the rate that the symbol is clocked out of the turbo encoder, is four times the 9.6-kbps access channel data rate, or 38.4 kbps. To improve the ability of the base station to restore the turbo coded in the event of transmission fading and interference, the access channel data is interleaved by the channel interleaver and the interleaved packet data is repeated eight times, increasing the modulation symbol rate to (8 X 38.4 kbps) 307.2 kbps. The output of the turbo interleave packet repeater is spread by 4-chip Walsh code function W4, and the amplitude of the resulting chip sequence is scaled, via the data channel relative gain control, by a factor relative to the amplitude of the Pilot chip sequence. The scaling factor for the chip sequence is specified by gain parameters as a function of the MAC protocol. The output of the data channel relative gain control provides the Q input for quadrature spreading. Quadrature spreading is performed in the same manner describes for the reverse traffic channel.

3.4.6.3 Pilot Channel

Similar to the traffic pilot channel, the access pilot channel are also unmodulated symbols having a binary 0 bit value. However, unlike the traffic pilot channel that is time-multiplexed with the RRI channel, the access pilot channel is continuously transmitted using a 16-chip Walsh code function number 0.

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Figure 3-22

Generation of Reverse Access Channel

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3.5 Test Application Feature


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3.5.1 Introduc-tion

A Test Application feature is introduced in Release 20.1 to provide a set of procedures to conduct forward and reverse link AT/RAN performance measurements in a field environment. These procedures are given in CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO Radio Networks Controller Application Processor Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OA&M), 401-614-102. The Test Application feature provides various testing capabilities for the forward and reverse links, providing a collection of data statistics which were not available prior to the introduction of this feature, such as the number of physical slots used in receiving the forward link packet. In addition, this feature provides a platform to conduct AT minimum performance tests. In order to perform such testing, variables such as data rate, transmitting sector selection, and RLP handshake acknowledgement responses should be controlled by the tester. Prior to the introduction of the Test Application feature, this control was not in the testers domains. Because forward data rate and transmitting sector is determined by the AT as a function of its current RF environment, testing involving air interface is made difficult because data rate and sector are subject to the ATs current RF environment. Also, such control relies on the AT's internal algorithm which could vary from one manufacturer's AT to another. The Test Application feature allows the tester to control the functionality of the DRC channel transmitted by a designated AT selected for the test. After the tester specifies a fixed forward data rate and transmitting sector, the Evolution Controller (EVC) encodes the testers input, and transmits a message to the designated AT requesting it to set appropriate testing parameters. When using the Test Application feature, the RAN or the tester is able to control the test variables, such DRC cover, identifying base station, sector and data rate; therefore, testing is conducted in a controllable environment. For example, without this feature, it will be difficult to verify that a particular data rate can be supported throughout a base station coverage area. The ability to ensure that the forward data rate is held constant is necessary to perform acceptance tests, and also helpful in performing system coverage optimization.

3.5.2 The Test Application provides three tests that can be run: Test Application Forward Test (TAF) Forward Link Reverse Test (TAR) Functionality Combined Forward and Reverse Test (TAA).
When a test is run, an open connection is establish with the target AT on a separate stream (refer to Section 2.3.3.4.2). Subsequently, data transfer occurs between the target AT and the Evolution Controller (EVC). This allows the EVC to compile statistical data about the data transfer. In addition to controlling data rate

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and sector sellection, the Test Application feature allows the tester to enter parameters such as ACK (acknowledge) to control the value transmitted over the test AT reverse ACK channel. The tester specifies a 0, and the AT will always respond to the transmitted message with an ACK signal, regardless of whether the packets were successfully received in one slot. If the tester specify a 0, the AT will always respond with a "NAK indication.

3.5.2.1 CLI Input Command Syntax

Test procedures for performing each test are given in the Radio Network Controller OA&M document, 401-614-102. The forward (TAF), reverse (RAF), and combined forward and reverse (TAA) are started by entering the appropriate CLI input command syntax as follows: TAF:UATI 0x# [, BTS #, SECTOR #] [, DRCRATE #] [, ACK 0|1] [, NOLOOPBACK] [, DATAPKTS][, DURATION #] [, INTERVAL #] [, TAI #] for forward test, and TAR:UATI 0x# [, MINRATE #, MAXRATE #] [, DURATION #] [, INTERVAL #] for reverse test, and TAA:UATI 0x# [, BTS #, SECTOR #] [, DRCRATE #] [, ACK 0|1][, NOLOOPBACK] [, DATAPKTS][, MINRATE #, MAXRATE #] [, DURATION #] [, INTERVAL #] [,TAI #] for combined forward and reverse test. The duration of the test is controlled by the DURATION # link command. However, any test can be stopped at any time by entering the stop CLI command: STOP:{TAF | TAR | TAA}; UATI 0x# The command must specify which the three tests is to be stopped (TAF,TAR, or TAA) and the AT UATI address (UATI 0x#).

3.5.2.2 Link Commands

Except for the AT UATI address (UATI 0x#), all other link commands or parameters used for the three tests are optional. However, to start the forward application test at least one of the following optional link commands most be included: [BTS #, SECTOR #]; [, DRCRATE #]; [, ACK 0|1]; [, NOLOOPBACK]; or [,TAI #]. If none of these link commands are entered, the software will display the following error message: COMMAND REJECTED DUE TO INVALID FTAP PARAMETERS The definition of each parameter is given in the following paragraph.

3.5.2.2.1 UATI 0x#


Hexadecimal UATI address of the target AT. The UATI can be retrieved from the AT using the CAIT tool or by using the AT itself, if the AT provides such a function. The input UATI must be 32 bits long. If the CAIT tool display only a 24-bit UATI, the test must also retrieve the Color Code field from the AT, then concatenate the color code with the displayed 24-bit UATI value.
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3.5.2.2.2

BTS #, SECTOR #

Specifies the base station and sector ID numbers. This input is decoded into the DRC cover (refer to Section 3.3.4), causing the AT to direct its DRC channel to the specified base station and sector. When the test starts, the AT tries to access the pilot PN offset from the designate sector into its Active Set (refer to Section 7.4.5). If the AT is too far from the sector, the AT will not be able to achieve this. As a result, after waiting two minutes for a positive response from the AT, the test will be aborted. The software will display the following: DRC COVER NOT IN ACTIVE SET In this case the AT must be moved closer to the target sector and restart the test, or if this option is left blank, the AT will find the best serving sector.

3.5.2.2.3 DRCRATE #
This parameter identify the forward data rate encoded sent to the target for transmission of the DRC channel. The value for this parameter ranges from 0 to 12 to request a forward transmission as shown in Table 3-4. The duplicated rates that appear DRCRATE# 4 and 5, 6 and7, and 9 and 10, represent different turbo code rates or modulation schemes as indicated in Table 3-1.

Table 3-4

DRCRATE Values

DRCRATE # 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Data Rate(kbps)
Null 38.4 76.8 153.6 307.2 307.2 614.4

DRCRATE # 7 8 9 10 11 12

Data Rate(kbps)
614.4 921.6 1 1228.8 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6

3.5.2.2.4 ACK
This parameter indicates a fixed desired acknowledge response on ACK channel: 0 for ACK, 1 for NAK; refer to Section 3.3.3.2. If left blank the AT to set the ACK bit according to the actual status of the received packet.

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Test Application Feature 3.5.2.2.5 NOLOOPBACK

Air Interface

Indicate that loopback, which is the returning of forward link data on the reverse link, will not be performed. When the left blank, loopback mode is on. There should be no other reverse link data frames expected, because the loopback mode requires the AT to send back every received forward link data packet on the reverse link, which could occupy the entire reverse link bandwidth and leave no room for other reverse traffic transmission. The user must explicitly select NOLOOPBACK option to turn off the loopback mode.

3.5.2.2.6 DATAPKTS
Causes data to be transmitted on the forward link, but not return on the reverse link. Therefore, this option is mutually exclusive with the loopback mode. If the NOLOOPBACK command link is left blank, the DATAPKTS command link must be left blank.

3.5.2.2.7 DURATION #
Selects the test duration in accordance with Table 3-5. If DURATION # is not present, the Test Application will run for 30 minutes if the connection is up. If the connection is dropped, unless the tester/mobile restarts the connection requests, there will be no data collected during the period when the connection is not up.

Table 3-5

Test Duration Code

DURATION # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Test Duration in Minute


15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120

DURATION # 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Test Duration in Minute


135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240

3.5.2.2.8 INTERVAL #
Indicates the interval for data recording/logging. If not specified, a two-second default is used, which means the data will be accumulated and recorded in every two-second interval. Range is 1 to 5 seconds in one-second steps.

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3.5.2.2.9 TAI #
Collects data while the AT is in the idle mode. When the TAI # option is selected, an idle test is initiated. At this time, the RAN must initially setup a connection to send the Idle Test Command to the AT, so that the AT can start to collect Idle Mode Statistics. Thereafter, the RAN will periodically page the AT to set up a connection in order to retrieve the data. When in the idle mode, the AT is not assigned any dedicated airlink resources and communicates with the base station. Start the Idle tests using the forward link test command, TAF:UATI 0x#, DURATION # and TAI # options. The TAI option specifies the idle state collect timer. Range is 1 to 15 minutes in step of 1 minute. There is no default. The idle state collect timer is used by the RAN to page the AT and get the idle statistics via the access channel. The idle statistics data interval can be TAI plus delta, where delta can vary for each collection interval, depending on the page response and connection establish time. The DURATION # indicates how long the entire idle test should run. If not specified, the Idle Test will run for 30 minutes. Note, when running the idle test, it is best not to run any other forward link or reverse link tests, since the mobile collects the idle statistics data only when it is in the Idle Mode.

3.5.2.2.10 MINRATE #, MAXRATE #


These two parameters, which is use for the reverse test only, are use to indicate the minimum and maximum data rate the mobile can select during the testing. When MINRATE # and MAXRATE # is not equal to 0, the AT will generate reverse link data packets and send to the RAN. Thus, when running reverse link test and forward link test together, make sure that forward link loopback mode is off if the AT is to send any reverse link data packets.

3.5.2.3 Start All Tests Command (TAA)

The TAA command allows the user to start both the forward link and reverse link tests together. This is used a great deal in the Minimum Performance Standard, where the test cases are typically run the reverse link test at certain fixed rate, e.g. 9.6kbps, set the forward link ACK off, or DRCRATE # to 0 for a null DRC cover, etc. For meaningful test results, caution must be taken not to run the forward link loopback mode when not needed. In other words, the user must explicitly set NOLOOPBACK] option to turn off the loopback mode.

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Hardware Components

Contents
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.1 4.2
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.3 4.2.2.4 4.2.2.4.1 4.2.2.4.2 4.2.2.5 4.2.2.5.1 4.2.2.5.2 4.2.3 4.2.3.1 4.2.3.1.1 4.2.3.1.2 4.2.3.2 4.2.3.3 4.2.3.4

Introduction 1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN)


Introduction Multi-Mode Cells Flexent CDMA Modular Cell Cabinet CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for IS-95 and 1X-3G CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for 1xEV-DO Modular Cell 4 OneBTS Cabinet Digital Shelf Signal Flow Circuit Pack Location Adding 1xEV-DO To AUTOPLEX Cells Duplex Configuration Double Duplex Configuration Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) 1xEV-DO Application Processor (AP) 1xEV-DO Controller Packet Control Function (PCF) Modular Fuse/Filter Unit (MFFU) Reliable Cluster Computing (RCC) Router (Ethernet Switch)

4-3 4-4
4-4 4-4 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12
4-12

4-12 4-14 4-14 4-15 4-15 4-15

4.3
4.3.1 4.3.2
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Element Management System (EMS)


Introduction Graphic User Interface (GUI)
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4-16
4-16 4-16
4 - 1

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Contents

Hardware Components

4.4
4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.4.7

IP Network Elements
Introduction Packet Data Service Node (PDSN) IP Network Authentica-tion, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) Server Introduction Overlay Deployment Stand-Alone Deployment, Coverage Design

4-17
4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-18

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Introduction

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4.1 Introduction
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

This chapter provides a high-level discussion of the Lucent equipment that supports 1xEV-DO deployment. 1xEV-DO technology is designed to protect the investment of existing CDMA service providers by using the same RF carriers as in IS-95 and 3G-1X. While the Physical Layer of 1xEV-DO, identifying channel encoding, and channel structure differs greatly from IS-95 and 3G-1X, the RF signal and the 1.25-MHz bandwidth is compatible with IS95/3G-1X. Therefore, much of the same base station RF equipment (amplifiers, filters, etc.) used to provide IS-95/3G-1X service can be used to provide 1xEV-DO service. This makes it much easier to adapt existing multicarrier base station equipment for 1xEV-DO operation. This chapter will consider all the equipment within the 1xEV-DO Radio Access System (RAS) which consists of the 1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN) and the 1xEV-DO Network Management System (EMS).

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4.2 1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN)


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4.2.1 Introduction

The 1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN) consists of 1xEV-DO base stations, and the1xEV-DO Flexent Mobility Server (FMS). The 1xEV-DO equipment may be collocated with IS-95 and 3G-1X equipment to form 1xEV-DO/IS-95 and 1xEVDO/3G-1X base stations. This section is divided into two parts. The first part provides a high-level description of Lucent Technologies, existing IS-95 and 3G-1X CDMA base station equipment and how the equipment is modified for 1xEV-DO collocation deployment. The second part provides a description of the 1xEV-DO FMS. The Lucent product offering for 1xEV-DO is intended to provide investment protection for Flexent Modcell and AUTOPLEXSeries II platforms, 1xEV-DO is integrated into the Flexent product line and will have a minimal impact on the AUTOPLEX footprint. This section provides information on how 1xEV-DO capabilities are added to existing Flexent and AUTOPLEX cells.

4.2.2 Multi-Mode Cells

4.2.2.1 Flexent CDMA Modular Cell Cabinet

The Lucent Modular Cell cabinets, which can support up to three IS-95 or 3G-1X carriers per three sectors. A generic outline of the Modular Cell 1, 2, and 3 cabinets is shown in Figure 4-1. A 1xEV-DO/IS-95/3G-1X mixed-mode Modular Cell 1, 2, and 3 cabinet will support a mix of 1xEV-DO and IS-95 and/or 3G-1X carriers by allowing the mixing of 1xEV-DO CDMA Digital Module (CDM) with IS-95 and 3G-1X CDM in the same cabinet. Because 1xEV-DO technology uses the same RF footprint as does IS-95 and 3G-1X, the top portion of the cabinet, containing filters, transmit amplifiers, and other components does not change for 1xEV-DO. The only hardware modification required for 1xEV-DO deployment is within the top shelf of the CDM. Up to three CDMs can be located within the digital section (bottom two shelves) of the Modular Cell cabinet. Each CDM provides the digital circuit packs for one carrier. In most cases, when a 3G-1X carrier is deployed, the 3G-1X would be in the first CDM (left) on the digital section.The CDMs are located in the digital shelf along with two Time Frequency Units (TFUs), which are driven by the output of the Rubidium oscillator module (OM) to provide precise CDMA timing to the circuit packs within the digital shelf. A Crystal OM is located above the Rubidium OM to provide backup in the event that the Rubidium OM fails.

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Hardware Components

Digital Shelf

Rubidium OM

Figure 4-1

Flexent CDMA Modular Cell Cabinet Structure

4.2.2.2 CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for IS95 and 1X-3G


401-614-323 Issue 2, May 2003

For IS-95 or 3G-1X deployment, the major components of the CDM are (Figure 4-2):

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CDMA Radio Controller (CRC) - Executes control software for call and traffic processing, OA&M, and T1/E1 facility control for a single CDMA carrier CDMA Channel Unit (CCU) - Up to six CCUs may be installed in each CDM. Support for 3G-1X and IS-95 requires a CCU-32 card as opposed to the CCU-20 card, which supports only IS-95 traffic. The CCU-32 provides 32 Channel Elements to handle voice and data traffic for IS-95/3G-1X users. Power Converter Unit (PCU) - Provides the various DC power for the circuit packs for the three CDMs within the digital shelf CDMA Baseband Radio (CBR) - Converts the signal to be transmitted from any CCU within the CDM to the RF frequency of its assigned carrier/ sector, and sends the signal to the linear amplifier.

CDMA Channel Control Unit (CCU)

CDMA Radio Controller (CRC)

Standby CDMA Radio Controller (CRC)

Power Converter Unit (PCU)

Figure 4-2

CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for IS-95 and 3G-1X

4.2.2.3 CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for 1xEV-DO

There is no limitation on the placement of 1xEV-DO carrier (1xEV-DO CDM, refer to Figure 4-3). This means that the 1xEV-DO carrier can be equipped in any CDM of the Modular Cell frames, primary frame, or growth frame. The 1xEV-DO Modem contains the functionality required to support the 1xEV-DO physical layer and is used for all 1xEV-DO Flexent platforms. Currently only one 1xEV-DO carrier can be deployed per Modular Cell cabinet by modifying the first
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CDM (CDM on the left, refer to Figure 4-1). Converting the CDM hardware for 1xEV-DO deployment is a two-step procedure: a. All CCU packs are removed and replaced with a single 1xEV-DO Modem (EVM). The EVM contains two modem boards, EVTx and EVRx. Two CCU slots are reserved for a single EVM, where the EVTx transmit board is plugged in to slot 1 and the EVRx receive board is plugged in to slot 2. The 1xEV-DO modem boards are pin-compatible with the backplane so that no external wiring or pin jumping is required. The CRC must be replaced with a 44WW13D or later version. This version accommodates 1xEV-DO operation and is compatible with IS-95 and 3G-1X.

b.

CDMA Radio Controller (CRC) 1xEV-DO Modem (EVM) EVTx EVRx Standby CDMA Radio Controller (CRC)

Power Converter Unit (PCU)

Figure 4-3

CDMA Digital Module (CDM) for 1xEV-DO

4.2.2.4 Modular Cell 4 OneBTS Cabinet

The Modular Cell 4.0 cabinet, which is a oneBTS cabinet, is available in three different frames and a variety of configurations with regard to the number of sector service, indoor/outdoor and primary/growth deployment, and service bandwidth. A nominal generic version of this frame is shown in Figure 4-4.

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Hardware Components

Duplex filter

Facility Shelf OneBTS Amplifier Fan Tray Universal CDMA Radio (UCR) Common Timing Unit (CTU) CDMA Modem Unit (CMU) Evolution Modem (4.0 EVM) EVRx EVTx Digital Shelf Amplifier Shelf

Power Distribution Panel (PDP)

OneBTS Fan Tray

Universal Radio Controllers (URC)

CDMA Modem Unit (CMU)

Figure 4-4

Modular Cell 4 Cabinet

4.2.2.4.1 Digital Shelf Signal Flow


Rather than having dedicated CDMs to separately process each carrier as in the Modular Cells 1, 2, and 3, the digital shelf in the Modular Cell 4 cabinet pools its carrier signal processing hardware resources for either 1xEV-DO data or 3G-1X/IS95 data. Universal radio controllers (URC) are used to steer transmit and receive data for each carrier to either an EVM for 1xEV-DO operation or a CDMA modem unit (CMU) for IS-95 and 3G-1X (refer to Figure 4-5). In a mix-mode system, at least two URCs are required. One for 1xEV-DO data and the other for 3G-1X/IS-95 data. For transmission, the URC will direct the signal received from the RNC or AUTOPLEX network to either the 4.0 EVM, for 1xEV-DO, or CMU for 3G-1X and IS95, where the signal is modulated. In large cells, a number of CMUs may be installed to provide a pool of channel elements (CE) to process 3G-1X/IS-95 voice
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1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN)

Hardware Components

and data signals. The task of the URC is to select the next available CMU and CE from the pool to process the incoming voice and data signals.

FMS

Universal Radio Controller (URC) Evolution Modem (4.0 EVM) C1

Universal CDMA Radio (UCR)

Antenna

ECP

Universal Radio Controller (URC)

CDMA Modem Unit (CMU)

C2, C3

Figure 4-5

Digital Shelf Signal Flow

The modulated signal from the 4.0 EVM or CMU is up converted to its appropriated carrier frequency by the UCR. The upconverted carrier signal is than amplified and filtered and routed to the base station transmit antenna. Each UCR can process up to three carriers. Reverse link signals received through the UCR are down converted and are appropriately routed to either the 4.0 EVM or the next available CMU designated by the URC for demodulation. The demodulated signal is then routed through its appropriate URC to its designation via the RAN or AUTOPLEX network.

4.2.2.4.2 Circuit Pack Location


The digital card shelf backplane (Figure 4-6) is functionally divided into four sections, where each section is dedicated to receive circuit packs of a specific type. Except for the first section, which is dedicated for URC, circuit packs may be placed in any slot within their dedicated sections.The first section is a fourslot location where URCs can be placed in the first three slots. The fourth slot is reserved for a redundant URC that will be available in a future release. The URC provides T1/E1 facility interface via the I/O unit (IOU) for the digital card shelf (see Figure 4-4). Initially, in a mix-mode system, one URC must be used exclusively for 1xEV-DO service. The URC exclusivity will be removed in subsequent releases.

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1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN)

Hardware Components

Universal Radio Controllers (URC)

Part of Common Timing CDMA Modem Unit (CTU) Unit (CMU) Universal CDMA Radio (UCR)

Part of CDMA Modem Unit (CMU)

EVRx EVTx

Slot 1

Reserve forredundant URC

Evolution Modem (4.0 EVM)

Figure 4-6

Modular Cell 4 Digital Shelf Card Location

The second section is divided into two six-slot groupings, where the first group is immediately after the URC section, occupying slots 5 through 10, and the second group is the last six slots on the digital shelf, occupying slots 17 through 22. Generally the first two of the 12 slots are occupied the 4.0 EVM EVTx and EVRx modem boards and the remaining slots may be occupied by CDMA modem units (CMU) in base stations that also provide IS-95 or 3G-1X service. The CMU contains a number of the channel elements (CE) that performs the signal spreading and despreading required by CDMA baseband processing for IS-95 and 3G1X. The third section is a two-slot position occupied by the common timing unit (CTU). The CTU receives the timing signal from the GPS to maintain base station synchronization with the other base stations in the CDMA network. Two CTU are generally installed where the second CTU provides backup. Lastly, the fourth section is a six-slot position to be occupied by Universal CDMA Radio (UCR). The UCR provides radio processing including peak limiting, overload control, and upbanding/downbanding for the appropriate RF frequency.

4.2.2.5 Adding 1xEV-DO To AUTOPLEX Cells

1xEV-DO capabilities can be provided on the AUTOPLEX Series II Double Density Growth Frame (DDGF) and PCS CDMA Minicell via the collocation feature and antenna sharing with a Flexent cell. Adding a new 1xEV-DO carrier can be done by growing a Flexent cell (Modular cell) and using antenna sharing. The extent of antenna sharing may be limited by many factors and must be evaluated on a caseby-case basis. Factors to be considered include: Existing antenna configuration Carrier frequency assignment Use of adjacent frequencies.
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Hardware Components

Two configurations of adding 1xEV-DO to AUTOPLEX cells are discussed here: Duplex configuration Double Duplex configuration.

4.2.2.5.1 Duplex Configuration


Figure 4-7 shows the duplex configuration for adding the 1xEV-DO-configured Flexent Modular Cell to a CDMA minicell. Three antennas are used for each section in a CDMA Minicell/1xEV-DO Modular Cell collocation configuration. The first and second antennas are connected to the CDMA Minicell cabinet transmit output port and to the received input port for a duplex antenna connection. The first antenna is connected to the Tx0/Rx0 output/input ports and the second antenna is connected to the Tx1/Rx1 output/input ports. The second antenna provides the receive diversity inputs for the CDMA Minicell and 1xEV-DO Modular cell cabinets as shown in Figure 4-7. Lastly, the third antenna to the Tx2/Rx0 output/input ports of the 1xEV-DO Modular Cell. A Flexent Modular Cell is required as an adjunct cabinet with an 1xEV-DO modified CDM, as described in Section 4.2.2.1 for each 1xEV-DO carrier to be added to the base station. If the 1xEV-DO carrier is to replace existing IS95/3G-1X carrier(s), be sure to remove the carrier(s) from the existing AUTOPLEX base station equipment. In this configuration, duplex transmit and receive is performed on separate antennas, and the two antennas are shared for diversity operation.

Tx0/Rx0

Tx1/Rx1

Tx2/Rx0

CDMA Minicell

1xEV-DO Modular Cell

Tx0 Rx0 Rx1

Tx2 Rx0 Rx1

Tx1 Rx0 Rx1

Figure 4-7

Collocation of 1xEV-VO Modular Cell with PCS CDMA Minicell

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1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN) 4.2.2.5.2 Double Duplex Configuration

Hardware Components

A double duplex operation is achieved by connecting the transmit output for each sector to both receive diversity antennas. Figure 4-8 shows the double duplex configuration for adding 1xEV-DO capability to AUTOPLEX cells. An additional transmit antenna must be added for each service by each 1xEV-DO carrier. The receive diversity antenna for each sector is shared with the Rx antennas on corresponding sector.

Tx0/Rx0

Tx1/Rx1

Tx2

AUTOPLEX DDGF or PCS Minicell

Flexent Modular Cell

Tx0 Rx0 Rx1

Tx2 Rx1 Rx0

Tx1 Rx1 Rx0

Figure 4-8

Collocation of 1xEV-DO Modular Cell with CDMA AUTOPLEX Series II DDGF Cells

4.2.3 Flexent Mobility Server (FMS)

The Flexent Mobility Server (FMS), which is show in Figure 4-9, is central to the Radio Access Network (RAN). The FMS frame contains four primary SunTM NetraTM 400S servers and four backup Sun Netra 400S servers. Each server provides the hardware platform with a 1xEV-DO Application Processor (DO-AP) running the Sun SolarisTM Operating System (OS) Version 9. Each AP is operated to perform the functionality of the 1xEV-DO Controller and Packet Control Function (PCF). In addition the DO-APs, the FMS frame includes the following: One Modular Filter and Fusing Unit (MFFU) shelf One Reliable Cluster Computing (RCC) shelf Two routers (Ethernet switches -one active, one standby).

4.2.3.1 1xEV-DO Application Processor (AP)

The four primary and backup DO-APs are mounted in the upper and lower universal chassis as shown in Figure 4-9. If any of the primary APs malfunction the AP is electrically removed from the network, and its functions are automatically resumed by the backup AP located at its corresponding position in the lower universal chassis.

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Hardware Components

Modular Fuse/Filter Unit (MFFU) (Front panel flipped up)

Reliable Cluster Controller (RCC) Application Processor (DO-AP) (Netrl 400S Server) Router (Ethermet Switch)

Upper Universal Chassis

Maintaenance Interface Panel (MIP) Application Processor (DO-AP) (Netra 400S Server) Router (Ethermet Switch)

Lower Universal Chassis

Figure 4-9

1xEV-DO Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) Cabinet

The FMS requires a minimum of a primary and a backup DO-AP. Each DO-AP consists a the following (refer to Figure 4-10): One hard disk drive to provide a local boot disk

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1xEV-DO Radio Access Network (RAN)

Hardware Components

One Sun Ultra SparcTM Central Processing Unit (CPU) card running the Solaris 9 operating system. Essentially, the CPU functions as the 1xEVDO application processor to perform Overhead Channel Management signaling processing and OA&M control functions. Two Traffic Processes (TPs) that run on the VxWorks operating system to perform signaling and traffic processing One alarm card: Support for reset, power up, and power down commands issued from the Watchdog Integrated with the Modular Filter and Fusing Unit (MFFU) to provide alarm indication such as temperature, power, and fan failures, in addition to providing alarms for its associated server

One Maintenance Interface Panel (MIP); allows connection of links to the Local Maintenance Terminal (LMT) and external router components.

4.2.3.1.1 1xEV-DO Controller


The 1xEV-DO Controller is the Lucent computing platform modified to accommodate 1xEV-DO requirements. This controller connects to multiple base stations and provides call control and RLP functions including frame selection for the 1xEV-DO RAN. The OA&M interface for the entire 1xEV-DO RAN is also provided as part of the 1xEV-DO Controller.

4.2.3.1.2 Packet Control Function (PCF)


The Packet Control Function (PCF) terminates the radio network and implements the dormant mode. The PCF maintains a PPP connection with the base station to provide the open R-P (A10-A11) interface with the PDSN. The PCF also maintains the re-connection information to the AT for the PDSN, and buffers data from the network to the AT until airlink resources can be allocated. In addition, the PCF collects and forwards airlink-related accounting information to the PDSN.

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Hardware Components

Hard Drive (hidden)

CPU Card

Traffic Processors (TP)

Alarm Card

System Status Panel

Power Supply Unit

Power Supply Unit Air Filter

Figure 4-10

1xEV-DO Application Processor (400S Server)

4.2.3.2 Modular Fuse/Filter Unit (MFFU)

The Modular Fuse/Filter Unit (MFFU) provides independent fusing and -48 VDC power distribution. The fuses are exposed under a flip-up cover panel. A chart under the panel cover maps and identifies the circuit associated each fuse. The fuses are divided into two banks. One bank fuse the primary circuits and other banks fuse the backup circuits. A blown fuse is indicated by a red indicator at the upper right -hand corner of the fuse. The Reliable Cluster Computing (RCC) provides the software and hardware components for increased reliability, availability, and maintainability. The RCC includes the Watchdog hardware, a dedicated recovery and maintenance processor. The Watchdog connects to each 400S server through two RS-232 lines; one to the AP computer, the other to the alarm card. Two routers (Ethernet switches) are provided, one switch is active, and the other is on standby. The router provides the physical and logical communication data links between the network base stations and the components within the FMS, and also provides the network links between the FMS components and the Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN) via 100baseT (Ethernet) interface specified for the R-P interface (also known as IOS A10A11 interface). The router also provide a data link between the Element Management System (EMS) on the OMP-FX, and to other servers within the FMS.
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4.2.3.3 Reliable Cluster Computing (RCC)

4.2.3.4 Router (Ethernet Switch)

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Element Management System (EMS)

Hardware Components

4.3 Element Management System (EMS)


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.3.1Introduction

User system OA&M interface for the 1xEV-DO RAN, which includes the 1xEV-DO base stations, the FMSs and all the connecting facilities (T1/E1 and routers), is provided through the 1xEV-DO Element Management System (EMS). In the mixed configuration cells, the EMS will provide the OA&M only for the 1xEV-DO components, while the 3G-1X OA&M provides the OA&M for IS-95/3G-1X3G-1X components and 1xEV-DO/IS-95/3G-1X shared components. The EMS provides a Graphic User Interface (GUI) and command line interface to allow direct OA&M supervision and control of the 1xEV-DO system. Separate display pages are provided to monitor and control each OA&M function. The OA&M functions provided are: Configuration Management Fault Management Performance Management Security Management Status Display and User (Technician) Interface for all OA&M functions provided in the Modular Cell and CDBS.

4.3.2 Graphic User Interface (GUI)

The 1xEV-DO EMS is implemented on the OMP-FX platform, which in mixed systems is also used for the 3G-1X OA&M. Both 1xEV-DO EMS and 3G-1X OA&M are loosely coupled software applications running on the same hardware platform. The PDSN and other IP network elements are managed from a separate Core IP EMS. If Lucent Technologies Core IP EMS is used, the 1xEV-DO EMS provides a cut-through link to allow quick access to the management of the IP network. However, third-party Core IP EMS implementations may not support a port compatible with this cut-through link.

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Hardware Components

4.4 IP Network Elements


.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.4.1 Introduction

This section briefly describes the functionality of the following network elements: PDSN IP network AAA server.

4.4.2 Packet Data Service Node (PDSN)

The PDSN function is part of the packet data system that maintains the link layer to the AT. The PDSN resides in the visited network and is allocated by the visited network where the AT initiates a session. The PDSN terminates the PPP link protocol with the mobile. The PDSN serves as a Foreign Agent in the Mobile IP network. The PDSN maintains link layer information to the PCF and routes packets to external packet data networks or to the Home Agent (HA) in the case of Mobile IP tunneling to the HA. The PDSN is connected to the PCF by the R-P interface. The PDSN maintains either a 100 Mbps Ethernet interface or an ATM interface to the service provider backbone IP network. The equipment may be provided by third party vendors. For more information on the PDSN and any other third-party vendor hardware, please refer to the documentation provided by the vendor.

4.4.3 IP Network

The IP network is comprised of routers, firewalls, and associated equipment needed to connect the PCF to the customer network which, allows connection to the public Internet or private networks, or both. The service provider supplies the IP network equipment. The AAA server is required to authenticate terminal equipment users when they attempt to establish a connection. In addition, the AAA Server stores information from the PDSN, which is provided as input to the customers billing system.

4.4.4 Authentica-tion, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) Server

4.1 Deployment Scenarios


4.4.5 Introduction
Discussed here are two deployment scenarios for 1xEV-DO: Overlay deployment (mix system) Stand-alone deployment.

4.4.6 Overlay Deployment

1xEV-DO deployment is relatively straightforward when evolving from IS-95 and 3G-1X networks. This is because 1xEV-DO utilizes the same carrier bandwidth as IS-95 and 3G-1X. Furthermore, 1xEV-DO has a similar coverage footprint (see Chapter 5 on RF Coverage). Therefore, it is recommended that 1xEV-DO be overlaid on 3G-1X (or IS-95) in a 1:1 fashion.
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Deployment Scenarios

Hardware Components

The coverage footprint in a stand-alone environment is determined by the operators target data rate at the cell edge. Higher user channel rate targets at the cell edge require smaller cells, and correspondingly more cells. 1xEV-DO requires that a network operator have a good understanding of the demand for data services. 3G-1X has the advantage that the carrier can support both data and voice. 1xEV-DO has the advantage of having higher data capacity (i.e., average sector throughput) and higher peak channel rates. In the overlay or mixed cell environment, the footprint of the existing network being overlaid determines the footprint of the 1xEV-DO carriers. The design engineer can determine both reverse and forward data rates that can be expected at the cell edge by examining the link budgets. If the design engineer has traffic maps and customer input about traffic patterns of subscribers (e.g., data calls during the busy hour, length of those calls, data downloaded, etc.), they could deduce some conclusions about the throughput per subscriber, based on the sector capacity.

4.4.7 Stand-Alone Deployment, Coverage Design

In the case of a greenfield design or stand-alone deployment in which the fewest number of base stations is desirable, the design engineer would start by determining the data rate desired at the cell edge in both the uplink and downlink directions. The design engineer would then examine the link budgets to see what maximum allowable path loss can be supported for the desired rate. The smaller value is the limiting link, which determines the cell footprint. If the design engineer has traffic maps and customer input about traffic patterns of subscribers (e.g., data calls during the busy hour, length of those calls, data downloaded, etc.), they can deduce some conclusions about the throughput per subscriber, based on the sector capacity. In the case of a greenfield design which, the customer wants to make sure meets certain capacity, the design engineer would start with traffic maps and customer input about traffic patterns of subscribers (e.g., data calls during the busy hour, length of those calls, data downloaded, etc.). The design engineer utilizes enough cells to meet the customer demand. At the end of the design the design, engineer must also check that all geographic areas meet some minimum link budget constraints.

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5 5

RF Coverage and Capacity RF Coverage and Capacity

Contents
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5.1 5.2
5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.4.1 5.2.4.1.1 5.2.4.1.1.1 5.2.5 5.2.5.1 5.2.5.2 5.2.5.3 5.2.5.3.1 5.2.5.3.2 5.2.5.3.3 5.2.5.4 5.2.5.4.1 5.2.5.4.2 5.2.5.5 5.2.5.5.1 5.2.5.5.1.1

Introduction Reverse Link Budget Analysis


Introduction Reverse Link Similarity with 3G-1X Forward and Reverse Link Limitations Maximum Path Loss Components Maximum Path Loss Calculation Maximum AT Transmit Power Shadow Fading Reverse Link Budget Effective Isothropic Radiated Power (EIRP) Receiver Antenna Gain Minus Cable and Connector Losses Total Effective Noise plus Interference Density Receiver Noise Figure Receiver Noise Density Receiver Interference Margin Receiver Sensitivity Smin Signal Quality Information Rate (10logRb), Item k Required Eb/Nt, Item l Vehicle Speed Effect on Eb/Nt Value Effect of Power Control at Low Vehicle Speeds

5-5 5-6
5-6 5-6 5-6 5-7
5-8

5-8 5-9
5-9

5-11
5-11

5-12 5-13 5-13 5-13 5-14 5-15 5-15 5-15 5-16 5-16

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RF Coverage and Capacity

5.2.5.5.1.2 5.2.5.5.2 5.2.5.6 5.2.5.7 5.2.5.7.1 5.2.5.8 5.2.5.9

Effect of Bit Interleaving at High Vehicle Speeds Data Rate Effect on Eb/Nt Value Soft Handoff Gain Log-Normal Fade Margin, Item p Fade Probability Building/Ve-hicle Penetration Loss, Item q Maximum Path Loss with Respect Isotropic Antennas, Item r

5-17

5-17 5-17 5-18 5-19 5-20 5-20

5.3
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.3.1 5.3.3.2 5.3.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.4.1 5.3.4.2 5.3.4.2.1 5.3.4.2.2 5.3.4.3 5.3.4.3.1 5.3.4.3.2 5.3.4.3.3 5.3.4.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.7.1

Forward Link Budget Analysis


Introduction RF Conditions Evaluation by the AT AT Minimum Performance Specification Forward Link Signaling Channel Different Repetition Factors Link Budget Calculation Forward Link Budge Spreadsheet Transmit Power Calculation AT Receiver Power Determining the Delta Pathloss Value Computing Delta Pathloss for Coverage Area Total Interference Interfering from Other Cells/Sectors Total Thermal Noise Power Total Interference on the Traffic Channel Forward Link Receiver Sensitivity Introduction Capacity/Coverage Trade-off Pole Capacity Forward vs. Reverse Link

5-21
5-21 5-21 5-22 5-22 5-22 5-23
5-24

5-27
5-27

5-28
5-28

5-28 5-29 5-30


5-31

5-31 5-31 5-31 5-32 5-33

5.4
5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.2.1 5.4.2.1.1 5.4.2.1.2 5.4.2.2 5.4.3 5.4.3.1 5.4.3.1.1 5.4.3.1.2 5.4.3.1.3 5.4.3.2 5.4.3.3 5 - 2

Reverse Link Capacity


Introduction Pilot Channel Ec/Nt Spectral Noise Density Base Station Noise Power Interference From All Other CDMA Users Pole Capacity Calculation Determining Theoretical Maximum Number of Users Channel Gain Required Pilot Channel Ec/Nt () Traffic Channel Gain DRC Channel Gain Interference Ratio (f ) Channel Activity Factor (a )

5-34
5-34 5-34 5-34 5-35 5-35
5-35

5-36 5-36
536

5-37 5-38
5-38

5-39
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5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.4.6.1 5.4.6.2 5.4.6.3 5.4.6.3.1 5.4.6.3.2 5.4.6.4

Traffic Model Pole Point Based Capacity Calculation Determining Target Capacity Acceptable Call-blocking Objective Acceptable Queue Delay Objective Data Traffic Load in Erlangs General Erlang Model Erlang B and C Models Determining Average Number of Reverse Link Channels Required Active Users vs. Total Users

5-40 5-42 5-43 5-43 5-44 5-44 5-44 5-45

5-46

5.4.7

5-47

5.5
5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3

Forward Link Capacity


Introduction Geometry Sector Throughput

5-49
5-49
5-49 5-49

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Introduction

RF Coverage and Capacity

5.1 Introduction
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The design for RF coverage and capacity for stand-alone deployment begins with the calculation of the Reverse link (uplink) and forward link (downlink) budgets to determine the base station coverage area for a desirable data rate at the cell forward edge. If the 1xEV-DO base station is being overlaid in a mixed 3G-1X/IS-95 environment, it is strongly suggested that the 1xEV-DO base station coverage be aligned to the 3G-1X/IS-95 coverage area, thereby greatly simplifying the link budget task associated with base station deployment. The objective of reverse link budget analysis is to calculate the maximum path loss value permitted that will result in a quality signal at the receiver. The result of this calculation is a dB value that represents the maximum amount of attenuation the AT signal is permitted to encounter as the AT user travels away from the base station. If the AT user continues to travel away from the base station, assuming that there are no candidate sectors able to accept a handoff, the maximum path loss value is exceeded, and the signal quality will be diminished to a point at which the call is dropped. Although link budget calculation and analysis for 1xEV-DO is similar to those performed in 3G-1X and IS-95, a number of differences must be considered. As in all RF technologies, coverage estimates for planning purposes can be obtained through the use of link budget tools. This section will examine the link budgets for the reverse link. Reverse link budget analysis is used to establish the cell footprint for a given data rate.

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RF Coverage and Capacity

5.2 Reverse Link Budget Analysis


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5.2.1 Introduction

A link budget analysis is a series of mathematical calculations signal gains and losses as it travels from transmitter to receiver. In a typical duplex wireless system, there are two link budget calculations: a forward link or downlink from the base station to the AT or mobile unit, and a reverse link or uplink from the AT or mobile unit to the base station. Link budgets are used to derive maximum path losses for forward and reverse wireless communication links that meet a design criteria for reliability and performance. A link budget calculation is a full accounting of the RF signal level gains and losses as the signal travels from transmitter to receiver. This accounting is a budget of signal gains and losses with respect to interference and noise levels to obtain the maximum path loss permitted that will result in an acceptable signal quality at the receiver. A balance must be achieved between gains and losses so that the transmit signal received by the base station from an AT at the edge of the coverage area is minimally above the total noise and interference experienced at its receiver to ensure acceptable quality. In CDMA systems, there is always a trade-off between signal quality, coverage (cell radius), and capacity (data throughput). Traditionally, in IS-95 and 3G-1X systems, voice quality is the ultimate criterion to consider when determining the link budget. Once a voice quality objective is defined, this trade-off is narrowed between coverage and capacity. However, because 1xEV-DO eliminates voice transmission and the real-time restriction associated with high voice signal, high quality associated with voice is also eliminated, essentially reducing the trade-off between coverage and capacity. As capacity increases, coverage decreases. For data, capacity is measured as the data throughput on a carrier.

5.2.2 Reverse Link Similarity with 3G1X

The reverse link of a 1xEV-DO carrier is similar to the reverse link of a 3G-1X carrier. Unlike the forward link, which is time-shared with each active user, the 1xEV-DO reverse link is CDMA code-shared with embedded pilot pulses for coherent detection, and has similar power control and data rate (9.6 to 153.6 kbps) schemes with 3G-1X. In addition, the 1xEV-DO reverse link enables soft handoff similar to 3G1X. However, the 1xEV-DO reverse link differs from 3G-1X in that 1xEV-DO does not have fundamental and supplemental channels, and that the reverse link data rate is dynamically controlled by the base station based on sector loading. The AT initiates its transmission data rate at 9.6kbps and may incrementally increase or decrease its data rate after every 26.67-ms frame following a transition probability based on RAB (Reverse Activity Bit) set by the base station. The data rate selected by the AT is reported to the base station via a data rate control (DRC) channel. The 1xEV-DO reverse link data rate is indicated by an RRI (Reverse Rate Indicator) channel on the reverse link that is used to inform the base station of the rate that the AT is transmitting.

5.2.3 Forward and Reverse Link Limitations


5 - 6

Depending upon the market strategy, environment, and/or cost, sector coverage may be either reverse (uplink) -or forward (downlink)-limited. Generally, the limiting factor for uplink-and downlink-limited designs is the limitation of the transmitted power. In 1xEV-DO, the cell radius is essentially limited by the AT transmit power.
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Reverse Link Budget Analysis

RF Coverage and Capacity

Therefore, a uplink-limited design approach is recommended where reversed link budget analysis is conducted first to determine the reverse link maximum path loss for a given data rate at the cell perimeter. When considering the reverse link budget, the signal power level received at the base station from an AT located anywhere throughout over 90% of the sector coverage area must be sufficient to provide an acceptable quality. Subsequently, a forward link budget analysis is required to determine if the footprint of coverage established by the reverse link budget can be supported. When considering the forward link budget, the transmit signal power level at the cell perimeter must be sufficient to provide an acceptable signal quality at a predefined data rate over 90% of the sector coverage perimeter.

5.2.4 Maximum Path Loss Components

The reverse link budget analysis is performed to compute the maximum allowable path loss between the Access Terminal (AT) transmit antenna and the cell site receive antenna. If forward link analysis indicates that the forward link can support performance at the same loss, the maximum path loss can be used on a market-by-market basis in the RF design. This design process employs algorithms that map loss into cell radii via consideration of local variables such as tower height, terrain, and clutter. The allowed point-to-point path loss is determined by considering the terms that dictate net loss from the AT to the cell. Components of the net loss are indicated in Figure 5-1.

Antenna Gain Maximum Pathloss

Cable Loss

Access Terminal EIRP Receiver Sensitivity (Smin)

Vegetation Buildings Penetration Loss

Figure 5-1
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5.2.4.1 Maximum Path Loss Calculation

The terms characterizing the net loss are captured in the following relation:
Equation 5-1 Xmax PL HL fade ( BL + VL ) + AG CL 10 log ( Smin )

where: Xmax = Maximum AT transmit power (EIRP) out of the antenna (in dBm) HL = Head and body loss (in dB) BL+VL = Building and vegetation (and other) penetration loss (in dB) PL = Average path loss between AT antenna and cell site antenna (in dB) fade = Fade at AT location (in dB) AG = Cell site antenna gain (in dBi) CL = Cell site cable loss (in dB) Smin = Base station receiver sensitivity (in mW, converts to dBm).

The maximum AT transmit power (Xmax) must be sufficient to overcome the maximum path loss so that the signal power received at the base station transmit I/O port J4 port (antenna connector) is equal to or exceeds the base station receiver sensitivity, Smin. The above expression is rewritten for the allowed maximum dB path loss. This value dictates the edge (boundary) of the cell coverage.
Equation 5-2 PL Xmax HL fade ( BL + VL ) + AG CL 10 log ( Smin )

The above expression can be viewed as constructing the allowed maximum path loss as a dB sum of credits (e.g., AT transmit power) and deficits (e.g., cable loss). This dB process is captured in the reverse link budget.

5.2.4.1.1 Maximum AT Transmit Power


The Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) or Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the power out of the antenna. It is the sum (in dB) of the AT transmit power and the AT antenna gain. The difference between EIRP and ERP is 2.15dB. Table 5-1 shows the maximum transmit power for 850 MHz and 1900 MHz as defined by the standard.

Table 5-1

Maximum AT Transmit Power

Frequency Band[MHz]
850 1900

Maximum AT EIRP [dBm]


25 23

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5.2.4.1.1.1

Shadow Fading

The uplink maximum path loss is the maximum loss in signal strength permitted as an AT signal is propagated outward in space. As illustrated in Figure 5-1, in an actual application, the AT signal does not always travel in free space, and the propagation path between transmitter and receiver will be obstructed. Losses attributed to obstructions in the signal propagation path are referred to as shadow fading or slow fading losses, which results in the scatter of the received signal strength at a fixed distance from the cell site. The obstructions, primarily from tall buildings and heavy vegetation, cast RF shadows on the paths leading away from the AT. Other losses are body losses; the user may be positioned between the AT and base station antenna. Normally, the shadow paths are not completely darkened due to RF signal reflection from other surrounding buildings. Signal reflection from a large number of buildings, which is typical in an urban environment, causes random in-phase reinforcement and interference with the RF signal. Reflected signals may reinforce each, producing a gain. As a result, the actual path loss or gain at any point in such an environment will vary as a function of the predictable path loss and unpredictable shadow fading loss.

5.2.5 Reverse Link Budget

The objective of reverse link budget analysis is to calculate the maximum uplink path loss value permitted that will result in a quality signal at the receiver. The result of this calculation is a dBi value that represents the maximum path loss attenuation (with respect to an isotropic antenna) an AT transmitted signal is permitted to encounter as the AT user travels away from the base station. If the AT user continues to travel away from the base station, assuming that there are no candidate sectors able to accept a handoff, the maximum path loss value is exceeded, and the received signal quality will be diminished to a point that the call is dropped. A typical link budget analysis form for 90% area coverage at different data rates is shown in Table 5-2. By accounting for sources of path loss, noise interference, and margins for specified signal quality and loading, which is the amount of traffic on a carrier, as well as sources for signal gains, the maximum allowable path loss for the reverse link can be determined. After the maximum allowable path loss is determined, its value is inserted into a propagation model or propagation tool to determine the cell radius for a given quality. There are many propagation models and tools available, which address a variety of environmental and geographic situations and base station antenna heights.

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Table 5-2

PCS Reverse Link Budget Spreadsheet

Line

Item

Units

3G-1X 1xEV-DO Traffic Channel Rate (kbps) (for comparison) 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6
21 21 21 21 21 21

Comments

Maximum Transmitted power per traffic channel at antenna port Transmitter Antenna Gain Transmitter EIRP per traffic channel Body/head loss Receiver Antenna Gain Receiver Cable and Connector Losses Receiver Noise Figure Receiver Noise Density Receiver Interference Margin Total Effective Noise plus Interference Density Information Rate (10log(Rb) Required Eb/Nt Receiver sensitivity

dBm

dBi

dBm

23

23

23

23

23

23

c = a+b

d e

dB dBi

2 18

0 18

0 18

0 18

0 18

0 18

No body loss for data Assuming three sector antennas Typical value

dB

dB

See Section 5.2.5.3.1

dBm/Hz

-174

-174

-174

-174

-174 -

174

See Section 5.2.5.3.2

dB

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

Assume 72% loading

dBm/Hz

-164.5

-164.5

-164.5 -164.5 -164.5 -164.5 j =g+h+I

dB

39.8

39.8

42.8

45.8

48.9

51.9

See Section 5.2.5.4.2

l m

dB dBm

4 -120.9

4.5

3.6 -115.3

3.2

See Section 5.2.5.5

-118.9 -117.3

-112.8 -108.0 m=j+k+l+correction

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Table 5-2

PCS Reverse Link Budget Spreadsheet (continued)

Line

Item

Units

3G-1X 1xEV-DO Traffic Channel Rate (kbps) (for comparison) 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6
4 4 4 4 4 4

Comments

Soft Hand-off Gain

dB

95% area coverage case, only applicable to soft handoff regions

Explicit diversity Gain Log-normal fade margin

dB

dB

10.3

10.3

10.3

10.3

10.3

10.3

Assuming 8 dB standard deviation of fading, 90% edge coverage = 95% area coverage Customer input, 0 here for comparison of on-street coverage

Building/Vehicle Penetration Loss

dB

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Maximum Path Loss w/respect to isotropic antennas

dBi

150.6

150.6

149.0

147.0

144.5

139.7 r=c-d-m+e-f+o+n-p-q

The reverse link analysis form presented in Table 5-2 is a standard form used for IS-95 and 3G-1X. A closer look at the uplink link budget analysis form shows 18 items numbered a through r. These are all of the items that should be accounted for when computing the maximum path loss, which is listed as Item r. Except for Items b, k, and l, the values entered for each item are much the same values that can be entered, regardless of whether the link budget is prepared for IS-95, 3G-1X, or 1xEV-DO. To illustrate this, the link budget values for 3G-1X voice is also shown. When used for 1xEV-DO, signal gain and loss may be more apparent in some items, such as Items a through f, than others. Item d, Body/head Loss, is only applicable to voice mobiles which are held against the users ear, and is used to account for the possibility that the user may be between the mobile and the base station transmitting antenna.

5.2.5.1 Effective Isothropic Radiated Power (EIRP) 5.2.5.2 Receiver Antenna Gain Minus Cable and Connector Losses

Items a through g on the link budget analysis are a function of the equipment used. The AT effective isothropic radiated power (EIRP) is computed on line c and is equal to AT maximum transmit, Item a, plus the AT antenna gain, Item b. Gains and loses at the base station receiver are accounted for on line Items e through j. First, the receiver antenna gain, which is relative to an isotropic antenna and the receiver cable and connector losses, are entered as Items e and f. Ultimately, when the maximum path loss is computed for Item r, the
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receiver cable and connector loss is subtracted from the base station receiver antenna gain.

5.2.5.3 Total Effective Noise plus Interference Density

Next, the Total Effective Noise plus Interference Density, Item j, which is referred to as the receive noise floor, is computed by summing three noise/interference components: Receiver noise figure, Item g Receiver noise density, Item h Receiver interference margin, Item i.

Theoretically, a cell coverage area is primarily limited by the base station receiver sensitivity; that is, its ability to discriminate the signal from noise and interference. The noise refers to the noise floor of the base station receiver. Any component that increases the level of the receiver noise floor effectively reduces the cell radius by requiring a higher signal input level to the base station receiver, as shown in Figure 5-2.

Mobile Effective Radiated Power

Effective transmit power attenuated by path slope as distance increase

Maximum Path Loss

Receiver input power Required Margin Receiver noise floor Receiver noise

Power

Distance
r = cell coverage radius

Figure 5-2

Path Loss Slope

This figure shows the attenuation of the AT transmit effective radiated power as the distance increases. The AT transmit effected radiated power must exceed the path loss slope by a predetermined fade margin over the base station receiver noise floor. The predetermined fade margin is entered into the link budget form as Item p, and is discussed in Section 5.2.4.1.1.1.

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5.2.5.3.1 Receiver Noise Figure


The receiver noise figure is the noise generated by the receiver preamplifier. For the purpose of link budget analysis, this value is set to 4 dB.

5.2.5.3.2 Receiver Noise Density


The receive noise density of typical base station is derived from Boltzmans constant, which is 1.38 X 10-23 Joules/oKelvin (or Watts X Seconds). This value quantitates the thermo-kinetic energy of particles at a given temperature as a result of the random motion of its electrons. This random electron motion generates electrical noise that is directly proportional to the particle temperature; as the temperature increases, the noise level increases. Because the electron activity is truly random, the rms electrical noise power level is equally distributed throughout the frequency spectrum. Typically, it is 174 dBm/Hz, which is the internal noise density of a perfect amplifier at room temperature, assumed to be at 290 degrees Kelvin.

5.2.5.3.3 Receiver Interference Margin


The receiver interference margin, which is sometimes referred to as a loading margin or noise rise, accounts for signal interference from all other CDMA users on the same carrier. The link budget design must use a receiver interference margin to protect against too much coverage area shrinkage. Cell shrinkage occurs when, due to an increase in usage, the ATs in the coverage area must transmit at higher power level or lower data rate to overcome the increase in receiver interference. Effectively, the AT range is decreased, causing the cell coverage area to shrink. The receiver interference margin provides a built-in overlap to avoid the creation of holes resulting from shrinkage. The receiver interference margin is a function of the percentage of theoretical maximum capacity or pole capacity for the sector (refer to Figure 5-3).

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20 18 16

Noise Rise (dB)

14 12 10 8

6 5.5 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Percent Loading 70 80 72% 90 100

The receiver interference margin, sometimes referred to as loading margin, accounts for the interference contributed by other users in the environment. Here, the relationship between interference and percentage of loading is illustrated.

Figure 5-3

Determining Receiver Interference Margin

The pole capacity shows the maximum theoretical capacity at a specific quality objective. At maximum capacity, the coverage is, at its minimum, zero miles. This is because at maximum capacity, or 100% loading, the noise rise is so high that the AT does not have enough power to achieve the required signal level. Therefore, in order to have an appreciable coverage, a load factor is introduced.The load factor selected is a function of the percentage of the pole capacity that the service provider is willing to trade off for coverage. Figure 5-3 shows that as the load factor increases from zero to 100 percent, the total noise level will increase from zero dB to infinity. When designing a system, an engineering or policy decision is made in determining what load factor to use. Whenever a load factor is selected, its associated interference level must be accounted for in the link budget. If the load factor is too low, capacity is sacrificed; if it is too high, coverage is sacrificed. A good place to start is in the fairly linear region between 50 and 75 percent. Because of its faster power control and uplink pilot channel, 3G systems are tolerant of a little more noise, and the load factor can be set closer to the 75 percent region. Typically, 72 percent corresponds to a noise rise of 5.5 dB.

5.2.5.4 Receiver Sensitivity

As stated in the previous section, the base station receiver sensitivity is the receivers ability to discriminate the signal from noise and interference. Specifically, in reference to the CDMA link budget analysis form, receiver sensitivity, entered as link budget Item m, can be regarded as a parameter that determines the power (in dBm) required at the input of the CDMA receiver to maintain a desired frame error rate (FER). This power level is equal to the power level at the base station antenna plus the antenna gain less the antenna cable and connector loss:
Equation 5-3
S mim = Pant + G ant L cab

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

where:

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Smin = Receiver input power levelPant = Base station antenna gain input power level from a single ATGant = Base station antenna gainLcab = Antenna cable and connector loss.

5.2.5.4.1 Smin Signal Quality


The quality of the Smin signal is determined by its signal-to-noise ratio. In CDMA, this ratio is expressed as energy per bit divided by the total ambient noise and interference level (Eb/Nt, commonly pronounced as eb-no). The energy per bit is calculated by dividing the receive power, Smin, which expressed in Joules/second rather than watts, by the data bit rate, R:
Prcv ( Joules ) ( sec ond ) Eb = --------- = ----------------------------------------------- = ( Joules ) ( Bit ) R ( bit ) ( sec ond )

Equation 5-4

The noise refers to the receiver noise floor calculated for Item j. The receiver sensitivity must also account for signal bit levels above the RF ambient noise level, which is computed as energy per bit divided by the total ambient noise and interference level (Eb/Nt) and the receive data rate, and is computed by summing Items j through l.

5.2.5.4.2 Information Rate (10logRb), Item k


Item k is an attenuation value to compensate for the various reverse link data rates. The higher the data, the greater the number of bits transmitted per unit of time, consuming a greater portion of the AT finite transmit power, and therefore reducing the AT transmit range. To account for this reduction in range, an information rate attenuation value is entered for Item k and is computed by taking ten times the log of the data rate. For example, when designing a cell for a reverse link data rate of 38.4, the information rate value is 45.8 dB (10 X log 38.4 = 45.8). When designing a new system, one that will not be overlaid on an existing system, the desired data rate at the cell should be determined at this time.

5.2.5.5 Required Eb/Nt, Item l

The quality of the signal received at the base station is determined by the strength of the carrier signal level (that is, its bit energy) above the noise and, more importantly, interference levels. As stated earlier in this chapter, in CDMA the signal to noise relationship is measured as the bit energy bit-to-total noise ratio, or Eb/Nt. The larger the Eb/Nt value, the higher the signal quality. In 1xEV-DO, the signal quality can be measured by the packet error rate (PER), which is the percentage of packet that must be transmitted because its data could not be recovered.The disadvantage of transmitting at a high Eb/Nt value is that it consumes more AT battery power; however, even worse, it creates a higher-level of RF interference to other users in the environment. Therefore, the design objective is to create a system that requires the lowest Eb/Nt value for a target PER. The required Eb/Nt for a given AT is a function of its mobility, the multipath environment, and target packet error rate (PER). The required Eb/Nt values listed in Table 5-3 are estimates at each data rate considering all the power the AT radiates. This includes the power from the non-traffic channels such as DRC, pilot/RRI, and ACK channels. The Eb/Nt values are based on link layer simulations

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Table 5-3 Reverse Link Required Eb/Nt Values

Required Eb/Nt (dB) Data Rate (kbps)


9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6

Mobility
6 4.5 3.6 3.2 6

Stationary
5 3.5 2.6 2.2 5

5.2.5.5.1 Vehicle Speed Effect on Eb/Nt Value


Higher Eb/Nt values are required when the AT is operating from a moving vehicle because shadow or slow fading, discussed in Section 5.2.4.1.1.1, will occur more frequently when the AT is motion. In 1xEV-DO, the effect of shadow fading is minimized in two ways: fast power control and bit interleaving. The relationship between vehicle speed and Eb/Nt value is shown in Figure 5-4.

Eb/No Level

Speed

Figure 5-4

Relationship Between Vehicle Speed and Eb/Nt Value

5.2.5.5.1.1

Effect of Power Control at Low Vehicle Speeds

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

At low vehicle speeds, the AT reaction to the base station power control is fast enough to respond to most shadow fading conditions. In addition, the AT is more likely to remain in a multipath environment for a longer period to help maintain a low bit error rate (BER). As the vehicle speed increases modesly, a worst- case condition is approached at speeds between anarrow range.
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5.2.5.5.1.2

Effect of Bit Interleaving at High Vehicle Speeds

At higher vehicle speeds, the fast fading durations are smaller, enabling better data recovery from bit interleaving. Bit interleaving is operated in conjunction with the turbo coder. The turbo coder uses convolution coding, which is very effective for recovering from corrupted bits scattered over the received bit stream. However, during a fade, a cluster of consecutive transmitted bits are corrupted, rendering turbo coding ineffective. To prevent fading from rendering turbo coding ineffective, bit interleaving is performed by the AT after turbo coding. As a result, the stream of data bits to be transmitted is pseudorandomly scattered out of sequence. If a fade is encountered, resulting in the corruption of a burst of consecutive transmitted bits, when the bit stream is deinterleaved at the receiver, rather than being clustered together, the corrupted bits will be scattered throughout the de-interleaved bit stream, enabling turbo coding recovery of the transmitted message. The duration of the fast fade primarily depends on the vehicle speed. If the fade is too long, a large number of corrupted bits are created so that even after de-interleaving, consecutive corrupted bits remain in the bit stream to lower the turbo coding efficiency. The duration of the fade will shorten as the vehicle speed increases, thus increasing the turbo coder data recovery efficiency. Therefore, at higher vehicle speeds, the required Eb/Nt value will decrease.

5.2.5.5.2 Data Rate Effect on Eb/Nt Value


The required Eb/Nt includes power from channels other than traffic channel such as pilot, DRC, and ACK channels, and represents the total amount of power required to transmit traffic information. The higher data rates have lower Eb/Nt requirements because the Pilot, DRC, and ACK channels occupy a lower percentage of overhead relative to the traffic channel as the rate increases. However, at the 153.6 kbps rate, the Eb/Nt requirement is higher due to the weaker turbo coding rate used at this data rate. The code rate identifies the ratio of the number of information bits to the total number of information bits plus overhead correction bits transmitted. To achieve the higher data rate, a code rate is used for 153.6 kbps transmission versus the code rate used for 9.6, 19.3, 38.4, and 76.4 kbps data rates. This means that at the 153.6 kbps data rate, each information bit is sent twice instead of four times as with the lower data rates. The lower repetition rate at the 153.6 data rate offers fewer opportunities for turbo bit correction, therefore requiring transmission at a higher Eb/Nt value.

5.2.5.6 Soft Handoff Gain

Soft handoff occurs in the soft handoff zone, which is the outer edge of two or more cells as the AT moves from the domain of one base station to the domain of another. In AMPS and TDMA, the signal received from the cell outer edge is the weakest, and their link budgets reflect this weakness through the increase in the maximum path loss value, thus reducing the cell coverage radius. The opposite is true in CDMA. When an AT enters the soft handoff zone, a signal gain is experienced because the AT is communicating with the two or more base stations that share the soft handoff zone. The overall effect of an AT operation at the cell outer edge is to reduce the maximum path loss value, allowing a lower Eb/Nt per link value for the same coverage area.

Therefore, there is an advantage due to soft handoff that results in effectively lowering the fade margin required to obtain a specific probability of edge ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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coverage, as compared to other technologies. For a CDMA system that admits soft handoff, for any given reverse frame, the better or alternatively stronger of two or more base stations reception will be utilized at the frame selector, typically at the switching center. Assuming an 8 dB standard deviation and 50% partially correlated two-way handoff, the soft handoff gain numerically works out to approximately 4 dB when edge coverage probability is 90 percent. Due to the soft handoff feature, the excess link margin requirement has dropped by 4 dB. This is the advantage due to soft handoff that results in increased coverage.

5.2.5.7 Log-Normal Fade Margin, Item p

The effect of shadow fading is shown in Figure 5-5. The X axis is expressed as 10 times the log of the distance in miles, therefore the 0 point on the graph represents a 1 mile distance from the antenna and the -3 point is one-half mile from the antenna. The mean value line shows that as the distance from the antenna increases the path loss increases. At any given distance, there is a significant variation in the path loss about its mean value. A change in receiver position by a meter can result in a change in path loss by as much as 20 dB. Such large changes in path loss typically occur when some obstacle (e.g., a building or a hill) obstructs the RF path. For example, in the data shown in Figure 5-5, the path loss at a distance of 2 miles; that is, at the horizontal axis value of 3 which is the log of 2, varies from as much as 147 dB to as low as 130 dB. The distribution of the path loss follows the log-normal distribution, with the standard deviation of typically 8 dB. As networks are designed using the mean path loss at a certain distance, it is necessary to factor in some margin for this variation in path loss to assure adequate signal strength. In the link budget, this term is called fade margin.

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+105 +110 +115 Propagation Loss (dB) +120 +125 +130 +135 +140 +145 +150 +155 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 x log(Distance in miles) Mean Path Loss

Figure 5-5

Propagation Loss

5.2.5.7.1 Fade Probability


The probability of 90 and 75 percent cell edge coverage vs. fade margin is given in Table 5-4. These values are derived from the standard tables of the normal distribution for the extra margin needed to obtain the desired probability of edge coverage.

Table 5-4

Probability Of Edge Coverage vs. Fade Margin

Probability of edge coverage

Probability of area coverage

Margin in terms of standard deviationof fading ()


1.28 0.67

Fade Margin for = 8dB [dB]

90% 75%

95% 90%

10.3 5.4

The above margin is interpreted in network design in the following way. Let us assume that 148.1 dB is the maximum median allowable path loss. If the median path loss of 148.1 dB is obtained after using a fading margin of 10.3
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dB, then from a design point of view, such a network would be expected to have a 90% probability of edge coverage, assuming the standard deviation is 8 dB. The above calculation of fading margin is independent of technology; it would apply to CDMA, AMPS, TDMA, and GSM systems.

5.2.5.8 Building/Ve-hicle Penetration Loss, Item q 5.2.5.9 Maximum Path Loss with Respect Isotropic Antennas, Item r

The building/vehicle penetration loss is the amount of attenuation introduced due to obstacles in the RF line-of-sight path. The AT transmit signal will be attenuated by the over-the-air attenuation, and also by the building/vehicle penetration loss and fading. These terms must be added to the reverse link over the air loss to provide the total attenuation the signal will experience. The over-the-air maximum allowable path loss for any particular reverse link data rate is calculated by subtracting and adding the following link budget items: r=c-d-m+e-f+o+n-p-q Considering that the maximum allowable path loss for 3G-1X voice service is 150.5 dBi, it is approximately the same value as the lowest data rates for 1xEV-DO, indicating that a 1xEV-DO cell can be overlaid directly over a 3G-1X cell. It is important to remember that the reverse link maximum allowable path loss is the maximum over the air path loss.

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5.3 Forward Link Budget Analysis


.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5.3.1 Introduction

Classically, the objective of forward link budget analysis is to ensure that the forward link has sufficient power to support the performance needed and the desired througput within the footprint established by the reverse link. In 1xEVDO, the forward link budget objective is to determine the percentage of the coverage area established by the reverse link maximum allowable path loss that can be achieved at each forward link data rate. As the data rate increases, the percentage of area covered decreases. The decreasing percentage of area covered at each data rate can be thought of as ever-smaller concentric rings of coverage, as shown in Figure 5-6. The outer-most (largest) ring represents over 95 percent of the cell footprint established by the reverse link, and is shaded to show the maximum cell coverage achieved when operating at the lowest forward data rate.The innermost ring (closest to the base station) is shaded to represent the highest data rates that can be achieved in the cell.

Data Bit Rates

38.4 kbps 76.8 kbps 156.6 kbps 307.3 kbps 614.4 kbps 921.6 kbps 1228.8 kbps 1843.2 kbps 2457.6 kbps

Figure 5-6

Percentage of Area Covered Vs. Data Rate

5.3.2 RF Conditions Evaluation by the AT

Unlike 3G-1X and IS-95, in 1xEV-DO the forward link is not code-shared to distinguish each user within the sector. Instead, the forward link transmit signal is dedicated to one user (at a time) on a time-shared basis. That is, the base station communicates on the forward link traffic channel with each user during its dedicated 1.667-millisecond time slot. To maximize the base station data throughput, the forward link traffic data is then transmitted at full power to a
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single AT selected by the scheduler algorithm. The transmit data rate is varied per user based on feedback from the users on the RF condition that the AT is experiencing. Essentially, the RF condition experienced by the AT is determined by how well the AT can recover the turbo-coded packet information. If because the AT moves away from the base station, the RF conditions deteriorate such that the AT cannot recover the turbo-coded packet information at the current data rate to maintain low BER, for the next time slot, the AT might request transmission at lower data rate.

5.3.3AT Minimum Performance Specification

The minimum performance specifications guide AT manufacturers on the required Eb/Nt values for each forward traffic channel data rate. The Eb/Nt values given in Table 5-5 are the values that are currently used for planning purposes. The minimum performance specifications for the two highest data rates (1843.2 and 2457.6 kbps) are derived from requirement and objective values. The Eb/Nt values given in this table for the two highest data rates are the linear average of their requirement and objective values.

Table 5-5

Required Traffic Channel Forward Link Eb/No Value


Data Rate (kbps)
38.4 76.8 153.5 307.2 614.4 921.6 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6

Required Traffic Channel Eb/No (dB)


2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.5* 10.5*

*Linear average of requirement and objective specification values

5.3.3.1 Forward Link Signaling Channel

The Eb/Nt values given in Table 5-5 are for forward link traffic channels, as opposed to forward link signaling channels, which are transmitted at the 76.8 kbps data rate. Rather that waiting for optimum RF conditions to transmit on the traffic channels, data transmission on the signaling channels occur at fixed schedule intervals. Because the signal channels may not be transmitted during optimum RF conditions, the required Eb/Nt level for signaling channels may be higher than the level required for traffic channels. The Eb/Nt values listed in Table 5-5 are kept to minimum levels by relying on the data recovery techniques defined in the Physical Layer to correct bit errors resulting from the low required Eb/Nt level. In other words, reliable data transmission is not only dependent on meeting the required Eb/Nt value, but is also dependent on bit recovery techniques such as turbo coding redundancy and the transmission
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5.3.3.2 Different Repetition Factors

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repetition factor that may vary at different data rates. Even though the required Eb/Nt values for data rates 38.4 through 614.4 kbps are the same (2.5 dB), bear in mind that the Physical Layer specifies different repetition factors for each data rate in the form of the number time slot periods required to transfer each data packet. For example, at the 38.4-kbps data rate, 1024-bit packets are turbo-coded at a 1/5 code rate, producing 5120 bits (1024 X 5). The 5120 bits are QPSK-modulated, resulting in 2560 2-bit symbols per packet. At the 38.4-kbps data rate, the information in each packet is transmitted to the AT over 16 time slot periods. Each slots contains 1600 chips for data, so 16 slots contain 25600 chips for data. At this data rate, 1024 of those chips are used for preamble, leaving 24576 chips for data. Therefore, the repetition factor is 9.6 (24576/2560), which mean that the 2560-bit data parcel can be transmitted 9.6 times within the allotted 16 slots. When transmitting at the 76.8-kbps data rate, a 1024-bit-packet, which is also turbo-coded at a 1/5 code rate, is also QPSK-modulated, resulting in 2560 symbols to be transmitted. However, when transmitting at 76.8 kbps, the preamble size is reduced to 512 chips, and the packet is transmitted to the AT over an 8-time slot period. Therefore, at 1600 chips per time slot, 12800 chips less 512 chips are used for data, resulting in a 4.8 [(12800-512)/2560] repetition factor. Therefore, when reducing the transmission data rate from 76.8 kbps to 38.4 kbps, the repetition factor is doubled, decreasing the AT bit error rate (BER).

5.3.3.3 Link Budget Calculation

The calculation for the 1xEV-DO forward link budget begins by determining the percentage of the coverage area, derived from the reverse link, that can be achieved at each forward link data rate. At any particular forward traffic channel data rate, the Eb/Nt value at the AT receiver antenna port must be equal to or greater than the required traffic Eb/Nt value specified for that data rate in Table 5-5. The value specified in this table for any data rate is represented as d in the following expression:
Equation 5-5
Eb -----d Nt

The energy per bit can be expressed in term of the AT receive power from its host or serving sector (Phost) divided by the bit rate. The total noise and interference is the product of the receiver noise figure and the thermo noise density, plus the power within the bandwidth of interest from the neighboring sectors. The expression then becomes:
Equation 5-6
P host R --------------------------------------------d F N o + Pother W

where:

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R = Data ratePhost = Power from serving base stationF = Base station receiver noise figureNo = Thermo noise densityPother = Power from neighboring sectorsW = Bandwidth which is reduced to account for traffic slots (~75% of total slots). If the numerator and denominator are multiplied by W and processing gain g, which is the data rate R divided by the bandwidth, W, is substituted, the following is obtained:
Equation 5-7
g Phost Phost R W - = ------------------------------------------------- d ---- ---------------------------------------------W F N o + P other W W F N o + P other

The interference from neighboring sector (Pother) can be expressed in terms of the serving cell power (Phost) by using the forward link interference ratio (f) as follows:
Equation 5-8

Pother = f Phost
Then, Equation 5-7 is rewritten to eliminate Pother by using the forward link interference ratio. The following expression, which is the essence of forward link budget analysis, is obtained:

g Phost d FN oW + f Phost

Equation 5-9

5.3.4 Forward Link Budge Spreadsheet

A sample of the forward link budgets spreadsheet is given in Table 5-6. The derivation (and interrelationship) of the item values is each column is given in the Comment column. The spreadsheet is divided into five categories for the purpose of the following discussion: Transmit Power Calculation AT Receive Power Total Interference AT Receiver Sensitivity Coverage.

The values given in this spreadsheet are calculated to balance the forward link to a reverse link supporting a data rate of 9.6 kbps. This done to provide the same coverage footprint as in IS-95 and 3G-1X which is very much desired when collocated 1xEV-DO with IS-95 and 3G-1X. Therefore, a reverse link path loss of 150.6 dBi (Item r, Table 5-2) is used for Item 5. The objectives of this section are to introduce and describe the major factors that must be considered when calculating the link budgets governing base station coverage and signal quality for the forward link paths. Although the forward link analysis spreadsheet for 1xEV-DO differs from the analysis spreadsheet for 3G-1X and IS-95, the underlying principles and calculation parameters remain the same. One fundamental difference is that the
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base station transmit power does not have to be shared among all the users in the sector. Forward link budget analysis is performed by accounting for the base station transmit signal gains and losses or attenuation in much the same way that the gains and losses or attenuation of the AT transmit signal are accounted for during reverse link budget analysis.

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Table 5-6

Forward Link Budget Spreadsheet for PCS Band

Item

Description

Units
38.4 76.8

Traffic Channel Rate (kbps)


153.6 307.2 614.4 921.6 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6

Comments

Transmit Power calculations


1 Total available power at J4 Cell site Cable Loss Cell site Transmit Antenna Gain EIRP dBm 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 16 Watt amplifier

dB

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

Typical

dBi

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0 Typical 3-sector

dBm

57.0

57.0

57.0

57.0

57.0

57.0

57.0

57.0

57.0 = Items 1 - 2 + 3

AT Receive Power
5 Path loss from reverse link dBi 150.6 150.6 150.6 150.6 150.6 150.6 150.6 150.6 150.6 Include building/vehicle penetration 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Typical

AT Antenna Gain Pathloss slope Delta pathloss for coverage area AT receive user power at full rate from base station

dB

7 8

dB/Dec dB

38.5 0.0

38.5 0.0

38.5 -0.4

38.5 -2.1

38.5 -5.3

38.5 -8.8

38.5 -12.8

38.5 -19.6

38.5 Typical vale -28.8 = Item7x log Item 21

dBm

-91.6 -91.6

-91.2

-89.5 -86.3

-82.8

-78.8

-72.0

-62.8 = Items 4 -5 +6 +7

Total Interference
10 Ratio of mean other sector interference to host sector power Other cell/sector interference dB 9.5 8.3 5.2 2.2 -0.8 -3.5 -6.3 -10.5 -14.8 From geometry distribution based on area coverage

11

dBm

-82.1 -83.3

-86.0

-87.3 -87.1

-86.3

-85.1

-82.5

-77.6 = Items 9 + 10

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Table 5-6

Forward Link Budget Spreadsheet for PCS Band

Item

Description

Units
38.4 76.8

Traffic Channel Rate (kbps)


153.6 307.2 614.4 921.6 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6

Comments

12 13

AT Noise Figure Thermal Noise Density

dB

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

9.0

Typical (F)

dBm/Hz -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 -174.0 (No=KT)

14

Total Thermal dBm/Hz -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 -165.0 = Items 12 + 13 Noise Power/Hz Effective Traffic ChannelSpreadi ng Bandwidth Total thermal noise power Total interference to traffic channel dBHz 60.9 60.9 60.9 60.9 60.9 60.9 60.9 60.9 60.9 (W)

15

16

dBm

-104.1 -104.1 -104.1 -104.1 -104.1 -104.1 -104.1 -104.1 -104.1 = Items 14 + 15 (NoWF) -82.1 -83.2 -85.9 -87.2 -87.0 -86.2 -85.0 -82.5 77.6

17

dBm

AT Receiver Sensitivity
18 19 Processing Gain Calculated Traffic Channel Eb/Nt Required traffic Eb/No Probability of coverage dB dB 13.8 4.3 10.8 2.5 7.8 2.5 4.8 2.5 1.8 2.5 0.1 3.5 -1.3 5.0 -3.0 7.5 -4.3 10.5 = Items 18 + 9 - 17

20

dB

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

3.5

5.0

7.5

10.5

21

>95

>95

95

78

53

35

22

10

5.3.4.1 Transmit Power Calculation

To maximize the forward link data rate, the base station always transmits at full power to users within the sector on a time-share basis. The base station effective isothropic radiated power (EIRP) per traffic channel, which is computed in Item 4 of the forward link analysis spreadsheet, and is equal to the base station total power available at J4, Item 1, less cell cable loss, Item 2, plus cell transmit antenna gain, Item 3.

The AT receive power is equal to the reverse link path loss less the base station effective isothropic radiated power (EIRP) per traffic channel, computed in Item 4, plus a delta path loss. The delta path loss value is a correction factor to adjust the reverse link path loss as a function of the probability of coverage (Item 20). The reverse link path loss represents the total path loss to the cell outer boundary which, when considering the probability of coverage in the forward link, particularly at higher data rates (refer to Figure 5-6), may be ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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considerably larger than the path loss experienced in the forward link. Therefore, the reverse link path loss must be adjusted by the delta path loss (Item 8) correction factor to account for the reduction in area coverage as the data rate increases.

5.3.4.2.1 Determining the Delta Pathloss Value


Before the delta path loss (Item 8) correction factor can be calculated, the probability of coverage (Item 21) in the forward link must be determined for each forward link data rate. It is important to realize that the probability of coverage in this forward link budget has a different meaning than the probability of area/edge coverage in the reverse link. The reverse link budget results in a maximum allowable path loss for a given probability of area/edge coverage and is a function of the fade margin. In the forward link, the probability of coverage, which is the bottom line of the forward link budget, is a function of both the interference ratio and the path loss that varies with data rate. As illustrated in Figure 5-6, the forward link probability of coverage represents the percentage of area that is expected to achieve the desired data rate.

Important! Key to developing the link budget is understanding that the Probability of Area Coverage (Item 21) can be varied until the Calculated Traffic Eb/(No + Io) value (Item 19) is equal to or greater than the Required Traffic Eb/Nt value (Item 20).
The primary factor that determines the base station maximum range at a given data rate is the AT received Eb/Nt level at that range, which must be equal to or greater than the required Eb/Nt level listed for the data rate in Table 5-5. Key in determining the Probability of Coverage (Item 21) is to vary its value on the link budget spreadsheet until the Calculated Traffic Channel Eb/(No + Io) (Item 19) value is equal to or greater than the Required Traffic (Item 20).

5.3.4.2.2 Computing Delta Pathloss for Coverage Area


After the probability of coverage is determined the Delta Pathloss for Coverage Area (Item 8) can be computed by multiplying the log of square root of Item 21, expressed as a decimal, by the Pathloss Slope (Item 7) value. The pathloss slope is generally expressed in dB per decade (dB/Dec), which means that the RF signal strength will decrease at a fixed number of dBs as the distance between transmitter and receiver increases by a factor of 10. The expression, dB per decade, represents a fixed slope indicating the exponential rate at which signal strength decreases as the distance between transmitter and receiver increases. The delta path loss is concerned with radius of the reduced coverage area, which, proportional to square root of the area. Therefore, the delta path loss is calculated by multiplying the Pathloss Slope (Item 7) value by log of the square root of Probability of Coverage (Item 21).

5.3.4.3 Total Interference

The calculation for Total Interference on the Traffic Channel (Item 17) is divided into two parts: Calculation of the Interference from Other Cells/Sectors, Item 11 Calculation of the Total Thermal Noise Power, Item 16.

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The Interference from Other Cells/Sectors (Item 11) is greater than Total Thermal Noise Power (Item 15), which is typically small compared to cell interference levels.
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Therefore, the Total Interference on the Traffic Channel (Item 17) is fundamentally equal to Item 11.

5.3.4.3.1 Interfering from Other Cells/Sectors


As stated in Section 5.3.3.3, the interference from other cells/sectors may be expressed in terms of forward link interference ratio (f), which is equal to the power from the interfering sectors divided by the power in the serving sector or Pother/Phost. Therefore, the value for the other cell interference is calculated by multiplying the serving cell signal power by a forward link interference ratio (f X Phost). The interference ratio can be determined by offline simulations that provide a cumulative distribution function (CDF) curve. The CDF curve identifies distribution Geometry over the area of the sector for a n-section cell, and will vary based on a number of parameters governing a particular deployment strategy. The simulations may be performed to examine the interference Geometry (G), which is simply the power from the serving sector divided by the sum of the thermal noise power and power from the interfering sectors:
Equation 5-10

G=

Phost FNoW + Pother

The simulations studied the interference-limited case where FNoW << Pother; therefore, the geometry can be simplified to:
Equation 5-11

P 1 G host = Pother f
Geometry simulations include random fading; therefore, no separate fade margin needs to be included in the forward link budget. Also, the simulations calculated the Geometry from the best serving cell. This situation models the 1xEV-DO virtual soft handoff, so no separate soft handoff gain term is required in the forward link budget. The CDF curve will plot percentage of CDF on the vertical against G, in dB, on the horizontal. Because the Geometry (G) is the inverse of the interference ratio (f), the points that correspond to the probability of coverage percentage are the reciprocal of the CDF percentile. For example, the points that correspond to a 90% probability of coverage are above the 10% point on the CDF axis. For a particular Geometry, the value corresponding to the 10% point on the CDF axis is -4 dB, which corresponds to a +4 dB interference ratio (f). For an interference-limited situation, where FNoW << fPhost, the basic forward link equation shown in Equation 5-10 is simplifies to:
Equation 5-12

g d
which in dB terms is written as:
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Equation 5-13

g f d
This means that the processing gain (g) less the interference ratio (f) must be equal to or greater than the required Eb/Nt value for a given probability of coverage. The determination of the interference ratio (f) value can be used to evaluate edge coverage for the different data rates. For example, if the Geometry- indicated interference ratio (f) values are 4 dB and 5.5 dB for 90 and 95 percent coverage, respectively, the g - f values for 90 and 95 percent coverage can be evaluated at each data rate as shown in Table 5-7.

Table 5-7Edge Coverage For Interference Limited Case

Data Rate(kbps )

Required Eb/Nt (dB)

Processing Gain (dB)

g - f

Covered at edge for interference limited case 90% area coverage


Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No

90% area case


38.4 76.8 153.6 307.2 614.4 921.6 1228.8 1843.2 2457.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.5 10.5 13.8 10.8 7.8 4.8 1.8 0.1 -1.25 -3.0 -4.26 9.8 6.8 3.8 0.8 -2.2 -3.9 -5.25 -7.0 -8.26

95% area case


8.3 5.3 2.3 -0.7 -3.7 -5.4 -6.75 -8.5 -9.76

95% area coverage


Yes Yes No No No No No No No

The calculated g - f values for each data rate are then entered as the Ratio of Mean Other Sector Interference to Host Sector Power (Item 10) on the link budget spreadsheet. This value is then added to Item 9 to determine the Other Cell/Sector Interference, Item 11.

5.3.4.3.2 Total Thermal Noise Power


The thermal noise power in the base station receiver is determined in the same manner as the AT thermal noise power in the reverse link budget. First the Total
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Thermal Noise Power Per Hz (Item 14) is calculated by summing the internal noise density of a perfect amplifier at room temperature (290 degrees Kelvin), which is typically is -174 dBm/Hz, with the AT noise figure, which is 9.0 dB. Item 16 converts Item 14, which is power per Hz (dBm/Hz) to a power value by adding the value of Item 14 to 60.9 dBHz, which is the Effective Traffic Channel Spreading Bandwidth (Item 15).

5.3.4.3.3 Total Interference on the Traffic Channel


The Total Interference on the Traffic Channel, Item 17, which is the sum of Items 11 and 16, is computed by summing the inverse log of both values. Because the noise component of Item 16 is usually considerably smaller than the noise component of Item 11, the value of Item 17 is usually essentially equal to the value of Item 11.

5.3.4.4 Forward Link Receiver Sensitivity

The last computation shown on the forward link spreadsheet given in Table 5-6 determines the Calculated Traffic Channel Eb/Nt value listed in Item 19. This value must be equal to or greater than the Required Eb/Nt value given in Table 5-5, which is listed for reference as Item 20 for each data rate. The value of Item 19 is computed by multiplying the AT receive signal power from the serving sector (Item 9) by the Processing Gain (Item 18) and dividing the product by the Total Interference on the Traffic Channel (Item 17). Because these values are in dB and dBm, this computation is performed by subtracting Item 17 from the sum of Items 9 and 18.

5.1 Capacity Overview


5.3.5 Introduction
In addition to knowing how large a geographical area a base station can cover, a network planner must know how much traffic can be supported. This section discusses the 1xEV-DO system capacity. Because of the fundamental differences in how the reverse and forward links operate, capacity analysis for the two links is completely different. The reverse link is analyzed in a method similar to voice systems and results in a maximum number of simultaneous users. The forward link is analyzed in a manner more similar to 3G-1X data services, and results in per-sector throughput. It is important to keep in mind that the capacity values presented here represent average values that are intended to be useful in system planning. Actual performance in 1xEV-DO systems will vary from sector to sector as well as from network to network. Capacity in CDMA systems is a soft value that can be traded off against coverage and Quality of Service.

5.3.6Capacity/Covera ge Trade-off

To maintain quality service throughout the coverage area, a capacity-coverage trade-off must be considered when designing a terrestrial system. Because every transmitting AT creates interference for every other AT, for a given level of quality, as the capacity increases, the coverage area decreases. In order to maintain the minimum acceptable Eb/Nt at the base station, when capacity increases, the increase in interference causes all of the ATs in the coverage area to increase their transmitting power. Those ATs transmitting from the cell outer parameter at or near full power may not be able to increase

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their transmit power sufficiently to bring their Eb/Nt level at the base station up to the minimum acceptable level. As a result, the call from these ATs will be dropped. Effectively, the higher capacity causes the cell coverage area to shrink. The upper limit of sector capacity is reached when, in addition to shrinking, any new AT call, regardless of position, does not have enough power to overcome the level of interference generated by current ATs, and the current ATs do not have enough power to overcome the additional interference that would be generated by a new call. The upper limit is influenced by any factor that varies the level of signal and/or interference at the base station. For example, a heavily loaded neighbor cell will increase the level of interference and lower the base station capacity. The amount of reverse link traffic activity will impact capacity because the AT restricts the output power when not transmitting. Capacity is also impacted by soft handoff populations because the diversity gain inherent in the use of multiple receivers allows the ATs to reduce their transmit power. The many factors influencing CDMA capacity give rise to a desirable flexibility in system operation. The dependence on interference levels means that a cell capacity is inherently dynamic; i.e., a base station can naturally absorb more users if neighboring cells are lightly loaded. In addition, the system can naturally exploit the reduced levels of interference generated by low traffic activity. When the capacity decreases, the overall interference level also decreases, and the coverage area will expand. The shrinking and expanding of the cell coverage area is known as cell breathing. To compensate for cell shrinkage of coverage areas, base stations may be spaced so that the footprint of adjacent sectors overlap each other to avoid dropped calls when usage increases.

5.3.7 Pole Capacity

System design must use a loading margin to protect against too much coverage area shrinkage. The loading margin provides a built-in overlap to avoid the creation of holds resulting from shrinkage. The loading margin is a function of the percentage of a pole capacity for the sector. The pole capacity is the theoretical maximum number of users served by a single carrier on a cell, and is a function of the traffic channel activity factor (), the processing gain (g), and the interference ratio (). At this maximum capacity (pole capacity), the coverage is at its minimum, zero miles. This is because at maximum capacity, or 100% loading, the noise rise is so high that other than being next to the cell sites, the ATs cannot achieve the desired Eb/Nt level. Therefore, in order to have an appreciable coverage, a load factor is introduced. The load factor selected is a function of the percentage of the pole capacity that the service provider is willing to trade off for coverage. Figure 5-3, which is reproduced in Figure 5-7, shows that as the load factor increases from zero to 100 percent, which is the pole capacity, the total noise level will increase from zero dB to infinity. When designing a system, an engineering or policy decision is made in determining what load factor to use. Whenever a load factor is selected, its associated noise level must be accounted for in the reverse link budget (refer to Section 5.2.5.3.3). If the load factor is too low, capacity is sacrificed; if it is too high, coverage is sacrificed. A good place to start is in the fairly linear region between 50 and 75 percent. Because of its faster power control and its uplink pilot channel, 3G systems are tolerant of a little more noise than the IS-95 system, and the load factor can be set closer to the 75 percent region. It is expected that
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1xEV-DO will support loadings (percentage relative to pole point) similar to 3G1X, which currently is being designed for typical cases of 72% of pole point loading. In accordance with Figure 5-7, 72% corresponds to a noise rise of 5.5 dB.

20 18 16

Noise Rise (dB)

14 12 10 8

6 5.5 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Percent Loading 70 80 72% 90 100

The receiver interference margin, sometimes referred to as loading margin, accounts for the interference contributed by other users in the environment. Here, the relationship between interference and percentage of loading is illustrated.

Figure 5-7

Determining Receiver Interference Margin

5.3.7.1 Forward vs. Reverse Link

The reverse link is expected to support users with througput of up to one quarter of the forward link throughput. The reverse link can also be analyzed for a maximum number of simultaneous users, using a pole point analysis similar to a regular CDMA system. However, the result is dependent on traffic model assumptions. Also, the number of users the system can support must take the impact of the dormancy state. Much of the reverse link capacity is used for control information rather than user data. Because of the fundamental differences in how the reverse and forward links operate, capacity analysis for the two links is completely different. The reverse link is analyzed in a method similar to voice systems and results in a maximum number of simultaneous users. The maximum number of users is fixed at 59 by Walsh code limitations. This number can be reduced by a parameter inserted into the system EMS database. The forward link analysis results in per-sector throughput. Forward link capacity is expressed as an average sector throughput. A typical capacity that can be used for planning purposes is an average sector throughput in the range of 500 to 600 kbps.

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5.4 Reverse Link Capacity


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5.4.1 Introduction

The Pilot, RRI, and DRC Channels on the reverse link are transmitted continuously by every AT in the service area that is in the active state. This is true regardless of how little data the AT has to send. Therefore, the 1xEV-DO reverse link analysis is a hybrid between the approach taken for typical CDMA voice and data. The number of users that can be accommodated on the coverage area established by the reverse link budget analysis can be obtained by first determining the pole capacity. This number is then multiplied by the loading factor (typically 72%) used on the reverse link budget spreadsheet. The reverse link pilot channel chip energy (Ec) to noise (Nt) ratio can by used to derive a reverse pole capacity equation in terms of the maximum number of users at 100% pole capacity. The equation will be developed for a centrally embedded base station under idealized conditions assuming that power control acts to maintain a constant receiver power from all ATs in the service area. Under these conditions, the minimal reverse link pilot channel Ec/Nt value at the base station receiver for each reverse link signal equals the required pilot channel Ec/Nt, identified as d:
Equation 5-14
Ec ----= d N t Pilot

5.4.2 Pilot Channel Ec/Nt

5.4.2.1Spectral Noise Density

In the above equation, Ec/Nt is the ratio of pilot channel chip energy to total spectral noise density. The total spectral noise density is obtained by summing background thermal noise density (No), and the spectral density of broadband interference from all other CDMA users. The background thermal noise density must be adjusted by the base station noise figure (F). The spectral density of broadband interference from all other CDMA users is composed of contributions from users both within the cell and in other cells. Different users have different pilot channel Ec/Nt requirements to maintain a certain packet error rate (PER). For example, static users need less pilot channel Ec/Nt to maintain a PER of 1% as compared to users traveling at 3 m.p.h., and higher mobility users (about 30 m.p.h.) have different pilot channel Ec/Nt requirement as compared to low mobility and static cases. In the capacity derivation, we take a pilot channel Ec/Nt at the worst-case value. The range of required pilot channel Ec/Nt values at the cell site receiver is a slowly varying function of AT speed and multipath condition. The latter is determined by the number of paths that can be separately demodulated at the rake receiver. The range of possible values has been measured. Generally, a minimum of two multipaths can be assumed, because the diversity receive antennas employed at the cell site guarantee the presence of at least two paths. The narrow range of values within the two multipath cases permit the use of a worst-case value for all ATs without being overly conservative. The pilot channel Ec/Nt is proportional to pilot channel power (Ppilot) divided by the base station noise power, plus spectral density of broadband interference from all other CDMA users within the sector and neighboring sectors.

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5.4.2.1.1 Base Station Noise Power


The base station noise power is the product of thermal noise density No, CDMA bandwidth W, and the base station noise figure F, (FNthW). This quantity is a useful reference point for measuring the strength of incoming signals.

5.4.2.1.2 Interference From All Other CDMA Users


Within a sector, the restriction of equal pilot channel Ec/Nt for all calls can be shown to require that all signal strengths received at the cell site are equal to the common term, Ptot. The interference from all other ATs within the sector equals (N-1)Ptot, where N is the number of ATs within the sector. This term, (N1)Ptot, is the primary source of interference on the reverse link. The co-channel interference from ATs outside the sector is a secondary source of interference and can be taken to be a fraction, , of the in-cell interference. The low transmitter strength and increased distance (path loss) of the surrounding ATs produces an interference level that can be typically characterized by < 1. Unlike the in-cell interference, the interference from ATs outside the cell is not under power control by the cell site receiver, and is therefore more difficult to determine; however, only the aggregate effect of all outside ATs need be known with any accuracy: the large number of surrounding ATs, as well as the inherent randomness in their locations, generates an averaging effect that facilitates prediction.

5.4.2.2 Pole Capacity Calculation

The relatively low level of co-channel interference allows the use of a , where < 1, without being overly conservative. Further, for large N, all interference can be reduced by a factor that reflects the mean traffic activity (less than 100%) across all active channels on the reverse link. These considerations lead to:
Equation 5-15
Ppilot d = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F N th W + ( N 1 ) ( 1 + ) P tot

where: d = Ec/NtEc = Chip energyNt = Spectral density of thermal noise plus interferenceNth = Spectral density of thermal noiseF = Base station noise figurePtot = Received signal strength = Channel activity factor = Interference factorN = Number of ATs in sectorW = System bandwidth. Solving for N, the above expression can be rewritten to explicitly indicate the number of AT users:
Equation 5-16
Ppilot F N th W 1 N = ------------- ------------------------------------ + 1 ------------------------------------------ P tot d ( 1 + ) ( 1 + ) P tot

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In the above equation, the finite limit on capacity can be conveniently reached by letting the signal-to-cell-site noise ratio go to infinity. In this case, the received signal power, Ptot, becomes unbounded with respect to the sector

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noise, FNthW, causing the last term to drop. Therefore, the theoretical maximum number (Nmax) of ATs at pole capacity is:
Equation 5-17
N max P pilot 1 = ------------- ------------------------------------ + 1 Ptot d ( 1 + )

The total power a given AT transmits is the sum of the pilot channel power, the DRC channel power, and the traffic channel power. Note that to simplify the analysis, the ACK channel is ignored since only one AT transmits the ACK channel at a time. The DRC channel and traffic channel powers are set relative to the pilot channel power by digital gain factors inserted into the RC/V data base, so that the total power to pilot power ratio can be expressed as:
P tot ( G DRC ) 10 ( G Traffic ) 10 ------------------- = 1 + 10 + ' 10 Ppilot

Equation 5-18

where: GDRC = DRC channel gain translation in dB stored in the RC/V data baseGTraffic = Traffic channel gain translation in dB stored in the RC/V data base. Pole capacity Equation 5-17 can then be written as:
Equation 5-19
1 1 N max = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------- + 1 G D RC 10 G Traffic 10 d 1 ( + ) 1 + 10 + ' 10

5.4.3 Determining Theoretical Maximum Number of Users

The maximum number of AT users calculated at pole capacity, sometimes referred to as the pole point or power pole, represents a theoretical maximum that cannot be reached. The value of Nmax calculated in Equation 5-19 serves as a useful reference point. Sector loading can be conveniently expressed as a fraction of the pole point. It is expected that 1xEV-DO will support loadings (percentage relative to pole point) similar to 3G-1X, which is currently being designed for typical cases of 72% of pole point loading. To implement Equation 5-19, typical values are used to provide a conservative capacity estimate; when appropriate, worst cast values are selected for DRC and traffic channel gains, channel activity factor ( ), interference ratio () , and Ec/Nt ratio (d).

5.4.3.1 Channel Gain

The amplitudes of the signal on the DRC and traffic channels are scaled by gain factors relative to the amplitude of the pilot signal. The gain factors, which are inserted into the RC/V database and represented by the DRC channel gain (GDRC) and traffic channel gain (Gtraffic) factors in Equation 5-19, are specified relative to the required pilot channel power).

5.4.3.1.1 Required Pilot Channel Ec/Nt Ratio (d)


The required pilot channel Ec/Nt ratio (d) is a function of the following: 5 - 36 AT speed Handoff state
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Multipath condition Desired packet error rate (PER) Traffic channel rate.

The required pilot channel Ec/Nt ratio has been determined by link level simulation for a variety of conditions. The worst-case ratios, which are used for a conservative capacity estimate, are given in Table 5-8.

Table 5-8

Required Pilot Channel Ec/Nt (d)

Traffic Channel Required Pilot Data Rate (kbps) Channel Ec/Nt (dB)
9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6 -23 -23 -23 -23 -22

The 153.6 kbps traffic channel data rate uses less robust turbo coding than other traffic channel data rates (1/2 rate versus 1/4 rate). Hence, the 153.6 kbps traffic channel data rate requires a higher pilot channel Ec/Nt ratio.

5.4.3.1.2 Traffic Channel Gain


The Traffic Channel gain relative to the pilot power is a function of traffic channel rate. The following values, given in Table 5-9, are recommended.

Table 5-9

Traffic Channel Gain

Traffic Channel Data Rate (kbps)


9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6

Traffic Channel Gain


3.75 6.75 9.75 13.25 18.5

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5.4.3.1.3 DRC Channel Gain


The DRC channel power is specified relative to the pilot channel. The recommended value for DRC channel gain, relative to the pilot power, is a function of DRC length factor and is given in Table 5-10. These values are selected from link level simulations to produce a low probability of DRC errors to limit the impact on forward link throughput performance.

Table 5-10

DRC Gain

DRC Length Value


1 2 4 8

DRC Update DRC Channel Gain Rate (Hz) (doubles)


600 300 150 75 0 -1.5 -4.5 -6

Essential to the DRC value is a four-bit value indicating a null or a forward data rate value form 1 to 12. The four-bit value is bi-orthogonal encoded and repeated once. The symbol then is spread by one of seven W8 Walsh code cover and one of W18 long Walsh code to produce a 128-chip sequence. The selected Walsh code function identifies the best serving selector measured by the AT. Ultimately, the 128chip sequence is spread to a 2048-chip sequence to fill the 1.67-ms transmission slot period. The DRC length factor specifies the number of repetition of the same information bit. When the DRC length value is 1, the DRC chip sequence is transmitted during each 1.67-ms slot period, resulting in a 600-Hz update rate. A DRC length value of 2 will repeat the same information once and provide a 300-Hz update rate.DRC length values of 4 and 8 transmit the same information 4 times and 8 times respectively, providing an update rate of 150 Hz and 75 Hz. Increasing the DRC length increases DRC channel processing gain, enabling transmission of DRC channel data at less power. At lower power levels, less interference is introduced in the reverse link environment, resulting in increased capacity to support a greater number of users. The trade-off from longer DRC lengths is forward link throughput. The slower the DRC channel information, the less responsive the base station is to changing AT RF environment conditions. This includes missed opportunities for faster data rates when the RF environment conditions improve, and retransmission when the RF environment conditions worsen. Lucent set the default value for the DRC length to 2.

5.4.3.2 Interference Ratio (f )

The intercell interference ratio, f is expected to be similar to the values used in analyzing other CDMA technologies, i.e., IS-95 and 3G-1X. The interference ratio was determined by system level simulation. Typical values for f are given in Table 5-11.

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Table 5-11

Interference Ratio

AT Antenna Cell Sectorization


Omni 3-Sector 6-Sector

Omni
0.6 0.85 1.2

Directional
0.15 0.25 0.2

5.4.3.3 Channel Activity Factor ( )

The expected channel activity factor is dependent on the user's behavior, which can be simulated by a traffic model and is discussed in the following section. The average channel activity factor is the actual user throughput divided by the net channel throughput. To determine the actual user throughput on the reverse link, the overhead information of associated 1xEV-DO must to be subtracted from the transmitted data. The overhead information is 48 bits per packet and is divided as follows: Physical layer: 22 bits MAC layer: 2 bits Stream layer: 2 bits RLP sequence number: 22 bits.

The overhead percentage is then calculated to determine the net throughput rate. For example, at the 9.6 kbps data rate, the net throughput is determined by first calculating the overhead percentage, which is the ratio of the usable packet bit size, to the transmitted packet length bit size times 100% (208/256 X 100% = 18.8%; see Table 5-12). The usable packet bit size is obtained by subtracting the 48 overhead bits from the 256-bit packet transmitted at the 9.6 kbps data rate. The overhead percentage, which in this case is 18.8%, represents that portion of the 9.6-kbps data rate that is used to transmit the overhead bits.Therefore, 81.2% (100% - 18.8%) of the 9.6 kbps transmission rate, or 7.8 kbps, represents the usable net throughput data rate. A traffic model defining how the user of a specific demographic is expected to use wireless service must be constructed to calculate the traffic channel activity factor. The traffic model discussion in the following section (Section 5.4.4) for web browsing shows that a typical user reverse link offered load is expected to be approximately 2 kbps. The 2 kbps throughput does not represent a data rate, but simply indicates the number of bits that must received within each second to support a particular traffic model activity. Thus, the reverse link 2 kbps offered load value is independent of the reverse link data rate.The reverse link traffic channel activity factor indicates what portion of the net throughput is used to transmit user data. Therefore, the reverse link traffic channel activity factor is computed by dividing the user offered load, which for web browsing is approximately 2 kbps, into the net offered load calculated at each data rate. As the data rate increases, the traffic channel activity factor will proportionately decrease.
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Table 5-12

Reverse Link Net Throughput

Data Rate (kbps) Parameter 9.6


Packet length (bits) Overhead (bits) Usable packet (bits) Overhead percentage (%) Net Throughput (kbps) User Throughput for Web Browsing Traffic Channel Activity Factor ( )* 256 48 208 18.8 7.8 2 kbps 0.256

19.2
512 48 464 9.4 17.4 2 kbps 0.115

38.4
1024 48 976 4.7 36.6 2 kbps 0.055

76.8
2048 48 2000 2.3 75.0 2 kbps 0.027

153.6
4096 48 4048 1.2 151.8 2 kbps 0.013

* For web browsing traffic model only

5.4.4 Traffic Model

Traffic models can be constructed to estimate forward and reverse link data air interface capacity, and should represent how the service provider expects subscribers to use the service. The traffic model will vary from one demographic area to another and should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. For example, usage in industrial areas, where users frequently check prices and shipping and delivery schedules, will differ from usage in business areas, where users frequently send and receive e-mail, browse the web and FTP files, and that will differ from airports, where travellers may just want to send and receive e-mail. In the following text, the HTTP traffic model, similar to the one defined in 1xEV-DV Evaluation Methodology - Addendum (V6) from the 3GPP2, is selected to illustrate how a traffic model may be used. Although this traffic model is an evaluation of 1xEV-DV (Data Voice) as opposed to 1xEV-DO (Data Only), it is not expected that user behavior will differ between the two. Also, this traffic model specifies a mix of data services (WAP, HTTP, FTP, and streaming video). To simplify the analysis here, only HTTP is considered. A similar analysis can be performed for a mixed case. The traffic model makes several simplifying assumptions and ignores the statistical variations of the model parameters, i.e., only mean values are considered, not the distribution of possible values. Examples of parameters used to characterize a traffic model, and a description of the parameters for the aforementioned HTTP traffic model, are give in Table 5-13.

Table 5-13

HTTP Traffic Model Parameters

Parameter
Application

Description
Web browsing, e-mail, FTP, etc.

Traffic Model
Web browsing HTTP 1.1

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Table 5-13

HTTP Traffic Model Parameters

Parameter
Layer 4 protocol Think time, sometimes referred to as reading time Packet calls per session Packet call size Objects per packet call and object size

Description
TCP vs. UDP Time user is reading without requesting or sending new data How many web page views or e-mails downloaded Web page size for HTTP, file size for FTP or e-mail size Typically for web browsing, the number object embedded on a web page

Traffic Model
TCP (Required for HTTP) 30 seconds

54465 bytes 5.64 (7.758 kilobyte per object)

1500 bytes (Web page size Maximum Transmission Unit Used to define TCP segments, If HTTP request packet is large, the is divided by MTU size or (MTU) size TCP stack divides the HTTP packet 54465/1500 = 36 segments) into two or more TCP segment in accordance with the MTU size is approximately the web page size divided by MTU size or 54465/1500 = 36 segments. Session time Time user is logged on

Activity on the Reverse Link


HTTP GET Method to retrieve whatever informa- 364 bytes (Approximately 65 tion (in the form of an entity) is identi- bytes per GET times 5.6 objects per page) fied by the request-URL Three packets of 40 bytes each Assume each forward TCP segment is acknowledged, total number of forward 120 bytes 1452 bytes (Each ACK is 40 bytes long: 36 segments X 40 bytes)

TCP connection setup and tear-down Layer 4 TCP acknowledgment (ACK)

From examining the activity on the reverse link, the total reverse link transmitted traffic is 1936 bytes (364 + 120 + 1452), or 15488 bits. The time the user transmits this much data on the reverse link is the total download time plus the smaller of either the think time or the dormancy timer. Currently, the default for the dormancy timer is 10 seconds. Assuming that the download time is small compared to the dormancy time, a reverse link throughput is 15488 bits divided by the 10-second dormancy time, or approximately 1550 bits per second for the user's traffic. Simulations show that the over-the-air signaling traffic associated with this traffic model is approximately 450 bps per user. Combining the signaling traffic and the user's data traffic yields a total throughput per user of approximately 2 kbps.
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5.4.5 Pole Point Based Capacity Calculation

A pole point analysis is performed to determine the maximum number of sessions (RF channels) that can be supported on the reverse link. Because the traffic channel data rate and channel activity factor will differ among users, using pole point Equation 5-19 to determine the maximum number of sessions (users) at 72% loading is more complicated than determining the pole point number of users for voice systems. The simplest case, which may provide some insight into the capacity of the system, would be to assume a channel activity factor ( ) of 1 for all users which means that all ATs in the covered are continuously transmitting data. Table 5-14 shows the resulting maximum number sessions computed for each data rate. The values for Ec/Nt (d), traffic gain (Gtraffic), DRC gain (GDRC), and interference ratio ( ) are extracted from Tables 5-8 through 5-11, respectively. .
Table 5-14 Maximum Active Data Sessions at 72% Loading for Full Buffer Traffic Model

Data Rate
none 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6

DRC Length 1
38.8 18.2 12.0 7.4 4.0 1.5

2
45.3 19.4 12.6 7.6 4.1 1.6

4
57.0 21.3 13.2 7.8 4.1 1.6

8
61.6 21.8 13.5 7.8 4.1 1.6

Note that the first row (labeled none) is the computation for the case of no traffic channels. In this case, the ATs are transmitting only the DRC and pilot overhead channels. The confidence in the table values decreases as the number of users decrease. The values in the table are the result of a calculation that uses average values for several random terms. As the number of users decreases, the variance of these terms that are random will increase. Hence, the confidence in the values in the table decreases as the number of users decrease. Furthermore, the assumption of all ATs at the same channel rate does not match the dynamic nature of reverse link channel rate control. However, the results are useful for some general capacity planning purposes. In Table 5-15, the maximum number of sessions is again computed for each data rate using the channel activity factor computed in Table 5-12 for typical web browsing users.

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.
Table 5-15 Maximum Active Data Sessions at 72% Loading for Web Browsing Traffic Model

Data Rate
9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6

DRC Length 1
30.1 30.7 31.4 30.9 21.8

2
33.8 34.6 35.5 34.7 24.2

4
39.7 40.9 42.0 41.0 27.8

8
41.9 43.2 44.4 43.3 29.1

As shown in the above table, the capacity in terms of the maximum number of sessions is almost independent of data rate. The higher data rates require higher traffic gain. The resulting extra power is offset by the decrease in the amount of time the channel is used (i.e., channel activity). The capacity for the 153.6 kbps channel users is lower because of the higher required Ec/Nt.

5.4.6 Determining Target Capacity

The results of the pole point analysis performed in the previous section determined the maximum number of active sessions that can be supported on the reverse link. The actual number of active sessions that may be supported on the reverse link is limited to the number of users that can be supported on the reverse link and the number of Walsh code available. This number may vary greatly, depending on the activity of the users. Extensively, a greater number of users downloading simple text e-mail may be accommodated than users downloading web pages with large graphic files. Therefore, most likely, this maximum number of forward link active sessions will be achieved in only a fraction of the time. A practical approach when allocating base stations to support data traffic is to design for a target capacity that reflex an average number of session usage in a geographical area. An efficient and cost-effective design is one that will accommodate a maximum number of busy-hour data traffic, while in the long term having the least number of its resource capacity idle for the shortest period of time. Ideally, the perfect system will have none of its resources idle at any time, with zero percent data delay. While the ideal situation can never be achieved, a system can be designed to meet expected average busy hour data traffic at a minimum resource expenditure by allowing an acceptable response delay.

5.4.6.1 Acceptable Callblocking Objective

Fundamental elements of system design include determining the hardware resources needed to meet target traffic capacity. For voice, which requires immediate service when a call is originated or terminated, the target traffic capacity is specified at an acceptable call-blocking objective. The call blocking objectives, sometimes referred to as blocking probabilities, identify the percentage of call requests for channel resources denied because the resources required to comply with the requests are currently not available.

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5.4.6.2 Acceptable Queue Delay Objective

In a data-only system, such as 1xEV-DO, the real time constraints demanded for voice systems is relaxed. Delay, or latency, can be tolerated for data traffic, reducing the blocking probability to zero. That is, rather than block the call, the request for data traffic is held in a queue until resources become available to service the data traffic request. Instead of designing for an acceptable blocking rate, data traffic systems are designed for an acceptable queueing delay. Traffic usage can be measured in Erlangs. One Erlang is the usage of a single channel resource for one hour, or 3600 seconds. When defining the data capacity of a group of channels within a base station, one Erlang is the usage of some or all of the base station channels where the cumulative usage time of all un-idle channels is equal to one hour. Therefore, one Erlang is also equal to the usage of two channels for one-half hour, or four channels for one-quarter hour, and so on. The average busy hour usage of a base station in Erlangs can be estimated from its user population. Here, the load contributed from a typical user for the average busyhour call duration is estimated in Erlangs. This value is then multiplied by the average number of calls that may be served at any one time during a typical busy call hour.

5.4.6.3 Data Traffic Load in Erlangs

5.4.6.3.1 General Erlang Model


For voice traffic, which exists in a real time domain, tables for specific blocking objectives in terms of the number of channels required for a given traffic load are used for channel provisioning. These tables are based on telecommunication traffic statistics of Poisson exponentially-distributed arrival times and distributed call durations. Although several standard mathematical models exist for representing the behavior of voice traffic, the Erlang B table, which is based on a special Erlang B model, is generally used because of its simple concepts for provisioning voice channels. Because data traffic is delay-tolerant, delay rather than blocking becomes an issue when determining traffic usage. When provisioning for data traffic, the Erlang C model is generally used. The B and C models are special cases of the general Erlang model, and the difference between the B and C models is best described with reference to the general Erlang model illustrated in Figure 5-8.

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N Servers Completion m

Completion m

Arrivals l Queue (length M)

Completion m

Completion m

Figure 5-8

General Erlang Model

The general Erlang model shows N servers and a queue of M length. Calls or requests for service are received at the average arrival rate, designated by the Greek letter lambda (), which is expressed by the number of requests per unit of time. The average call or message completion rate is represented by another Greek letter, , which is the number of calls or messages transmitted per unit of time. Therefore, the system average completion rate is N times , and the average duration of service required by each request is one over , where N equals the number of servers and the total capacity of the system is equal to N plus the length of the queue, M. When the queue is empty and at lease one server is idle, the next service request arrival is immediately passed through the queue and is serviced by the idle server. If all the servers are busy, subsequent request arrivals are backed up in the queue, and when the queue is full, additional requests for service by the next request arrival are denied or blocked. At this time, the system remains blocked until a server has completed its transmission and becomes idle. Subsequently, the request at the output of the queue is serviced by the idle server, and the backed-up requests in the queue are moved up one place to unblock the system and allow the next request arrival to enter the queue.

5.4.6.3.2 Erlang B and C Models


In an Erlang B model, the length of the queue is zero. If a service request is received and all servers are busy in the B model, the service request is blocked, and service is denied. The length of the queue in the Erlang C model is infinity. When no idle servers are available, new arrivals of data packets vying for service will be delayed in the queue until idle servers are made available. Because the length of the queue is infinity, no data packets will be blocked or denied service. The Erlang
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C model can be used to compute the average number of service requests that can be handled when allowing for some probability of queue delay. When considering 1xEV-DO, the Erlang C model can be used to compute average number of sessions that can be handled on a single carrier. The allowable delay is typically normalized to the average service time and expressed as a delay-to-service time ratio. For example, if the allowable delay, commonly referred to as target delay, is 5 seconds and the average service time is 25 seconds, the normalized delay ratio is 5/25 of 0.2.

5.4.6.4 Determining Average Number of Reverse Link Channels Required

The average number of reverse link channels required is derived as a function of the number of users that can be supported on the forward link. As indicated in Section 5.4.6, this number is, in turn, a function of the user download activity, which determines the value of the traffic channel activity factor, . This number is also a function of the quality of service (QoS) in the form of latency the service provider is willing to provide. This allowable delay (latency) is factored into the Erlang C model by normalizing the delay to the average service time. If the web browsing traffic model developed in Section 5.4.4 is used, the reverse link service time equals the time required to download the requested web page, plus the time interval between download requests. Because the RF resources are surrender after a 10-second dormancy period, a 10-second interval period (worst case condition) should be used. The time required to download a web page is estimated by dividing the average web page size by the average forward link throughput rate. This throughput rate can be determined by dividing the carrier throughput, which is the aggregate average forward link rate, by the expected number of active data sessions. If a carrier throughput of 600 kbps is used and the number of users is estimated at 20, the average throughput is 30 kbps/user. Using 54.5 kilobytes, which is 436,000 bits (one byte equal 8 bits), as the average web page size, the download time is approximately 15 seconds. Adding the 10-second dormancy period, the reverse link service time equals 25 seconds. If a fixed 5-second delay is used, the normalized delay ratio is 0.2 (5/25). Using the Erlang C model, the reverse link Erlang load computed from Tables 5-14 and 5-15 and is given in Tables 5-16 and 5-17, respectively.
Table 5-16

Erlang capacity (Delay Ratio = 0.2, = 1)

Data Rate 1 None


9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6

DRC Length 2 42.1 16.6 9.9 5.2 2.5 0.16 4 54.0 18.6 10.8 5.2 2.5 0.16 8 58.0 18.6 10.8 5.2 2.5 0.16 35.2 15.6 9.9 5.2 2.5 0.16

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To provide a realistic average of the users activity for any demographic, traffic models (refer to Section 5.4.4) can be constructed for each activity expected to be used a coverage area. The percentage of total users in each activity is then estimated, and a weighted average of the traffic activities is calculated in accordance with the percentage of use in each traffic activity.
Table 5-17

Erlang Capacity (Delay Ratio = 0.2, = VAF*)

Data Rate 1
None 9.6 19.2 38.4 76.8 153.6 35.2 27.4 27.4 28.3 27.4 15.2

DRC Length 2
42.1 31.3 31.3 32.3 31.3 17.9

4
54.0 36.2 37.2 39.2 38.2 20.6

8
58.0 38.2 40.2 41.1 40.2 22.4

* VAF =Variable activity factor

The above analysis is performed to identify the number of active users that can be supported on the reverse link. The 20 forward link users value chosen for this analysis is an estimate. If the result of the Erlang C calculation yields values much different from 20, re-calculation is required using a different number of forward link users.

5.4.7 Active Users vs. Total Users

An active data session means that the user is assigned RF resources and is transmitting a DRC and pilot channel. A user who has not sent or received data for a period longer than the dormancy time will enter the dormant state. In the dormant state, the user releases RF resources (pilot channel, DRC Channel, and Walsh codes), but maintains their PPP session and IP address. The RF resources that are surrendered are now available to other users. By allowing RF resource sharing, the dormant state allows more users on the system than permitted by the carrier RF limits. Users returning from the dormant state to an active state will have to re-establish RF resources. Because users in the dormant state maintain a PPP session and IP address, when returning to the active state, the user will not have to log in and continue data exchange on its original PPP session with its original IP address. The transition from the dormant state to the active state, although transparent to the user (no log-on required), will incur a setup delay. The dormancy timer is set in the RC/V data base must be carefully chosen to maximize the number of users, while not significantly impacting user-perceived delay. The increase in the number of PPP sessions obtained at a base station by establishing a dormancy timer can be routinely estimated by dividing the total session time for a user by the total active time. The total session time includes all the time the user has a PPP session active (downloading, dormancy timer period and read/think time). The active time is the time RF resources is

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assigned to a user (download and a short period permitted by the dormancy timer). For example, if the average user in a web-browsing scenario takes 10 seconds to download, and 70 seconds to read the page before the next page is downloaded and the dormancy timer is set to 10 seconds, the active period is 20 seconds; the 10-second download time plus the 10-second dormancy timer period. In this scenario, the number of PPP sessions obtained at the base station is increased by a factor of 3.5 (70/20).

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5.5 Forward Link Capacity


.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5.5.1 Introduction

1xEV-DO is designed to take advantage of the asymmetric nature of expected data services. The forward link is time-shared instead of code-shared. When a user receives forward link data, the entire carrier bandwidth and all the base station transmit power is dedicated to the user. The transmit data rate is determined by the user AT measured carrier-to-noise ratio, and is a function of the user's Geometry. Geometry, in this case, refers to the AT geographical position with reference to its serving base station and neighboring base stations, and is defined as the received power of the serving cell divided by the total of thermal noise and received interfering power. The closer the AT is to the serving cell, the higher is the received signal from the serving cell, and most likely, the higher the signalto- noise and interference ratio experienced by the AT. In this case, the AT is referred to as having high Geometry and will receive data at a high data rate. An AT at a considerable distance from the base station, experiencing a high level of noise and interference from neighboring base station, will have low geometry. The more likely scenario at any sector coverage area is that some ATs will be at high Geometries and some at low Geometries. The scheduling algorithm in the network takes advantage of multi-user Geometry diversity by serving users experiencing favorable RF conditions and delaying data transmission to users in unfavorable conditions. The latter are served when their conditions improve. This approach maximizes overall sector throughput. This feature enables 1xEV-DO to achieve significantly higher spectral efficiency than is possible for voice and other real-time services.

5.5.2 Geometry

5.5.3 Sector Throughput

The dependence on user Geometry makes an analytical approach to determining forward link capacity difficult. Simulations have been run to predict estimated forward capacity in terms of per-sector throughput. The simulations require the following inputs: Geometry distribution: The probability distribution function that a given user has a given Geometry determined by simulating typical hexagonal layout with all cells at full power and sampling all locations for Geometry Channel profile: Mix of channel types, e.g., AWGN, 1-path Rayleigh, 2-path Rayleigh, etc. Mix of mobile speeds Model of predictor in mobile that takes SNR measurement inputs and generates DRC value (desired forward link channel rate) Proportional Fair Scheduler Algorithm.

A typical set of simulation results is shown in Figure 5-9.

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Forward Link Capacity

RF Coverage and Capacity

900 850 800 750

Throughput (kbps)

700 650 600 550 500 450 400 0 5 10 15 20 25

Rual Suburban Urban

Number of Users

Figure 5-9

Aggregated Sector Throughput

As can be seen from the above figure, the throughput increases with the number of users, leveling off at around eight users. This increase in users is a direct manifestation of the scheduling gain discussed earlier. As the scheduler has more users to choose from, there is a greater probability that one or more of the users will be in a good Geometry and capable of supporting high channel rates. Note that the simulation does not include a traffic model, and assumes that users have an infinite queue of data waiting for them. Inclusion of a real traffic model will reduce the predicted throughput. Based on simulations done to date, the recommended throughput capacity for planning purposes for a 1xEV-DO system is in the range from 500-650 kilobits per second.

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Contents
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

6.1
6.1.1 6.1.2

Deployment
Overlay Designs Standalone Designs

6-3
6-3 6-3

6.2
6.2.1 6.2.1.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.3.1 6.2.3.2

Frequency Assignment
Band Class 0 (Cellular Band, 850MHz) Carrier Waveform Cellular Band PCS Band Guard Band Carrier Spacing

6-4
6-4 6-4 6-5 6-8 6-9 6-10

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6.1 Deployment
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The 1xEV-DO may be deployed as a stand-alone base station, serving high speed data users, or may be co-located with an IS-95 and/or IS-2000 3G-1X to include voice. Because 1xEV-DO use the same carries assignment and guard bands as IS-95 and IS-2000 3G-1X, collocation of the mixed technology base stations is straightforward. Even though the coverage footprint of a 1xEV-DO base station is a function of the data rate offer, the 1xEV-DO system can be engineered to be overlaid on an IS-95 or 3G-1X in a 1:1 fashion. If collocated with IS-95 systems in a 1:1 fashion, the obvious trade-off is that the 1xEV-DO may not be achieved at the outer edges of the coverage area.

6.1.1 Overlay Designs

It is expected that the typical 1xEV-DO deployment scenario is going to be an overlay onto an existing IS-95 or IS-2000 network. In the overlay case, the footprint of the existing network being overlaid determines the footprint of the 1xEV-DO carriers. Both reverse and forward data rates at the cell edge can be determined from the link budget analysis. If traffic maps and information on the subscriber traffic patterns such as the number of sessions during the busy hour, average number of data downloaded per session and average download size, etc. some conclusions on the throughput per subscriber may be reached based on the sector capacity. Alternatively, if the throughput per subscriber is specified, then one can draw some conclusions about total number of subscribers that can be served. As for all cellular network systems, cost containment dictates that the number of base stations deployed is held to a minimum. For the most part, the distribution of base stations and the distance between them is determined through link budget analysis. In voice systems, the information rate (vocoder data rate), which is a link budget component, is fixed to provide a level of voice quality at the cell edge. In 1xEV-DO, a trade-off exists between the data rate and coverage area. The information rate entered on the reverse link budget spreadsheet (refer to Section 5.2.5.4.2) determines the cell coverage radius. Therefore, the design of any greenfield network would start by determining the data rate to be achieved at the cell edge for both reverse and forward links. After the cell edge data rate is determined, the reverse and forward link budget spreadsheets are prepared to determine the maximum allowable path loss that can be support for the desired data rate. The smaller value is the limiting link and determines the cell footprint.

6.1.2 Standalone Designs

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6.2 Frequency Assignment


............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Carrier assignments and guard bands are the same as for IS-95 and IS-2000. The recommendations for carrier assignments are provided for two band classes: Band Class 0 (cellular band, 850MHz) Band Class 1 (PCS band, 1900MHz).

6.2.1 Band Class 0 (Cellular Band, 850MHz)

This section on the cellular band addresses frequency assignment considerations in dual-mode systems. Dual-mode systems refer to the air link technology that supports IS-95, 3G-1X, 1xEV-DO, and Advance Mobile Phone System (AMPS). Support for dual-mode systems allows voice CDMA providers to service visitors entering its coverage area with either analog or TDMA mobiles. When it is determined that TDMA service is not available, visitor's TDMA mobiles will switch to AMPS service. Not only does AMPS service within a CDMA service providers spectrum require channel allocation to carry voice traffic, a prescribed dedicated band of channels must be allocated as analog access (setup) channels. In dual mode systems, the mandated analog access channels present some limitations on CDMA carriers frequency assignment. The 1xEV-DO carrier waveform conforms to the IS-95 requirements as shown in Figure 6-1. The IS-95 specification requires that the base station 3 dB bandwidth is 1.23 MHz, where the maximum noise floor is 45 dB below the mean output power level 750 kHz from the center frequency. The mean output power reference is calculated from the measured power spectral density in a 30 kHz bandwidth at the center of the CDMA channel. To correct for the measuring bandwidth to get the total mean output power, multiply the measured power in the 30 kHz band by the bandwidth ratio (1230 kHz/30 kHz), or 10 X log 10 (1230/30) = 16 dB. The 0 dB reference accounts for this 16 dB bandwidth correction; therefore, the vertical scale shows signal levels referenced to the mean output power. The requirement is shown as the dashed line overlay on the spectrum.

6.2.1.1 Carrier Waveform

0 -10.0
-20.0 -30.0 -40.0 -50.0 -60.0 -70.0 -80.0 876.99 45 dB

}
880.99 881.99

3 dB Bandwidth

877.99

878.99 879.99 878.49

Figure 6-1

Cellular Carrier Waveform Centered on Channel 283 at 878.49 MHz


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6.2.2 Cellular Band

To promote cellular competition within each geographic area, the FCC divides the frequency spectrum allocated for cellular transmission into two radio frequency bands designated as A-band and B-band. The A-band and B-band frequencies are distributed over the frequency spectrum as shown in Figure 6-2. One band is assigned to the radio common carrier and the other to the regional wireline carrier. The blocks that are identified as A' and A'' in the Aband and B' in the B-band are the results of additional 10-MHz blocks of frequencies which are allocated to each carrier. The A- and B- bands are further subdivided into transmit and receive frequencies. The total frequency spectrum allocated for cellular communications consists of 832 duplex channels. A duplex channel consists of two 30-MHz AMPS voice channels. One is for cell frequency modulation (FM) transmission to the AMPS mobile, which is referred to as forward link (downlink) transmission, and the other for AMPS mobile FM transmission to the cell, which is referred to as reverse link (uplink) transmission. Therefore, each band is assigned 416 duplex channels to transmit and receive voice traffic signals. The duplex traffic channels are numbered from 1 through 799, and then from 991 through 1023. The channel number gap between channels 799 and 990 accommodates the frequency bands allocated for air-to-ground telephony and for specialized mobile radio which are shown as shaded areas in Figure 6-2. The number of channels in each A- and B- block of frequency, their bandwidths, boundary channel numbers, and the cell and subscriber transmit center frequencies of each boundary channel are given in Table 6-1.

Air-to-Ground Telephony Tx Specialized Mobile Radio Tx A A

Air-to-Ground Telephony Rx Specialized Mobile Radio Rx B A B

A B

824 825

835

845 849 846.5 851

856 869 870

880

890 894 891.5 896

901MHz

Reverse Link
Figure 6-2

Forward Link
Distribution of Cellular Frequency Bands

Because each transmit channel bandwidth is 30 kHZ or 0.03 MHz, the center frequency of the subscriber, or cell transmit or receive channel, is calculated by multiplying its channel number (N) by 0.03MHz. The product is then added to the starting frequency of the band. The channel upper and lower boundary frequency is calculated by adding (for upper boundary) or subtracting (for lower
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boundary) 0.015MHz from the center frequency. The starting frequency of the band used by a cellular subscriber and the cell site frequencies is a function of the channel number. To calculate the subscriber channel center frequency for a given channel number, use the following: When the channel number = 1N799, F = 0.03 N + 825.000 When the channel number = 990N1023, F = 0.03 (N-1023) + 825.000 To calculate the base station channel frequency for a given channel number, use the following: When the channel number = 1N799,F = 0.03 N + 870.000 When the channel number = 990N1023, F = 0.03 (N-1023) + 870.00

Table 6-1AMPS and CDMA Channel Numbers and Corresponding Frequencies For Band Class 0

System Designator
A'' (1 MHz) A (10 MHz) B (10 MHz)

CDMA Channel Validity


Not Valid Valid Valid Not Valid Not Valid Valid Not Valid

Transmitter Frequency Number of AMPS/CDM Assignment (MHz) Analog A Channel Channels Number Access Terminal Access Network
22 11 311 22 22 289 22 22 6 22 22 39 22 991-1012 1013-1023 1-311 312-333 334-355 356-644 645-666 667-688 689-694 695-716 717-738 739-777 778-799 824.040-824.670 824.700-825.000 825.030-834.330 834.360-834.990 835.020-835.650 835.680-844.320 844.350-844.980 845.010-845.640 845.670-845.820 845.850-846.480 846.510-847.140 847.170-848.310 848.340-848.970 869.040-869.670 869.700-870.000 870.030-879.330 879.360-879.990 880.020-880.650 880.680-889.320 889.350-889.980 890.010-890.640 890.670-890.820 890.850-891.480 891.510-892.140 892.170-893.310 893.340-893.970

A' (1.5 MHz)

Not Valid Valid Not Valid

B' (2.5 MHz)

Not Valid Valid Not Valid

The 22-channel groups that are identified as Not Valid are dedicates to AMPS setup channels in a dual-mode environment. The CDMA 1.23-MHz carrier bandwidth
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occupies 41 AMPS channels (41 x 0.03 MHz). The assignment of valid CDMA channels must take into account practical considerations such as guard-band needs and/or the channel needs for AMPS in dual mode systems. Because of the need for guard bands and/or AMPS channels in dual mode systems, ideally all the channel allocation to either CDMA or AMPS should be contiguous. This ideal situation may not always be achieved; however. effort should taken to achieve this goal as much as possible. By using contiguous channels/bands for CDMA and AMPS, a single guard band is required for the overall spectrum. For example, if an A-Band, dual mode, CDMA application required two CDMA channels, a good first CDMA channel selection would be channel 283. In the case of a dual mode (AMPS/CDMA) system, this is the highest available channel in the 10 MHz A-Band that could be selected without concern for interference in A-Band AMPS setup channels 313 through 333. This channel selection already provides a 0.27 MHz guard band of channels between the nominal 1.23 MHz CDMA channel band and the AMPS setup channels (313-333) required for the A-Band service provider. The logical choice for the second CDMA carrier channel would be channel 242, which is 41 channels away from 283 for a carrier frequency separation of 1.23 MHz. Any selection resulting in a carrier frequency separation of less than 41 channels would result in the two CDMA carriers being separated by less than the nominal 1.23 MHz CDMA channel bandwidth, and would cause excessive interference between the two carriers. Using a separation of greater than 41 channels results in inefficient use of the spectrum. It is recommended that for 1xEV-DO and AMPS operating in the same cellular band (A- or B-Band), a guard band of 270 kHz be implemented on both sides of the consecutive 1xEV-DO carriers. A guard band is not required between the two 1xEV-DO carriers. Tables 6-2 and 6-3 show frequency assignments for dual mode AMPS and CDMA operations in the A- and B-Band spectrums. These assignments are given for up to eight 1.23-MHz CDMA channels. The remaining channels and channel numbers that are available for AMPS coverage are also listed.

Table 6-2

Recommended A-Band CDMA Center Frequency Assignments

Number of CDMA Channels


1 2 3 4 5 283

CDMA Center Frequency Assignments

Number of AMPS Channels


356 315 274 233 192

AMPS Channel Assignments


1-252, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023 1-211, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023 1-170, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023 1-129, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023 1-88, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023

242, 283 201, 242, 283 160, 201, 242, 283 119, 160, 210, 242, 283

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Table 6-2

Frequency Assignment

Recommended A-Band CDMA Center Frequency Assignments

Number of CDMA Channels


6 7 8

CDMA Center Frequency Assignments


78, 119, 160, 201, 242, 283 37, 78, 119, 160, 201, 242, 283 691, 37, 78, 119, 160, 201, 242, 283

Number of AMPS Channels


151 110 60

AMPS Channel Assignments


1-47, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023 1-6, 313-333, 667-716, 991-1023 1-6, 313-333, 991-1023

Table 6-3

Recommended B-Band CDMA Center Frequency Assignments

Number of CDMA Channels


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 384

CDMA Center Frequency Assignments

Number of AMPS Channels


356 315 274 233 192 151 110 57

AMPS Channel Assignments


334-354, 415-666, 717-799 334-354, 456-666, 717-799 334-354, 497-666, 717-999 334-354, 538-666, 717-999 334-354, 579-666, 717-799 334-354, 620-666, 717-799 334-354, 661-666, 717-799 334-354, 661-666, 717-746

384, 425 384, 425, 466 384, 425, 466, 507 384, 425, 466, 507, 548 384, 425, 466, 507, 548, 589 384, 425, 466, 507, 548, 589, 630 384, 425, 466, 507, 548, 589, 630, 777

6.2.3 PCS Band

The Personal Communication System (PCS) 1900 MHz spectrum is divided into six bands. A, B, and C bands are each 15 MHz wide, and D, E, and F bands are each 5 MHz. Each band is divided into channels that are 50 kHz wide. CDMA RF frequency carriers are spaced 25 channels, or 1.25 MHz apart. Although the 60-MHz forward and reverse link PCS spectrum (Figure 6-3) implies the availability of 1200 CDMA carriers, not all 1200 are actually usable. Table 6-4 indicates the availability of the channels by classifying them as valid (usable) channels, conditionally valid, or not valid.

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80MHz 60MHz A D B E F C A D B E F C

15MHz

5MHz

15MHz

5MHz 5MHz

15MHz

15MHz

5MHz

15MHz

5MHz 5MHz

15MHz

1850

1865 1870

1885 1890 1895

1910

1930

1945 1950

1650 1970 1975

1990 Mhz

Reverse Link

Forward Link

Figure 6-3 Distribution of the Personnel Communication System (PCS) Spectrum

6.2.3.1 Guard Band

The first 25 channels is Band A (channels 0-24) and the last 24 channels in the E band (channels1176-1199) represent the border channels of the PCS 60MHz reverse and forward spectrums and are designated Not Valid to eliminate the possibility of interference between PCS systems and the services allocated to the spectrum above and below the reverse and forward spectrums. The channels designated Conditionally Valid are valid only under the condition that the service provider also owns the adjacent block of spectrum. These channels are provisioned conditionally to eliminate the possibility of interference between to competing PCS service providers. Therefore, except for the 25 lowest highest channels in each block, all channels within the block are valid for CDMA carriers, providing 51 unconditionally available channels in Blocks D, E, and F, and 251 unconditionally available channels in Blocks A,B, and C. If a service provider owns a license for adjacent blocks, the channels between the block, designated Conditionally Valid, can also be use as part of the CDMA carrier.

Table 6-4

1xEV-DO Channel Allocation Availability For Band Class 1 Transmit Frequency Band (MHz) Access Terminal Access Network 1930.000-1931.200 1931.250-1943.750 1943.800-1944.950 6 - 9

Block Designator

CDMA Channel Validity

CDMA Channel Number

A (15 MHz)

Not Valid Valid Conditionally Valid

0-24 25-275 276-299

1850.000-1851.200 1851.250-1863.750 1863.800-1864.950

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Table 6-4

Frequency Assignment

1xEV-DO Channel Allocation Availability For Band Class 1 Transmit Frequency Band (MHz) Access Terminal Access Network 1945.000-1946.200 1945.600-1948.750 1948.800-1949.950 1950.000-1951.200 1951.250-1963.750 1963.800-1964.950 1965.000-1966.200 1966.250-1968.750 1968.800-1969.950 1970.000-1971.200 1971.250-1973.750 1973.800-1974.950 1975.000-1976.200 1976.250-1988.750 1988.800-1989.950

Block Designator

CDMA Channel Validity

CDMA Channel Number

D (5 MHz)

Conditionally Valid Valid Conditionally Valid

300-324 325-375 376-399 400-424 425-675 676-699 700-724 725-775 776-799 800-824 825-875 876-899 900-924 925-1175 1176-1199

1865.000-1866.200 1866.250-1868.750 1868.800-1869.950 1870.000-1871.200 1871.250-1883.750 1883.800-1884.950 1885.000-1886.200 1886.250-1888.750 1888.800-1889.950 1890.000-1891.200 1891.250-1893.750 1893.800-1894.950 1895.000-1896.200 1896.250-1908.750 1908.800-1909.950

B (15 MHz)

Conditionally Valid Valid Conditionally Valid

E (5 MHz)

Conditionally Valid Valid Conditionally Valid

F (5 MHz)

Conditionally Valid Valid Conditionally Valid

C (15 MHz)

Conditionally Valid Valid Not Valid

6.2.3.2Carrier Spacing

Not all of the valid and conditionally valid channels can be used simultaneously as carriers in a given system. Once the first carrier in a system is selected the minimum carrier spacing rules should be observed. These rules limit how close a new carrier can be above or below previously existing carriers. While the classification of channels as Valid and Conditionally Valid is by FCC decree, the minimum spacing between active carriers is determined by CDMA (1xEV-DO) technology considerations. Generally, the channels are specified as dictated by the minimum carrier spacing of 25 CDMA channels, which is consistent with the nominal 1.25 MHz bandwidth for CDMA, i.e. 1xEV-DO, 3G-1X, and IS-95. The selection of the frequencies might be dictated by issues dealing with intersystem or inter-system interference. If these issues are not significant factors in the system performance, the number of channels that the service provider might consider for carrier frequencies can be reduced significantly to the list of preferred channels in Table 6-4. These are the channel numbers that a personal station will scan when looking for service. Thus, a system must use at least one (or more) of

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these carriers at each site in the system if the sites are to be capable of providing (CDMA) access to the system.

Table 6-5

Preferred CDMA Channels For Band Class 1 Preferred Channel Numbers 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275 325, 350, 375 425, 450, 475, 500, 525, 550, 575, 600, 625, 650, 675 725, 750, 775 825, 850, 875 925, 950, 975, 1000, 1025, 1050, 1075, 1100, 1125, 1150, 1175 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275

Frequency Block A D B E F C A

Conditionally valid channels 300, 400, 700, 800, and 900 are excluded from the above list because they can only be used if the service provider has licenses for both the frequency block containing the channel and the immediately adjacent frequency block (e.g., Channel 300 is a likely carrier channel if the service provider has licenses for both Blocks A and D).

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Call Processing

Contents
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7.1
7.1.1

1xEV-DO Call Processing Overview


Connection Layer Protocol

7-5
7-5

7.2
7.2.1 7.2.1.1 7.2.1.2 7.2.1.3 7.2.1.3.1 7.2.1.3.2 7.2.1.3.3

Air Link Management Protocol


Access Mode Persistent Test Reverse Link Silence Period Access Probe Structure Access Probe Sequence Inter-Probe Backoff Inter-Sequence Backoff

7-7
7-7 7-9

7-9 7-10 7-10


7-11

7-11

7.3 7.4
7.4.1 7.4.1.1 7.4.1.2 7.4.2 7.4.2.1 7.4.2.1.1 7.4.2.1.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.5 7.4.6
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Initialization State Idle State


Registration and Location Report UATIRequest Message RouteUpdate Message Idle Mode Sub-States Monitor Sub-State AT Monitor Sub-State Forward Link Control Channel Sleep Sub-State Suspend Mode of Operation Idle State Pilot Channel Supervision Connection Setup Sub-State
Lucent Technologies - Proprietary See Notice on first page

7-13 7-15
7-15 7-16 7-16 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-20 7-23
7 - 1

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Contents

Call Processing

7.4.6.1 7.4.6.2

Normal Setup Fast Connect Setup

7-23 7-25

7.5
7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 7.5.6

Configuration Negotiation to Open a Session


IS-856 Session Layer Configuration Negotiation Procedure PPP Connection Session Maintenance Keep Alive Function Dormant /Active Function

7-26
7-26 7-27
7-28 7-29

7-30 7-31

7.6
7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4 7.6.5 7.6.6 7.6.6.1 7.6.6.2 7.6.6.3

Traffic Channel Resource Allocation


Frame Offset DRC Length/DRC Channel Gain Ack Channel Gain MAC Index DRC Cover RAB Offset/RAB Length RAB Offset RAB Length Controlling Interference in each Sector

7-32
7-32

7-33 7-33 7-33 7-33 7-34 7-34 7-34 7-34

7.7
7.7.1 7.7.1.1 7.7.1.2 7.7.1.3 7.7.1.3.1 7.7.1.3.2 7.7.1.4 7.7.1.5 7.7.1.5.1 7.7.1.5.2 7.7.1.6 7.7.1.7 7.7.2 7.7.3

Handoff
Forward Link Handoff Introduction Pilot Sets Pilot Drop Timer Maintenance Active Set Management Adding or Dropping a PN Offset To or From an Active Set Conditions for Dropping and Adding Pilot PN Offsets from/to the Active Set Candidate Set Management Neighbor Set Management NeighborList Message Neighbor List Selection Algorithm Virtual Soft Handoff Inter-PCF Handoff Reverse Link Handoff Handoff Between 1xEV-DO and 3G-1X Systems

7-36
7-36 7-36
7-37

7-38 7-38 7-39 7-40 7-41 7-41 7-42 7-43 7-44 7-44 7-45

7.8
7.8.1 7.8.2 7.8.3 7.8.3.1 7.8.3.2 7.8.3.3

Power control
Introduction Open loop power Closed loop Outer loop power control Inner loop power control RPC Channel and DRCLock Channel

7-46
7-46 7-46
7-46

7-46
7-47

7-47

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7.9

Overload control

7-49

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Call Processing

7.9.1 7.9.2 7.9.3 7.9.4

Introduction Reverse link loading constraints Overload detection Overload control implementation

7-49 7-49
7-50

7-50

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1xEV-DO Call Processing Overview

Call Processing

7.1 1xEV-DO Call Processing Overview


.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

A significant part of call processing, which is concerned with the establishment and maintenance of airlink channels between the AT and RAN, is governed by the connection layer of the IS-856 Protocol Architecture (refer to Figure 2-4). The set of protocols in this layer is shown in Figure 7-1.

Connection Layer
Air Link Management Protocol Packet Consolidation Protocol Initiation State Protocol Idle State Protocol Connected State Protocol Overhead Message Protocol

Route Update Protocol

Figure 7-1

Connection Layer of 1xEV-DO IS-856 Protocol Architecture

Call processing is performed by the software modules that provide the necessary functions to enable the AT to access and receive service from the Evolution Controller (EVC) in the RAN network. The functions that these services include overhead message processing, signaling messaging transmission/receiving processing, allocating/de-allocating of airlink resources for a particular AT, setting up the R-P connections to the PDSN, etc.

7.1.1 Connection Layer Protocol

The 1xEV-DO operation, as defined by the connection layer protocol set, is divided into four states; each identifies the mode that an AT may enter from the time the AT is switched on. The relationship of the connection layer protocols is shown in Figure 7-2. Except for the Overhead Message protocol, which is performed exclusively by the RAN, incidence of protocols are performed in both the AT and RAN network. The protocols share data with each other in a controlled fashion, and the arrows indicate activation command data flow.

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Initialization State Protocol

Idle State Protocol Air Link Management Protocol Route Updste Protcol

Overhead Message Protocol

Connection State Protocol

Figure 7-2

1xEV-DO Operation

The AT and the RAN network maintain either a closed or open connection state that dictates the type of communications between the two. Closed Connection: In this connection state, the AT is not assigned to a dedicated airlink resource. Communications between the AT and the RAN network are conducted over the access channel and control channel. Open Connection: In this connection state, the AT can be assigned the forward traffic channel, and is assigned a reverse power control channel and a reverse traffic channel. Communications between the AT and RAN network are conducted over these assigned channels, as well as over the control channel.

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7.2 Air Link Management Protocol


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The Air Link Management protocol in the connection layer maintains the overall connection state control in the access terminal and RAN network. The protocol can be in one of three states, corresponding to whether the access terminal has yet to acquire the network. The states are: Initialization State - Maintained by the Initialization State protocol, enabling the AT to acquire the RAN network Idle State - Maintained by the Idle State protocol after the AT has acquired the RAN network. In this state, the AT is not assigned any dedicated airlink resources. Communications between the AT and the RAN network are conducted over the reverse access channel and the forward control channel in a closed connection. A closed connection is referred to in the IS-856 specification to indicate that the traffic data connection is closed off. Connected State - Maintained by the Connection State protocol to manage the radio link between the AT and the RAN network in an open connection. A open connection is referred to in the IS856 specification when the AT is (or can be) assigned a forward traffic channel, RPC (Reverse Power Control) forward channel, and a reverse traffic channel (refer to Figure 3-1). Communications between the AT and the RAN network are conducted over the assigned channels, as well as over the forward control channel.

7.2.1 Access Mode

In addition to connection state supervisory control, the Air Link Management protocol controls initial AT to base station access. Initial access is required whenever the AT must send data to the base station, and the distance between the AT and the closest base station is indeterminate. If initial access is required, the access mode is entered, enabling the AT to determine the minimum transmit power required to access the base station. This is done to avoid the generation of unnecessary RF interference in the environment. To accomplish this, the AT begins to transmit a sequence of access probes at increasing power levels until a response is returned from the base station. The power level of the first access probe transmit is a function of the strength of the signal received by the AT. If the receive signal is strong, indicating that the base station is close by, the transmit power of the first access probe would be much lower than if the receive signal was weak. When an acknowledge response to the access probe is received, the AT uses the power level of the last transmitted access probe, which is determined to be the minimum power level required for the base station to receive discernible data from the AT, to transmit subsequent messages to the base station. The generation and transmission of the access probes are governed by the access parameter and initial configuration attributes messages transmitted from the RAN network. These messages, which in general are targeted to the Access Channel MAC Protocol in the MAC layer, are comprised of a number of access translation parameters entered on Service Nodes/General section of the configuration data EMS GUI page. The generation of these messages is handled by the overhead message protocol in the RAN network. Some of the

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parameters extracted from these messages to control the generation of the access probe are identified and described in Table 7-1.

Table 7-1

Access Probe Related Translation Parameters

Parameter

Range

Default

Description

Access Parameter message Access Capsule Max Length 2 to 15 frames 2 frames Identifies the maximum number of frames that may be used for any message within the access probe Indicates the duration of the access cycle in time slot periods Used by the AT to estimate the initial access probe transmit power Correction factor that adjusts the AT open loop power estimate for initial access probe transmission Indicates power increment between successive probes Identifies the number of access probes to be generated within access probe sequence Indicates length of preamble portion of access probe in number of frames

Access Cycle Duration Open Loop Power Adjustment Initial Probe Power Correction Factor Power Increment Step Number of Access Probes

0 to 255 time slots 0 to 255 dB

64

-16 to 15 db in 0.5 dB steps

0 to 15 dB in 0.5 dB steps 1 to 15

6 5

Access Preamble Length

1 to 7 frames

2 frames

Initial Configuration Attribute message Maximum Number for an Access Probe Sequence 1 to 15 3 Indicates the maximum number of probe sequences permitted in a single access attempt

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Table 7-1

Access Probe Related Translation Parameters

Parameter
Access Channel Probe Backoff

Range
1 to 15

Default
4

Description
Backoff value used in an algorithm for determining the time the AT waits for a probe response during an access probe sequence Backoff value used in an algorithm for determining the time the AT waits before generating the net access probe sequence

Access Channel Probe Sequence Backoff

1 to 15

Sector Parameter Message Reverse Link Silence Period 0 to 3 0 Indicates the duration of the reverse link silence period where the parameter value, n, is expressed in units of 64 pseudo noise (PN) chips:1 = duration of 64 PN chips, 2 = duration of 128 PN chips, 3 = duration of 192 PN chips Indicates the duration of the interval between Reverse Link Silence Periods in which ATs cannot transmit on the reverse link.

Reverse Link Silence Duration

0 to 3 frames

7.2.1.1 Persistent Test

The access probe sequence must begin at the start of the access cycle. To control congestion on the access channel, a persistent test based on its AT class is performed by all ATs petitioning system access before attempting to generate a probe sequence. This test greatly reduces the odds that two or more ATs in the area will generate access probes at the same time. Based on its AT class and a persistent vector extracted from the overhead message, the AT computes a persistence value p. This value is then compared with a uniformly distributed random number x, where 0 < x < 1. If p is greater, then the persistent test is passed, and the AT may transmit a sequence of access probes. If the AT fails to transmit an access probe sequence due several unsuccessful persistent tests, the AT is allowed to generate the access probe sequence after the number of consecutive persistent tests exceeds 4/p. To help obtain the reverse link noise floor at the base station, a reverse link silence period periodically occurs in which all AT transmissions are halted. Therefore, the generation of the access probes cannot overlap the reverse link silence period. This period is determined by the AT from the Reverse Link Silence Period and Reverse Link Silence Duration translation parameters received in the Sector Parameter overhead message. The latter parameter

7.2.1.2 Reverse Link Silence Period

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defines the length of the silence period, and the former specifies the interval between silence periods. This interval is equal to:
2048 2
ReverseLinkSilencPeriod

Frames

7.2.1.3 Access Probe Structure

The structure of the transmitted access probe is shown in Figure 7-3. The access probe consists of a preamble followed by access data wrapped within access capsules, which are Physical Layer-assembled packets (refer to Sections 3.4.6.1 and 3.4.6.2). The access data portion of the probe may consist of one or more access capsules, up to its maximum length specified by the Access Capsule Max Length translation parameter. Because the access probe is transmitted at a 9.6 Kbps data rate, a signal access capsule is transmitted during a 16-slot frame. The reverse link pilot signal is transmitted at a high power level during the preamble. During the data portion of the access probe, the pilot signal power is reduced and the amplitude of the data channel is in proportion to the pilot transmit amplitude so that the sum of the data and pilot channel transmit power is equal to the pilot channel transmit output transmitted during the preamble period.

Access Probe Transmission Period

Access Cycle Duration Beginning of access channel cycle

Access Cycle Duration

(Preamble length x 16 slots)

Up to Access Capsule Max Length x 16 slots Access Capsule

Transmit Power

Preamble

Data Pilot Pilot


Time

Figure 7-3

Access Probe Structure

7.2.1.3.1 Access Probe Sequence


A number of access probes, designated Np, are successively generated at increasing transmit power levels during each access probe sequence, as shown in Figure 7-4 where Np is 4. The number of probes to be generated within each sequence is expressed in the system translation database (Number of Access Probes) and is sent to the AT as part of the overhead message. After performing a persistence test, the AT generates the first access probe of the sequence at a power level based on an open-loop estimate using its mean receive power level in an algorithm using the Open Loop Power Adjustment and the Initial Probe Power Correction Factor parameter values extracted from the overhead messages. The power levels of subsequent probes in the sequence is increased by the increment extracted from the Power Increment Step parameter.
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Tp Persistence Test Persistence Test Ts

Tp Persistence Test

Tp

1 Probe Sequence No,

~ ~

Np

Np

Np

1
Power Increment Step

Ns

Tp

Figure 7-4

Access Probe Sequence

7.2.1.3.2 Inter-Probe Backoff


The time distance between successive probes in an access probe sequence, Tp, is computed from the Access Channel Probe Backoff parameter extracted from the overhead messages. The inter-probe backoff period must be long enough to allow the AT, if the base station receives and recognizes the probe, to receive the base station acknowledgement before the next probe is transmitted. In addition, to reduce the probability of the access probes from two or more ATs in the area colliding, the Tp, value computed from the overhead broadcast Access Channel Probe Backoff parameter must be different for each AT. The Access Channel Probe Backoff parameter value defines the largest Tp, value permitted. To compute a unique Tp value, the AT generate a pseudorandom number, y, which is a uniformly distributed random integer between 0 and the Access Channel Probe Backoff parameter value. To compute the value of Tp, in time slot periods, the product of the pseudo-random number, y, and the Access Cycle Duration parameter, is added to a fixed probe time-out value, (Probetimeout):
Tp = ( y AccessCycleDuration ) + Probetimeout

The Probetimeout is set to128 time slots by the IS-856 specification to allow the base station enough time to acknowledge the probe. If any portion of the access probe will state before the end of the reverse link silence interval, y is added to a y total register that is set to zero at the start of the access probe sequence, producing a new, y value, and Ts is recalculated. The next access probe is then transmitted to the recalculated Ts slots after the previous probe.

7.2.1.3.3 Inter-Sequence Backoff


The interval between access probe sequences, Ts, is defined by the Access Channel Probe Sequence Backoff parameter value. To compute the value of Ts, in time slot periods, the AT generate a pseudo-random number, k, which is a
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uniformly distributed random integer between 0 and the Access Channel Probe Sequence Backoff value. The value of Ts is equal to the product k and the Access Cycle Duration value, plus a fixed sequence time-out value, (Sequencetimeout), which is 128 time slots:
T s = ( k AccessCycleDuration ) + Sequence timeout

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7.3

Initialization State
In this mode, the AT registers on the RAN to identify its presence and location within the RAN network. In response to registering, the AT is assigned unique obtain address allowing the RAN to page and messages to the AT. The AT will enter the initialization state, which is controlled by the initialization protocol. In this state, the AT, which has no information about the serving base station or RAN network, must acquire the RAN network and synchronize with its timing. The initialization state is activated by the air link management protocol after the AT is switched on or, the AT user attempts to open or return to a session after a long pause. In either situation, the initialization state is activated to control how the AT acquires the RAN network in its service area. To do this, the AT may select a forward CDMA channel from a preferred channel record provided to the AT from the RAN network. In addition to preferred channels, the channel record identifies the system (compliance specification) and its band class. Immediately after the AT is activated, the AT enters a RAN network determination mode as shown in Figure 7-5. At this time, the AT selects and tunes to one of the channels from its channel record and attempts to acquire its forward link pilot signal. If the AT cannot acquire the pilot signal within 60 seconds, the AT refers back to the channel record to identify another network. When a pilot signal is acquired, the AT monitors the Sync Message broadcast on its control channel. The Sync message will contain information about its serving base station and RAN. One of the values read from the Sync message is the range of AT revisions compatible with the base station, the base station sector pilot PN offset, and network system timing. The RAN network sets the System Time field of the Sync message to 60 ms after the start of the Control Channel Cycle in which the Sync Message is transmitted. The System Time is specified in units of 26.66 ms. The Sync message transmission period is 1.28 seconds. If the AT acquires the Sync message within 5 seconds, the AT will advance to the idle state. If the AT version is not within the revision range specified by the Sync message or the AT cannot synchronize to the control channel cycle within 5 seconds, the AT goes back to the RAN network determination mode for channel reselection.

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Initialization State

AT Activated

RAN Network Determination

Can AT acquire pilot ? Yes

No

Read synch message and synchronize to control channel cycle

Yes

Is AT revision out of range ?

No
Can AT synchronize to control channel cycle ?

No

Yes Go to Idle State

Figure 7-5

Initialization State Flow Diagram

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7.4 Idle State


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The AT will enter the idle state, which is controlled by the idle state protocol after the RAN network is acquired. At this time, an open connection exist, where the AT is not assigned to a dedicated airlink resource. Communications between the AT and RAN network are conducted over the access channel and control channel. In order for the RAN network to identify each AT that enters its coverage area, the AT must register when it enters the coverage area.

7.4.1 Registration and Location Report

Unlike IS-95 and 3G-1X, there is no central database such as a home location register (HLR) and visitor location register (VLR) in the in the 1xEV-DO system as in traditional wireless voice systems to keep track of each AT location. In order to keep track of the AT and to know where to page it, 1xEV-DO uses registration. There are two possible registration procedures:

UATIRequest Message-based RouteUpdate Message-based.

In both messages, which are handled by the route update protocol, the AT sends its location information to the base station so that the RAN network may focus its paging of the AT to the correct coverage area. Rather than using serial number paging as in voice wireless systems, each AT is assigned a unicast AT identifier (UATI) address. This address is similar to the IP address that is assigned to data packets to steer the packet as it makes its way from source to destination over the Internet (refer to Section 2.4.2.3). To obtain an UATI assignment, the AT transmits an UATIRequest Message over the reverse access channel (refer to Figure 7-6). This message will be sent when the AT first registers after the initialization state.

AT Route Update or UATI Request (RATI)

RAN

AcAck

UATI Assignment

UATI Complete

Figure 7-6

UATIRequest Message

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7.4.1.1 UATIRequest Message

The AT must include its UATI address within the UATIRequest message to allow the RAN to direct (address) its page to the AT. As a result, the RAN returns an access acknowledge (AcAck) response. When the UATIRequest message is sent for the first time after the initialization state, the AT is not assigned any identification address. To provide an address, the AT picks a Random Access Terminal Identifier (RATI) and includes the RATI in its UATIRequest message in place of the UATI. The RAN recognizes the RATI and will assign a UATI value which the AT will use throughout its stay within the subnet. The sssignment of UATI value is handled by the address management protocol in the IS-856 session layer. The UATI is a 128-bit address value divided into two fields: UATI104 and UATI024. The 104 most significant bits (MSB) of the UATI, which make the UATI104 field, provide data steering within the RAN network between the PDSN and the base station sector, where the 8 least significant bits (LSB) of the UATI104 field are the base station sector codes. The UATI104 value is sent to the AT in the SectorParameterMessage on the control channel. The least significant UATI024 field is sent to the AT in the UATIAssignment message. When an UATI value is included in the UATIRequest message, the RAN would know that the AT had registered in another subnet and is registering its location in its current subnet. This reregistration is referred to as Inter-Subnet Idle Transfer. InterSubnet Idle Transfer is also known as Inter-PCF Idle Handoff.

7.4.1.2 RouteUpdate Message

In the idle state, the AT sends a RouteUpdate message to the RAN when the AT moves into a different subnet. A subnet is a definable coverage area controlled through a single Evolution Controller (EVC) within a Flexent Mobility Server (FMS). The current subnet servicing an AT is identified by its Color Code sent over the Control Channel. The RouteUpdate message is also sent when the AT computes its distance (radius, r) from the base state the it sent its last RouteUpdate message is greater than the RouteUdateRadius value in the SectorParameter message from that base station. This radius r is computed as shown in Equation 7-1.
Equation 7-1
yL 2 2 ( x C x L ) cos + [ yC yL ] - ------------- -------180 14400 r = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16

Where, xC and xL are the longitude and latitude, respectively, of the sector that receive the last RouteUpdate message from the AT, and yC and yL are the longitude and latitude, respectively, of the sector currently providing coverage to the AT. The base station locations are entered in the EMS data base via the Base Station Antenna longitude and Latitude in Degrees, Hours, and Seconds fields of the Service Nodes GUI page for each base station. The RouteUpdate message is used when the AT is requesting a traffic channel assignment (refer to Section 7.4.6.1).

7.4.2 Idle Mode SubStates

In the idle state, an open connection is established between the AT and RAN. Although in this mode air resources are not allocated to the AT, the AT monitors unicast paging as well as broadcast messages from the RAN over the forward control channel, and will periodically update its location via RouteUpdate messages in accordance with predefined parameters within the RAN network.

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The AT may be sequenced in one of three Idle State sub-modes, as shown in Figure 7-7. The three sub-state are: Monitor Sub-State: In this state, the AT monitors the Control Channel, monitoring the unicast messages from the RAN, such as page and overhead messages. Sleep Sub-State: The AT shuts down part of its subsystems to conserve power. The AT does not monitor the Forward Channel, and the RAN is not allowed to transmit unicast packets to the AT. Connection Setup Sub-State: The AT and the AN set up a connection.

Initialization state

Monitor State

Sleep State

Connection Setup State

Figure 7-7

Idle Sub-States

To support the sub-states, the AT and RAN network can be operated in the following modes: Continuous Operation: The AT continuously monitors the control channel. Suspended Mode Operation: This mode is entered after the AT monitors the control channel in the continuously operation mode for a period of time and then proceeds to operate in the slotted mode. Suspended mode operation allows for quick networkinitiated re-connection, or Fast Connect. Slotted Mode Operation (Sleep Sub-State): The AT monitors the control channel during selected slots.

7.4.2.1 Monitor Sub-State

When in the monitor sub-state, the RAN communicates with each AT, which are also in the monitor state, on the CDMA channel selected for monitoring by the AT. The RAN will only page those carriers that the ATs are monitoring, preventing unnecessary paging on the other carriers to save overall control channel capacity. The Page messages are unicast over the control channel if a connection has to be opened. At this time, the AT responding to the page will transition to the connection setup sub-state and will send a Connection Request message. If it has a reasonable estimate of the AT current location, the RAN may use fast connect accelerated procedures to set up a connection

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with an AT by bypassing the paging process, and transition directly to the connection setup sub-state for the AT.

7.4.2.1.1 AT Monitor Sub-State


In the monitor sub-state, the AT selects a CDMA channel from the list of channels in the SectorParameters message. If no channels are listed, the AT uses the channel it is currently monitoring. If a new channel is selected (a channel other than the current channel being monitor), the AT tunes to the new channel and begins to monitor the overhead messages on the channel. If the AT requires a close connection or response to a Page, or a Traffic Channel Assignment message without requesting such via a Connection Request message (fast connect), the AT sends a ConnectionRequest message and transitions to the connection setup state.

7.4.2.1.2 Forward Link Control Channel


In the monitor sub-state, the AT monitors both broadcast and AT-directed (unicast) messages transmitted over the control channel at either a 76.8-kbps or 38.4-kbps data rate. The modulation characteristics of control channel transmission are the same as those of the forward traffic channel at the corresponding data rate (see Table 3-1). Transmission at the 76.8-kbps rate is coded using a MAC index of 2, and transmission at the 38.4-kbps rate is coded using a MAC index of 3. Lucent Technologies uses control channel transmission at the 76.8-kbps rate. Control channel packets are transmitted in either synchronous capsules, which are transmitted at a particular time slot to accommodate slotted mode operation or in asynchronous capsules, which are transmitted at any time, except during a synchronous capsule transmission. The AT-directed messages are sent in response to the requests generated by the AT, or to generate a request from the AT. Examples of these messages are:

UATIAssignment Message - Sent by the RAN in response to a RouteUpdate & ConnectionRequest (RATI) message from the AT requesting a UATI address assignment TrafficChannelAssignment Message - Sent by the RAN in response to a RouteUpdate & ConnectionRequest (UATI) message from the AT requesting a traffic channel.

Broadcast messages are periodically sent to inform the ATs within the coverage area of the system parameters, access parameters, configuration parameters, neighbor information, etc. Examples of these messages are:

QuickConfig Message Informs the AT about certain important parameters, such as the Color Code, and indication that the Forward Traffic Channel for a particular MAC index is valid SyncMessage Contains information about the serving base station and RAN such as the range of AT revisions compatible with the base station, the base station sector pilot PN offset, and network system timing SectorParameter Message Provides neighbor information, list of available channels, local time offset, latitude, longitude, etc. AccessParameters Message Contains the parameters the AT uses to access the system ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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ReverseLinkRateLimit Message Informs the AT of the highest rate that can be used on the reverse link channel Redirect Message Redirects the AT to another 1xEV-DO carrier or IS- 2000 System.

7.4.3 Sleep Sub-State

When the AT is in the sleep sub-state, it enters the slotted mode operation. In this mode of operation, the AT may stop monitoring the control channel and shut down some processing resources to reduce power consumption and, thereby, increase battery life. The control channel, which is interlaced with the transmission of traffic data, is transmitted every 425 ms for a 13.33-ms duration, as shown in Figure 3-9. On the occurrence of every twelfth control channel cycle (time slot) which occurs every 5.12 seconds, the RAN and AT transition from the Sleep Sub-State to the Monitor Sub-State for the 13.33-ms control channel cycle time slot to exchange synchronous capsules. To prevent loss of this exchange, the AT cannot change its Active Set pilot at a time that causes it to miss a synchronous Control Channel capsule. There are 12 control channel cycles within 5.12 seconds (refer to Figure 7-8).

5.12 seconds Control Channel Traffic Channel

13.33 ms
426.66 ms

Figure 7-8

Sleep Mode Slotted Control Cycle

The control cycle time slot used is derived from the ATs UATI value. The Sleep State is similar to the 3G-1X slotted mode, and although 3G-1X has fewer time slots, its slot cycle occurs every 5.12 seconds, allowing hybrid AT/3G-1X mobile operation. If the AT is a hybrid mobile, it is required to monitor the paging channel on the 3G-1X system as well as the 1xEV-DO slotted control channel in the same time slot period. Usually in 1xEV-DO, the sleep cycle time slot is determined by the hash function using the AT-assigned UATI value. If the 1xEV-DO control channel time slot assigned to the AT does not align with the 3G-1X paging channel time slot, the AT is required to change the 1xEVDO-assigned time slot to coincide withe 3G-1X time slot. In that case, the AT would send a PreferredControl Channel Cycle to the 1xEV-DO base station, indicating the desired time slot. As a result, the 1xEV-DO weak control channel time slot for the AT is recalculated to coincide with the 3G-1X wake time slot.

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7.4.4 Suspend Mode of Operation

The suspend mode is entered by the AT after the open connection with the RAN is closed. A close connection with the RAN is always terminated by the AT. When a connection is being closed, the AT sends a ConnectionClose message to the RAN. As a result, the traffic channel resources are released, and the AT can choose to go into the suspended mode operation. In the suspended mode, the AT monitors the control channel continuously for a period of time, and then proceeds to operate in the slotted (sleep) mode (see Figure 7.4.3). The ConnectionClose message indicates how long it will stay in the suspended mode before entering the slotted mode. If the RAN has any data to send to the AT during the suspended mode, the AN can send a TrafficChannelAssignment Message in an asynchronous capsule instead of a Page message. In addition to monitoring the control channel messages, the AT must monitor the pilot signal associated with the control channel currently being monitored, and compare its signal strength with the signal strengths of pilot signals from other sectors in the area. The is fundamental to 1xEV-DO, ensuring that the AT will be receiving data from its best serving base station to receive data at the highest rate possible. The pilot signals that are monitored by the AT are identified by channel and PN offsets in a NeighborList overhead message. The signal strength of the pilot signal associated with the control channel currently being monitored is compared with the signal strengths of neighboring pilot channels. This is done to identify and initiate handoff when the AT finds another sector that can better service the AT with a higher data rate. Handoff is discussed in greater detail in subsequent paragraphs. Not only does the AT continuously monitor of pilot signal strength in search of a better serving sector, pilot signal monitor is also performed to ensure that the stronger pilot signal selected is strong enough to maintain a reliable connection. If the strength of the selected pilot signal falls below the minimum value set in the parameter database, AT access to the RAN is lost. The AT monitors the signal strengths of all the pilot channels in its RF environment and classifies them into four mutually exclusive sets: Active Set: Set of pilot signals associated with the sectors that allocate channel resources to the AT. Allocation of channel resources means that their associated sectors are ready to receive and transmit traffic data from and to the AT when the value its DRC channel points to the sector. In the Idle State, there is only one pilot in this set, that of the control channel currently serving the AT. Candidate Set: Pilot signals that are not in the Active Set, but are received by the AT with sufficient strength to indicate that they good candidates for inclusion in the Active Set Neighbor Set: Pilot signals that are not in either one of the two previous sets, but are possibly potential candidates for inclusion in the Active Set Remaining Set: All possible pilots on the current channel assignment, excluding the pilots that are in any of the three previous sets.

7.4.5 Idle State Pilot Channel Supervision

The pilot signals that are categorized into one of the four pilot sets are extracted for the from the NeighborList message complied by the route update protocol in the RAN. When the AT enters the Idle connected state, a NeighborList message is received to convey information corresponding to the neighboring sectors. This message lists all of the neighboring pilot channels by its PN offsets and CDMA channel number. The the AT may measure each PN offset to determine if their signal
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strengths are sufficient to support traffic channel data. Most likely, the AT will sometimes be in a multipath environment, causing the multipath components from a single pilot pulse to be received over several chip periods. As a result, the actual pilot signal strength is the aggregate signal energy received from each multipath component. To insure that most of these components are weighed in the pilot signal strength measurement a search time window date to allow for arrival of multipath components is also received in the NeighborList message. This time window, which is expressed in the number of chip periods, for the active and candidate sets, is entered into the EMS database via the Search Window Size for the Active/Candidate Set EMS parameter fields on Service Node page. The search windows for the neighbor and the remaining sets are specified by similar parameters on the same Service Node page. The search window parameter range is 0 to 15, where 0 specifies a 4-PN chip window width, and 15 specifies a 452-PN chip window width. Search window sizes are related to cell size, more time should be allotted for the collection of most of the multipath components. Searching for a pilot can fail if the AT uses a small search window size in a large cell. Because of the greater distance, the search window size for the neighbor set must be larger than the search window size for the active and candidate set, and the search window size for the remaining set must be larger than the search window size for the neighbor set. Setting the search window size for the remaining set to 0 will eliminate the remaining set population. As part of the idle stat pilot supervision process, the pilot signal strength (Eb/No level) in the Active Set is compared with the signal strengths of the pilot signals in the Candidate and Neighbor Sets, as shown in Figure 7-9.

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Monitor pilot signal strengths in all pilot sets except those in Remaining Set

Is pilot signal in Candidate Set > pilot signal in Active Set + PilotCompare for 1 sec.? No

Yes

Idle State Handoff

Measure strength of each pilot signal on the same channel in Active and Candidate Sets

Stop pilot drop timer

No

Is any pilot signal < Pilot Drop value?

Yes

Start pilot drop timer

No

Is timer expired ? Yes Register NetworkLost Indication

Figure 7-9

Idle State Pilot Supervision

When in the idle state, the only pilot signal in the active set is the pilot signal associated with the current control channel servicing the AT. If the Eb/No level of any pilot signal in either candidate set is greater than the pilot signal in the active set for one second by the value specified by the PilotCompare parameter, an idle state handoff is performed. As a result, the pilot signal with the higher Eb/Nolevel is placed in the Active Set, and its base station sector becomes the AT serving sector. The ATs former serving pilot signal is moved out of the Active Set, and is placed in one of the three other sets in accordance with its current Eb/No level. The PilotCompare value is entered in the EMS database via the Active Set Versus Candidate Set Comparison Threshold field of the Sector/Access Control page. To ensure that the Eb/No levels of at least one of the pilot signals in either the Active or Candidate Set are of sufficient strength to produce reliable service, the Eb/No levels of all of the pilot signals are compared with a Pilot Drop Threshold parameter level. This level is entered into the system data base via Section 1 of the EMS Service Nodes GUI page to define the minimum acceptable pilot channel level for reliable service. The signal strengths of each of the pilots in the active and candidate
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pilot sets are compared to the Pilot Drop Threshold. When the Eb/No level of any pilot signal falls below the threshold level, the pilot drop timer begins to count down from a count defined by the Drop Timer Value, which is also a translation parameter entered into the EMS database via the same Service Nodes GUI page. The default value of this parameter is 3, which translates to 4 seconds. If, after the timer is started, the pilot signal being compared increases above the Pilot Drop Threshold, the timer is stopped. The timer result for each pilot signal is recorded by the keep register, and is subsequently reported to the RAM via a RouteUpdate message. If the timer expires, the AT considers the network lost.

7.4.6 Connection Setup Sub-State

The connection setup sub-state is entered when the AT requires connection on a traffic channel. Two types of connection setups are supported: Normal setup: Initiated by the AT with a ConnectionRequest Message sent by the AT in response to receiving a Page Message, which directs the AT to initiate a connection request Fast Connect: Initiated by the RAN that sends a TrafficChannelAssignment Message based on the last RouteUpdate received from the AT, without the AT sending a ConfigurationRequest Message to the RAN. Fast Connect eliminates the need for the Page and ConnectionRequest exchange when the RAN has pending data to transmit to an AT. When the AT enters the Connection Setup State, the AT needs to have a connection within seconds (2.5 seconds). When the RAN enters the Connection Setup State, the RAN needs to have a connection within one second.

7.4.6.1 Normal Setup

Normal setup is always initiated by AT and will occur when the AT user wants to open a session, or when the AT is responding to a page. Paging is used by the RAN to communicate with the AT during the Idle State, and is typically sent when the RAN has data to send to the AT. In order for the AT to receive paging from the RAN, and/or request traffic channel access, the AT must either register as described in Section 7.4.1, or report its location via a RouteUpdate message. In either case, the AT will have an assigned UATI address, enabling the RAN to identify the AT when being paged. In addition, the AT must include its UATI value when it responds with a RouteUpdate&ConnectionRequest (UATI) message to request a traffic channel connection. The RouteUpdate and ConnectionRequest messages are bundled in the same access channel MAC layer packet. The message exchange between the AT and RAN is shown in Figure 7-10.

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AT Page

Base Station Send Page Route Update & Connection Request (UATI) AcAck Allocate Traffic ChannelReq Allocate Traffic Channel Resp DRC Cover Ind Traffic Channel Assignment Send DRC + Pilot and ramp up RTC RTC Ack Traffic Channel Complete Ack Configuration negotiation procedures Sent TCA Mobile Acquire Ind Send RTC Ack TCC

RAN

Figure 7-10

Traffic Channel Request Response to Page

The base station sends the Page message in response to a SendPage command from the RAN to direct the AT to request a connection. The Page message is sent only if the AT has already registered with the network, and if it is in the idle state. In response to the page, the AT sends the RouteUpdate and ConnectionRequest message. The RouteUpdate portion of this message will include the pilot PN phase (PN offset), pilot strength, and drop timer status for every pilot in the active and candidate sets. The message also includes the PN offset and signal strength of the pilot associated with the Control Channel that the AT is currently using. Upon receiving a connection request, the RAN requests that the base station allocate a traffic channel to the AT. If the base station can comply with this request it acknowledges (AcAck) the AT page response to the RAN, and returns a response back to the RAN indicating compliance with traffic channel allocation request. The RAN then sends the base DRC and channel information that will be included in the TrafficChannelAssignment message to be sent to the AT. This information includes DRC cover, length, and channel gain (refer to Section 5.4.3.1.2), and also includes the reverse active bit (RAB, refer to Section 5.2.2). The TrafficChannelAssignment message is sent to the AT when the Sent TCA command is generated by the RAN. When the TrafficChannelAssignment message is received, a command ID sent to the AT MAC layer acquires the reverse traffic channel (RTC). When its MAC layer responds, indicating that the RTC is acquired time. Subsequently, the AT starts transmitting over the assigned RTC and ramps up to the RTC power level indicated through the forward Reverse Power Control (PRC) channel. The AT sets its DRC length and cover to the values specified in the TrafficChannelAssignment message, and transmits these values over the quadrature phase (Q-phase) portion of the RTC (refer to Figure 3-13) to confirm receipt of the TrafficChannelAssignment message. To help the base station to acquire this transmission, the AT also transmits pilot and Reverse Rate Indicator (RRI) signals, on a time share basis, of the MAC portion of the RTC (refer to Section 3.4.2). In response, the base station sends a Mobile
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Acquire Ind signal to the RAM indicating that the AT has acquired the assigned traffic channel. The RAN then responds with Send RTC Ack command that is relayed back to the AT. When the AT receives the RTCAck message, it advances to the open connection state and responds with a TrafficChannelComplete message that is acknowledged directly from the RAM. At that point, the AT and RAN starts to negotiate configuration procedures over the established traffic channel.

7.4.6.2 Fast Connect Setup

Fast connect is initiated by the RAN to re-establish a traffic channel connection for a user. This connection setup speeds up connection setup time by eliminating paging and the RAN wait time for the AT RouteUpdate&ConnectionRequest (UATI) message response. Except for the elimination of the Page and the RouteUpdate&ConnectionRequest (UATI) response, the fast connect setup (see Figure 7-11) is very similar to the normal connect setup.

AT

Base Station

RAN

Allocate Traffic ChannelReq Allocate Traffic Channel Resp DRC Cover Ind Traffic Channel Assignment Send DRC + Pilot and ramp up RTC RTC Ack Traffic Channel Complete Ack Configuration negotiation procedures Sent TCA Mobile Acquire Ind Send RTC Ack TCC

Figure 7-11

Fast Connection Setup

The exchange of the Page and the RouteUpdate&ConnectionRequest (UATI) response in normal connection setup is required because the RAN has no other way of determining the ATs current location. To perform a fast connector setup, the RAN must have some reliable indication of the ATs location, which may be from a recent message exchange with the AT. If the RAN is reasonably certain of the AT location when the AT is in the suspend mode (refer to Section 7.4.4). When the AT enters this mode, then RAN is informed of the ATs location via its RouteUpdate message, and how the AT will be in this mode before entering the sleep mode. The RAN initiates the connection setup by sending the AT a TrafficChannelAssignment message based on the last RouteUpdate message received from the AT. The transmission of the TrafficChannelAssignment message is synchronous and requires that the AT monitors the Control Channel while in the suspend mode. Therefore, to avail itself for fast connect setup, the AT cannot go into the slotted mode to conserve battery time.
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7.5 Configuration Negotiation to Open a Session


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After the UATI and traffic channel are assigned, a configuration negotiation procedure is preformed to open a session between the AT and RAN. A session is a shared state maintained between the AT and the RAN where the AT can be addressed using the UATI. In order to open a session between the AT and RAN, three things must occur: A UATI and traffic channel are successfully assigned to the AT Session configuration is successfully negotiated A Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) link is established between the AT and the PDSN. At this time, a user record is created and stored in the PDSN.

After the session is opened, the connection between the AT and RAN can open and close a connection multiple times. When the connection between the AT and RAN is closed, a connection release is issued. This may occur when the AT goes into the sleep mode in the idle state because of inactivity. As a result, the session goes into the dormant mode. Although at this time, the AT surrenders its traffic channel, the PPP link is still maintained in an open session with the RAN.

7.5.1 IS-856 Session Layer

When a session is being opened, protocol parameters are governing how communication must be negotiated over the traffic channel. This negotiation is handled through the Session Layers in the AT and RAN. The IS-856 Session Layer contains the following protocols (see Figure 7-12): Session Management Protocol: Controls the other Session Layer protocols. This protocol performs session maintenance to ensure that the session is still valid and to manage the closing of the session. A session may be kept open using Keep Alive functions, which is controlled by this protocol. The procedure to close a session is started when the AT no longer has a UATI and, therefore, cannot be addressed by RAN, after a long period of dormancy (AT inactivity). Address Management Protocol: Manages initial UATI assignment and maintains the AT addresses Session Configuration Protocol: Negotiates protocols and configuration parameters. Configuration parameters are negotiated between the AT and RAN a number of times during a session through the exchange of ConfigurationRequest and ConfigurationResponse messages between the AT and RAN.

Session Management Protocol

Address Management Protocol

Session Configuration Protocol

Figure 7-12

IS-856 Session Layer


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7.5.2 Configuration Negotiation Procedure

The configuration negotiation procedure is initiated by the AT for the very first setup of the session, performed after a UATI is assigned. In order to save bandwidth when negotiating a session, many parameters in 1xEV-DO are set with default values in both the AT and RAN. The RAN-initiated negotiation is typically used to override these default values. In order to keep track of the negotiated parameters, the standards provide a Token mechanism. The Token is set by the RAN. Every time that the AT accesses the network through a new sector, the AT will send back the Token. If the ATs Token is mismatched to that of the base station per-sector Token, a renegotiation will take place, and the ATs Token will be reset after the negotiation. The configuration parameter values can be changed through configuration negotiation by exchanging the ConfigurationRequest and ConfigurationResponse messages between the AT and base station. The negotiation procedures take place on the Traffic Channel, and can take place at the beginning of a session or any other time, as long as the AT is assigned to a traffic channel. The negotiation starts by sending a ConfigurationRequest message. Negotiation is done on a per-protocol basis, so there can be as many ConfigurationRequest/ConfigurationResponse messages exchanged between the AT and AN as there are protocols used. When the negotiation is done, a ConfigurationComplete message is sent. Figure 7-13 shows the configuration negotiation process for initial negotiation. Subsequent configuration will occur after the connect is established.

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Configuration Negotiation to Open a Session

Call Processing

AT

RAN

Connection Establishment ConfigurationRequest ConfigurationResponset

ConfigurationRequest ConfigurationResponset ConfigurationComplete

ConfigurationRequest ConfigurationResponset ConfigurationComplete

Figure 7-13

Session Configuration Negotiations

7.5.3 PPP Connection

Once a configuration has been negotiated, a PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) connection must be established between the AT and the PDSN (refer to Section 2.4.2). The PPP establishment is shown in Figure 7-14. After a traffic channel is established and the session configuration negotiated, the AT will then send a XonRequest message to the RAN. This message is generated by the Flow Control protocol which is a sub-component of Default Packet Application Protocol of the IS856 Application layer. The Flow Control protocol provides procedures and messages required by the Default Packet Application Protocol to perform over the air packet data flow. The Flow Control protocol has two states: Close state, in which radio link protocol (RLP) packets cannot be sent or received Open State, in which RLP packets can be sent or received.

When the XonRequest message is received by the RAN, its Flow Control protocol transitions from the closed state to the open state. Flow Control protocol for the shared session between the RAN and AT will remain in the open state until a XoffRequest message is received from the AT. At this time, Flow Control protocol transitions to the closed state.

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AT Configuration Negotiation Procedure XonRequest (service)

RAN

PDSN

Establish A10/A11Connection XonResponse (service) Establishing PPP Connection Transmitting Packet Data

Figure 7-14

Establishing PPP Connection

In response to the XonRequest, the RAN causes the AP in the FMS to establish an A10/A11 connection with the PDSN. After this connection is established, the RAN returns a XonResponse. When this response is received, indicating that A10/A11 connection is established, the AT the user will go through IP login procedures with the PDSN, which typically involves authenticating the user through the AAA Server. Once successfully authenticated, the user and the PDSN create a PPP session between them. This PPP session normally remains up until it is terminated by the AT user.

7.5.4 Session Maintenance

There are several call processing functions that are required to maintain an open session between the AT and RAN. These processing functions are listed below. Only the first two functions are discussed in this section. Either because of their complexity or relevance to other functions, all the other processing functions are discussed in other sections. In this case, a brief description of the function is given with a section reference where a detailed discussion of the processing function is given. Keep Alive Function The AT or the RAN periodically exchanges KeepAliveRequest and KeepAliveResponse messages to ensure that the session is still open Dormant /Active Function The activity of the AT is continually monitored. If the AT is inactive for a period, the AT goes into a dormant mode. Scheduling Process to maximize the overall sector throughput, by allocating forward link time slot to those ATs reporting the best RD conditions. The scheduling algorithm is thoroughly discussed in Section 3.3.6.

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Rate control Each section transmits a Reverse Activity Bit (RAB) on its reverse activity channel. To control reverse link interference, the RAB bit is broadcast to all the ATs in the section RF environment, instructing the ATs either to increase or decrease its transmitted data rate. Refer to Section 7.6.6. Handoff The ATs estimate the strength of the forward channel transmitted by each sector in its neighborhood. This estimate is based on measuring the strength of the forward pilot channels from its serving sector and it neighboring sectors.The AT identifies the sector having the strongest measured pilot channel by transmitting a data rate control (DRC) value, indicating the date rate that can be supported from the sector. If the RAN determines the data rate indicated by the AT is the highest from other ATs vying for service from that sector, the RAN will permit the AT to be handed off to the sector. Refer to Section 7.7 for a detailed discussion on handoff. Power Control Because in 1xEV-DO the base always transmits at full power, power control is only required on the reverse link. The purpose of reverse link power control (RPC) is to determine the lowest power required to maintain a desired Frame Error Rate (FER) for each user. When all ATs transmit the lowest power required, the sector and base station capacity are maximized. Refer to Section 7.8 for a detailed discussion on power control. Overload Control In addition to power control, it is essential to protect against reverse link overload. Such protection begins with the design of the forward link budget; however, reverse link overload control algorithms are in place to protect the system against performance degradation due to increased reverse link interference. Reverse link overload control not only helps to maximize the reverse link throughput, but also helps to maximize the forward link throughput. This done by ensuring the integrity of the reverse link MAC Channel (both DRC Channel and ACK Channel). Lost or high levels of interference on the DRC channel may present missed-opportunities from handing off ATs to better serving sector, and the failure to properly receive the ACK channel may result in unnecessary transmission and re-transmission of packet data on the forward link. Refer to Section 7.9 for a detailed discussion on overload control.

7.5.5 Keep Alive Function

During periods of AT inactivity, the AT and RAN will be triggered to exchange KeepAliveRequest and KeepAliveResponse messages between the AT and RAN to ensure that the session it still open and can remain open. The KeepAliveRequest message may be transmitted from either the RAN or AT. The exchange of these messages is typically transmitted with asynchronous capsules over the access and control channels because the most likely need for this message exchange will occur during dormancy. If the traffic channel is still assigned to the AT, the message exchange may occur over the forward and reverse traffic channels. When the message is transmitted, the sender waits for a KeepAliveResponse Message, indicating that the recipient is still available to continue the session. If a response is not received within a specified time, a release session command is issued, causing the session manager protocol to close the session. The system will keep a session open when no activity is sensed over the forward and reverse traffic channels for a time period specified by a Keep Alive Timer parameter. This parameter is entered into the EMS data base via the Service Node EMS page and

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has a range between 0 and 65535, calibrated in minutes where 65535 minutes equals 1092.25 hours or 45.5 days. The IS-856 standards define the default value of 3240 minutes, or 54 hours. A zero value for this timer disables the keep alive function. The time interval between the transmission of successive KeepAliveRequest/KeepAliveResponse message exchange is determined by dividing the period set by the Keep Alive Timer parameter by three. Therefore, up to three KeepAliveRequest/KeepAliveResponse message exchanges may occur during the AT dormancy period. If any KeepAliveResponse Message is not received or no AT activity is detected for the Keep Alive Timer period, the session will close down.

7.5.6 Dormant /Active Function

The RAN monitors the activities on the AN forward and reverse traffic channels to determine whether the AT is in the dormant mode. If there is inactivity for a period defined by a dormancy timer, the AT is released of its assigned traffic channel and enters the dormant mode. The dormancy timer is set by the Dormancy Timer parameter, which is entered into the EMS data base via the Service Node EMS page and has a range between 1.0 and 60.0 in 0.5-second steps. While in the dormant mode, the AT can only monitor the control channel during its wake-up cycle. During this mode, the AT monitors Page messages and will respond to KeepAliveRequest messages over the access channel. The AT transitions back to the active state when the user has a message to send, or when the AT is responding to a Page message. At this time, the AT will transmit a RouteUpdate&ConnectionRequest (UATI) message as described in Section 7.4.6.1.

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7.6 Traffic Channel Resource Allocation


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When the AT receives the TrafficAssignment message, and its MAC layer returns an RTC-acquired indication, an open connection state exists between the AT and the RAN. In multiple carrier systems, if the carrier of the assigned traffic channel (RTC) is not on the carrier that the AT is currently monitoring, the TrafficAssignment message will identify the carrier of the assigned traffic channel. The carrier is identified by its channel record that identifies the channel number and band class. Parameters governing the use of the currently assigned RTC and the RTC from other sectors that the AT may point to for subsequent handoff. The parameters for the current RTC are: Frame Offset Assigns one of the 16 time slots within a frame that the AT may start transmission over the assign traffic channel DRC Length Indicates the number of time slots per frame that the AT may transmit over its DRC channel DRC Channel Gain Indicates the ratio of DRC channel power gain to reverse traffic pilot channel gain for currently assign traffic channel Ack Channel Gain Indicates the ratio of Ack channel power gain to reverse traffic pilot channel gain for currently assign traffic channel.

The RTCs from other sectors that the AT may point to for subsequent handoff are identified in the TrafficAssignment message by their sector pilot PN offset. These RTCs are on the same carrier as the assigned RTC. The parameters for each RTC handoff candidate included in the TraffcAssignment message are: MAC Index Walsh code assignment for reverse traffic channel usage on the handoff RTC candidate DRC Cover Indicates the DRC Walsh code identifying the handoff RTC candidate sector. The DRC value must be covered by one of eight Walsh code to point to a sector (refer to Section 3.3.4) Frame Offset Assigns one of the 16 time slots within a frame that the AT may start transmission over the handoff RTC RAB Offset Identifies one of the 16 time slots within a frame where the Reverse Activity Bit (RAB) from the sector identified by DRC cover is being transmitted. The RAB indicates if the AT should increase or decrease the data transmission rate on the RTC if selected for handoff. RAB Length Identifies the number of the time slots which the AT should use when sending the Reverse Traffic Channel activity bit.

7.6.1 Frame Offset

To minimize processing delay at the base station, the frame offset, sometimes referred to as the slot index, spreads the RTC transmission from all the ATs in the coverage area over the entire 16 time-slot frame period. Data transmission from any AT within the base station coverage can only begin at the start of the time slot assigned by the frame offset value. The frame offset value is randomly assigned to each AT. As a result, RTC traffic from different ATs will arrive at the base station at different times.

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7.6.2 DRC Length/DRC Channel Gain

The DRC length and DRC channel gain are functional relative values that are inserted into the system EMS data base via DRC Transmit Slot Length (DRCLength) and DRC Channel Gain (DRCChannelGain) configuration parameters. The DRC length specifies the number of repetitions of the DRC information transmitted within each frame. When the DRC length value is 1, the DRC chip sequence is transmitted during each 1.67-ms slot period, resulting in a 600-Hz update rate. A DRC length value of 2 will repeat the same information once and provide a 300-Hz update rate. DRC length values of 4 and 8 transmit the same information four times and eight times, respectively, providing an update rate of 150 Hz and 75 Hz. Increasing the DRC length increases DRC channel processing gain, enabling transmission of DRC channel data at less power. At lower power levels, less interference is introduced in the reverse link environment, resulting in increased capacity to support a greater number of users. The trade-off from longer DRC lengths is forward link throughput. The slower the DRC channel information, the less responsive the base station is to changing AT RF environment conditions. This includes missed opportunities for faster data rates when the RF environment conditions improve, and retransmission when the RF environment conditions worsen. The DRC Channel Gain (DRCChannelGain) parameter indicates the ratio of the power level of the DRC channel (when it is transmitted) to the power level of the reverse pilot channel, expressed as its 2's complement value.

7.6.3 Ack Channel Gain

The Ack channel gain is set by the Ack Channel Gain (AckChannelGain) EMS database parameter.This parameter, can be adjusted between -3.0 to +6.0 dB in 0.5-dB steps, sets the ratio of the power level of the Ack channel (when it is transmitted) to the power level of the reverse pilot channel, expressed as it 2's complement value in units of 0.5 dB. There are 64 MAC indices which are defined in the standards, that identify 64 Walsh codes, where MAC indices 5 through 63 are used to assign reverse link user data traffic channels. Each active (non-dormant) user is assigned a unique MAC index. Therefore, 59 users is the maximum number of active users per sector/carrier allowed by the IS-856 standard. However, to protect the system due to limitations of the RF environment, hardware, etc., the number of users may be restricted by the Maximum Number of Users Supported EMS configuration parameter, which can be adjusted between 0 and 59. The assignment selection of MAC indices always starts from the last index, i.e., 63, and sequentially works backwards. In other words, the last index is always used first. The MAC index is used in the QuickConfig message on the control channel to tell the AT if its reverse channel DRC has been received correctly, and if the forward traffic channel is still allocated to the AT. The MAC index is also used for reverse link power control by covering the Reverse Power Control (RPC) bit in the forward medium access control (MAC) channel (see Figure 3-1) by the user assigned MAC index Walsh code.

7.6.4 MAC Index

7.6.5 DRC Cover


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The DRC cover identifies the sector for each PN offset included in the TrafficAssignment message, and is translated by the AT into a 3-bit DRC Cover Symbol (refer to Section 3.4.4). After the traffic channel is assigned, the AT
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appends it pilot Active Set with the pilot PNs listed in the TrafficAssignment message. The AT then monitors the C/I level of all the pilot PNs listed in the active set, and estimates the data rate that can be supported by the pilot PN having the highest C/I level.This data is indicated on the reverse DRC Channel. To identify the best serving sector, the AT covers the value transmitted over the DRC channel with 8 one of eight orthogonal Walsh functions Wi , where i is a value between 0 and 7 selected by the 3-bit DRC Cover Symbol.

7.6.6 RAB Offset/RAB Length

The RAB Offset and RAB values extracted from the TrafficAssignment message define when and how often the Reverse Activity Bit (RAB) is transmitted from each sector associated with the pilot PN offset in the AT Active Set. The RAB bit transmitted by each sector is used control reverse link RF interface by controlling the data rate on its RTC. When the RF interference marginally increases, the RAB bit instructs each AT that includes the sector pilot PN offset in its Active Set to reduce its transmission data rate by one-half. If all of the ATs comply with this request, the RF interference may be reduced drastically, which an overkill to the marginal increase in RF interference, resulting in an inefficient use of uplink RF resources. To prevent this from occurring, probability thresholds are established in the ATs, allowing each AT to randomly select if it should comply with the RAB bit instruction. The RAB Offset value is determined by the Reverse Traffic Channel Activity Bit Transmit Offset (RABOffset) EMS parameter and provides diversity as to when the RAB bit is transmitted from different sectors. The RAB is transmitted over the reverse activity (RA) channel, which is a sub-channel of the forward MAC channel (refer to Section 3.3.2.5) and is distinguished with a MAC index 4 cove. Each neighboring sector should be set to have a different RAB offset. Without this offset, sectors will transmit the RAB bit at the same time, which can lead to data rate limit cycles, where each complying AT drops its rate and increases its data rate at the same time. The offset allows for one sector to indicate the drop uplink data rate, permitting neighboring sectors to reevaluate its effect on the RF interference environment before deciding whether to transmit 1 or 0 RAB bit. The RAB Length is set by the Reverse Traffic Channel Activity Bit Transmit Slot Length (RABLength) EMS parameter which is set between 0 and 3, (where 0 = 8 slots; 1 = 16 slots; 2 = 32 slots; and 3 = 64 slots). For the initial release of 1xEV-DO, only a 0 value (8 slots) is permitted. The RAB Offset value can take on values from 0 to 7, providing eight uniformly spaced offsets for RAB transmission within the defined RAB slot length. The slot for RAB transmission is determine by Equation 72:
Equation 7-2
RABOffset RABLength xmit slot = -----------------------------------------------------------------8

7.6.6.1 RAB Offset

7.6.6.2 RAB Length

If the RABLength is 64, the eight uniformly-spaced offsets for RAB bit transmission slots, xmitslot,are slots 0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, and 56. If the RABOffset is 3, the RAB bit transmission slots, xmitslot,is 24 (3 x 64 / 8).

7.6.6.3 Controlling Interference in each Sector


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The value of the RAB bit transmitted by each sector is a function of the reverse traffic interference experienced at the sector.The AT will start its transmission at a low data rate and may incrementally increase its data rate after every 26.67-ms frame up to a maximum data rate limit. The maximum data rate limit is established from either a BroadcastReverseRateLimit or UnicastReverseRateLimit message. If
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the RAB bit value from any sector in the AT pilot active set is 0, the AT may double its current transmission rate, subject to passing a transition probability test. If the RAB bit value from any sector in the AT pilot active set is 1, the AT may reduce its current transmission data rate by half. This rate reduction is also subject to the AT passing a transition probability test. In either case, if the probability test is not passed, the AT transmission data rate remains unchanged. The transition probability for each data rate change defines a threshold above which the data rate change will occur. The threshold for each data rate change is expressed to a 1/255 resolution by an associated transition probability EMS parameter. For example, the Transition Probability 38k4 to 19k2 (Transition038k4_019k2) EMS parameter establishes the probability that the AT uses to decrease its transmission data rate by half if its current transmission rate is 38.4 kbps and the RAB bit is 1. Each AT generates random number between 0 and 1, and compares this number with the appropriate probability threshold selected in accordance with the AT current transmission rate and the value of the RAB bit. If the random number is greater than the probability threshold, the data transmission is changed. Increasing a transition parameter, which may be set between 0 and 255, increases the threshold level, therefore reducing the probability that a data rate change will occur.

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7.7 Handoff
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7.7.1 Forward Link Handoff Introduction

Forward link handoff in 1xEV-DO is directed by the AT when it is determine that a particular sector could provide better service, in the way of faster data rate, than its current serving sector. Upon monitoring pilot signal strength from the better serving sector, the AT calculates the highest data rate that can be supported from the sector. Then the AT identifies this rate in its transmitted data rate control (RDC) channel, which it directs to the sector. However, before doing this, the AT must be certain that its target sector has the air resources to serve the AT, and that the sector can quickly tapped into the ATs forward link data stream so to avoid unnecessary delay. To provide this certainty, the AT must continuously monitor the pilot signal levels from all of its neighboring sectors, and choose those pilot PN offsets that are strong enough to be potential candidates for handoff. When potential candidates are identified, the RAN is informed via a message exchange that transpires between then. As a result, the Evolutionary Controller (EVC) in the RAN allocates traffic channels and the necessary resources to the target sector so that it could handle the handoff should the AT direct it to do so. As described in Section 7.4.5, while in the idle state, the AT tracks its current acquired pilot and neighboring pilot signal in one of four mutually exclusive pilot sets, which are reprinted here as follows: Active Set: Set of pilot signals associated with the sectors that allocated channel resources to the AT. Allocation of channel resources means that their associated sectors are ready to receive and transmit traffic data from and to the AT when the value its DRC channel points to the sector. In the Idle State, there is only one pilot in this set, that of the control channel currently serving the AT. Candidate Set: Pilot signals that are not in the Active Set, but are received by the AT with sufficient strength to indicate that they good candidates for inclusion in the Active Set Neighbor Set: Pilot signals that are not in either one of the two previous sets, but are possibly potential candidates for inclusion in the Active Set Remaining Set: All possible pilots on the current channel assignment, excluding the pilots that are in any of the three previous sets.

7.7.1.1 Pilot Sets

Although four pilot sets are maintained by the AT, only the Act Set is maintained in the RAN and its contain is transferred to update the AT Active Set via the TrafficChannelAssignment message. While in the close connection Idle State, the only pilot PN offset in the Active Set is that associated to the control channel that the AT is currently monitoring. However, as stated in the previous section, while in the open connection active state, the AT continuously monitors the pilot signal levels from all of its neighboring sectors and informs the RAN of potential candidates for handoff. This is done by including the PN offset of each handoff candidate in the ATs Active Set that is transferred to the RAN in a RouteUpdate message. After the RAN allocates the resources to the sector identified by the AT, the sector pilot PN offset, the places into the PN offset in its Active Set and subsequently, the ATs Active Set is updated via a TrafficChannelAssignment message. After the TrafficChannelAssignment message, the ATs Active Set is updated, the AT is free to
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direct its DRC channel to execute a handoff to any sector having its pilot PN offset in its Active Set.

7.7.1.2 Pilot Drop Timer Maintenance

The candidacies for any PN offset (pilot channel) for listing and maintenance in the Active Set is contingent on its signal strength over a duration defined by the pilot drop timer, as performed by the pilot drop time maintenance routine. When the AT is assigned a traffic channel, a static drop timer time routine, or both static and dynamic drop timer routines are performed to insure the contents of the pilot sets remain current with RF environment conditions. If the drop timer dynamic threshold flag is not set, only a static test routine, which is similar to the one described in Section 7.4.5 and shown in Figure 7-9, is performed. In the static test, a pilot drop timer, which counts down from it present PilotDropTimer value the signal strength of any pilot in the Active and Candidate Sets becomes less than the value specified by PilotDrop parameter. If the pilot signal strength increases above the PilotDrop level before the timer reaches it terminal count, the pilot signal remains in its present pilot set and timer is reset. If the timer reaches its terminal count before the pilot signal strength could increase above the PilotDrop level, the pilot PN offset is removed from its present pilot set. If the drop timer dynamic threshold flag is set, in addition to the static pilot drop timer maintenance test routine, a dynamic pilot drop timer maintenance test routine is performed. In addition to using the PilotDrop, PilotThreshold and PilotCompare parameters described in Section 7.4.5, four more parameters are required. These parameters are:

PilotAdd Entered into the EMS data base via the Pilot Detection Threshold field of the Service Node page. Indicates the signal threshold level that will qualify a pilot PN offset for Active set inclusion. If the threshold level is exceed by an pilot signal not already in the Active Set, the AT generates a RouteUpdate message, petitioning the RAN to include the pilot PN offset in the Active Set. SoftSlope Entered into the EMS data base via the SOFT_SLOP field of the Service Node page. Value of the slope used to determine the dynamic PilotAdd and PilotDrop thresholds. AddIntercept Entered into the EMS data base via the ADD_INTERCEPT field of the Service Node page. An intercept value used to determine the dynamic PilotAdd threshold. DropIntercept Entered into the EMS data base via the DROP_INTERCEPT field of the Service Node page.An intercept value intercept used to determine the dynamic PilotDrop threshold.

When the dynamic pilot drop timer maintenance test routine is performed, PilotAdd and PilotDrop thresholds are dynamically adjusted based on the aggregate signal strength of the all the pilots in Active Set. The illustration in Figure 7-15 shows how the dynamic pilot drop threshold (Eb/No) depends on the quality of the Active Set (PSi).

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Eb/No

PSi

Figure 7-15

Dynamic Pilot Drop Threshold

The AT sorts the pilots in the Active Set in order of increasing signal strengths, i.e., PS1 < PS2 <... < PSA, where A is the number of the pilots in the Active Set. The pilot drop timer is then started whenever the strength, PSi, of pilot i satisfies the following inequality:
Inequality IQ 3
10 log10 (PSi) < max i = 1, 2....NA SolftSlope 8 10 log10

j>i

PSj +

DropIntercept PilotDrop ,2 2

If the above inequality is satisfied, the pilot drop timer starts counting down from the PilotThreshold count and will not stop until either the pilot signal strength (PSi) increases so that the inequality is not satisfied, or terminal count is reached. If the inequality is not satisfied before terminal count is reached, the timer is reset and the pilot PN offset remains in its current set. If the timer terminal count is reached first, the pilot PN offset is removed from its current set.

7.7.1.3 Active Set Management

The maximum number of pilot PN offsets that may be included in the Active Set is six. Because the Active Set is managed by the route update protocol executed in the Evolutionary Controller (EVC) in the RAN, each time a status change occur that may effect contents of the Active Set kept by the AT, the RAM is notified of the change via a RouteUpdate message.

7.7.1.3.1 Adding or Dropping a PN Offset To or From an Active Set


When a pilot PN offset is to be added to or dropped from the Active Set, the sector associated with the pilot PN offset must be notified of the action. This notification, which is included in the RouteUpdate message, is required so that a traffic channel may be allocated when the PN offset is added, or de-allocated when the PN offset is dropped. Also included in the RouteUpdate message are the pilot PN offsets, pilot signal strengths, and drop time status for every pilot PN offset in the Active Set and Candidate Set. This allows the EVC to make the appropriate adjustments to its Active Set.
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The principle exchange of messages and commands that are required when a pilot PN offset is added to or dropped from the Active Set is shown in Figure 7-16. This figure shows the message exchanged when the AT, currently being served on Sector 1, request to add or drop a pilot PN offset associated with Sector 2 to or from its Active Set.

AT

Sector 1

Sector 2

Evolutionary Controller (EVC)

RouteUpdate message

RouteUpdate message Traffic Channel Request Traffic Channel Response

TCA

TrafficChannelAssignment message

TrafficChannelComplete message

Ack

Ack

Figure 7-16

Adding A Pilot PN to the Active Set

If the AT, which is served by Sector 1, wants to add the pilot PN offset for Sector 2 to its Active Set, its RouteUpdate message is relayed through Sector 1 to its serving EVC located in the FMS that defines the subnet. The EVC then request that Sector 2 allocated a traffic channel to handle the AT data flow in the event the the AT directs it DRC to Sector 2. If a traffic channel is available and allocated, Sector 2 response appropriately to the EVC. If the RouteUpdate message was to drop the PN offset from the Active Set, the EVC would have requested that Sector 2 deallocate the traffic channel. After receiving the acknowledgement of the traffic channel allocation or de-allocation, the EVC will include or remove the pilot PN offset associated with Sector 2 from its Active Set and relay a TrafficChannelAssignment message through Sector 1 to the AT. This message would appropriately show the inclusion or removal of the pilot PN offset associated with Sector 2 as requested in the RouteUpdate message. The AT will then add or drop the pilot PN offset to or from its Active Set and respond back to the EVC with a TrafficChannelComplete message.

7.7.1.3.2 Conditions for Dropping and Adding Pilot PN Offsets from/to the Active Set
There are two conditions that cause a pilot PN offset to be dropped from the Active Set: 1. The signal strength of the Active Set member drops below the PilotDrop threshold, initiating drop timer, and does not recover above the PilotDrop threshold before the drop timer reaches it terminal count
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2.

A pilot PN offset is added to the Active Set, increasing the number of pilot PN offsets beyond its maximum of six PN offsets. The pilot PN offset having the lowest signal level is dropped from the set.

The conditions for adding PN offsets to the Active Set depend on whether the dynamic threshold flag is set. If dynamic threshold flag is not set, a PN offset is added to the Active Set if either of the following occurs: The signal strength of a pilot PN offset in the Neighbor Set or Remaining Set pilot is greater than the threshold set by the PilotAdd parameter The signal strength of a pilot PN offset in the Candidate Set is greater than the value specified by PilotCompare above an Active Set pilot.

Dynamic thresholds are used to dynamically adjust the PilotAdd and PilotDrop thresholds based on the aggregate signal strength of all the signals in the Active Set. If dynamic threshold flag is set, a PN offset is added to the Active Set if any one of the following occurs: The signal strength of a pilot PN offset in the Neighbor or Remaining satisfies Inequality IQ 4:

10 log10 (PS) > max

SolftSlope 8

PSi+ 10 log10 iAS

Inequality IQ 4
AddIntercept 2 ,PilotAdd 2

where the where the summation is performed over all of the pilot PN offsets in the Active Set (AS). The signal strength of a pilot PN offset member Candidate Set pilot satisfies Inequality IQ 5:

10 log10 (PS) >

SolftSlope 8

10 log10

iAS

Inequality IQ 5
PSi AddIntercept
+

where the where the summation is performed over all of pilot PN offsets in the Active Set (AS)

7.7.1.4 Candidate Set Management

The maximum number of pilot PN offsets that may be included in the candidate set is also six. The set may consist of pilot PN offsets that were former members of either the Neighbor Set or Remaining Set whose signal strengths exceeded the threshold level set the PilotAdd parameter. The Candidate Set may also consists of pilot PN offsets that were dropped from the Active Set for one of two reasons depending on whether the drop timer dynamic threshold flag is set: When the drop timer dynamic threshold flag is not set and the signal strength of the Active Set member drops below the PilotDrop threshold. At this time, the drop timer is initiated. The pilot PN offset is dropped from the Active Set and added to the Candidate Set if its signal strength does not recover above the PilotDrop threshold before the drop time reaches its terminal count.

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When the drop timer dynamic threshold flag is set and the signal strength of the Active Set member drops below the PilotDrop threshold, resulting in initiating drop timer. The pilot PN offset is dropped from the Active Set and added to the Candidate Set if its signal subsequently recovering above the PilotDrop threshold, but Inequality IQ 3 remains satisfied throughout the drop timer count period.

There are three conditions that cause a pilot PN offset to be deleted from the Candidate Set: 1. 2. 3. The pilot signal strength increases so as to be added to the Active Set. The pilot signal strength decreases so as to fail the drop timer test. A pilot PN offset is added to the Candidate Set, increasing the number of pilot PN offsets beyond its maximum of six PN offsets. The pilot PN offset having the lowest signal level is deleted from the set.

7.7.1.5 Neighbor Set Management

The maximum number of pilot PN offsets that may be included in the Neighbor Set is 20. When the AT enters the open connection state, the Neighbor Set is initialized to the pilot PN offset that is received in the NeighborList message transmitted over the forward traffic channel.The message informs the AT of its serving sector neighbor; their pilot PN offsets and CDMA channel number, pilot search window size, and search window offset. Subsequent NeighborList messages are transmitted as the AT moves to keep the AT up to date on neighboring sectors. As the AT is mobile and the signal strengths of PN offsets in the four pilot sets are continuously monitor, PN offsets move in and out of the neighbor set. Conditions for the PN offsets to be move back into the Neighbor Set are: The pilot was deleted from the Active Set because the pilot drop timer reached its terminal when the drop timer dynamic threshold flag is set. The pilot drop timer of a pilot in the Candidate Set expires. The pilot was a member of the Remaining Set, and it was listed in a newly received NeighborList message.

A pilot PN offset is deleted from the Neighbor Set when that PN offset is moved to either the Act Set or the Candidate Set, or if the PN offset continuous stay in the Neighbor Set exceeds the limit set by the NeighborMaxAge parameter.

7.7.1.5.1 NeighborList Message


Each time a new NeighborList message is received, the AT adds pilot PN offsets listed in the message in the order they are listed to the Neighbor Set. If because of new neighbor list entrees, the number of PN offsets in Neighbor Set is more than 20, the PN offsets with the longest continuous Neighbor Set residency are dropped until the number of members in the set is 20. The maximum period that a long continuous Neighbor Set resident can remain in the Neighbor Set is determined by the NeighborMaxAge parameter value. With the exception of pilot PN offsets entering from the Remaining Set, an age counter is set to zero each time a PN offset enters or re-enters the Neighbor Set. The age counters are advanced each time a new NeighborList message is received.
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7.7.1.5.2 Neighbor List Selection Algorithm


The Evolution Controller (EVC) uses a neighbor list selection algorithm to assemble a neighbor list of pilot PN offsets that may most effectively service the AT. This algorithm prioritizes the PN offsets in the Active Set by pilot signal strength. The highest priority is given to the PN offset having the strongest signal strength, and the other pilots are ranked accordingly. A list of neighboring PN offsets is complied for each PN offset in the Active Set. For example, if the three PN offsets in a particular Active Set are ranked as PN offsets 10, 42, and 123, where PN offset 10 is listed with the high priority, each PN offset would sponsor a list neighboring PN offset, as shown in Figure 7-17.

PN Offset 10 (-5 dB) PN Offset 73 PN Offset 42 PN Offset 16 PN Offset 20

PN Offset 42 (-6 dB) PN Offset 10 PN Offset 123 PN Offset 73 PN Offset 169

PN Offset 123 (-7 dB) PN Offset 73 PN Offset 10 PN Offset 169 PN Offset 16 PN Offset 202

Figure 7-17

Neighbor List Ranking

The neighbors on the three sponsored lists are combined into one list and prioritized by discriminators to identify those neighboring PN offsets to be most likely used by the AT. This is done to save the AT processing time by eliminating those PN offsets would most like not be used by the AT. Pilot PN offsets that are already members of the Active Set and appear on any sponsored list, such as PN offset 10 that appears on the lists sponsored by PN offset 42 and PN offset 123, are omitted.Those PN offsets sponsored by the highest number of Active Set PN offsets are listed first. In the example, PN offset 73 that appears on all three sponsored list would be listed first. If two or more PN offsets, such PN offset 16 and PN offset 169, have the same number of sponsors, those sponsored by the PN offset having the highest priority will be listed before the other. In the example, PN offset 16, which is sponsored by PN offset 10, would be listed before PN offset 169. Because they have the same number of sponsors, Pilot PN offset 20 will be listed before PN offset 203. The combined neighbor will appear as shown in Figure 7-18. After ranking, if required, the combined neighbor list is truncated to a maximum of 20 entries and then sent to the AT after the handoff is complete.

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Neighbor List PN Offset 73 PN Offset 16 PN Offset 169 PN Offset 20 PN Offset 202

Figure 7-18

Combined Neighbor List

7.7.1.6 Virtual Soft Handoff

A soft handoff occurs when a mobile leaves the domain of one sector and enters the domain of another. During the soft handoff period, the mobile is receiving data from both sectors. In 1xEV-DO, even though the AT is monitoring all Active Set pilots, it is receiving data from only one forward link at any one time from a single sector that is associated with one of the PN offsets in the Active Set. Because when the AT selects a new sector by pointing its DRC to the new sector, air and data connection resources are already allocated for the handoff, the type of handoff that occurs is called a virtual soft handoff. Figure 7-19 illustrates a virtual soft handoff from Sector 1 to Sector 2.

AT

Sector 1

Sectior 2

FMS

DRC Forward Data Request Data Packets Frame

DRC

Forward Data Request

Forward Stop Indicator

Flush Buffer Data Packet Frame

Figure 7-19

Virtual Soft Handoff

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As long as the AT directs its DRC channel to Sector 1, the sector issues a Forward Data Request to the Flexent Mobility Server (FMS), instructing its controlling EVC to forward the ATs Data Packets. The data packs are then transmitted to the AT in frames from Sector 1. When the AT redirects its DRC channel to Sector 2, Sector 2 now issues a Forward Data Request to the FMS, and Sector 1 sends the EVC a Forward Stop Indicator, identifying the last frame that was transmitted. Upon receiving the Forward Data Request from Sector 2, the EVC sends a Flush Buffer command to Sector 1, and redirects the from of data packets through Sector 2.

7.7.1.7 Inter-PCF Handoff

The Flexent Mobility Server (FMS) contains four primary EVCs and four backup EVCs. The data traffic handled by each on-line EVC is connected to the Packet Data Service Node (PDSD) through the Pack Control Function (PCF). Each EVC services a single subnet which consists of up to eight base stations. A call handoff from a sector serviced by the PCF in one subnet to a sector serviced by a different PCF in another subnet, regardless of whether the PCF is on the same or different FMS frame, is called an inter-PCF handoff. This handoff will always be controlled by a single EVC. Although in IS-95 forward and reverse link soft handoff occur simultaneously, in 1xEV-DO soft or softer handoff only applies to the reverse link, and the mechanism in which soft and softer handoffs are implemented are similar. Soft and softer handoffs are permitted in CDMA if the handoff sectors are operating on the same channel frequency currently in use by the mobile. In a typical soft handoff scenario, the mobile establishes communication with a new antenna face, on the same sector of a new sector without breaking the connection with its current antenna face. This diversity with two or more antenna faces will occur throughout the handoff period, which is the period that the mobile remains in the area to received discernible data from the antenna faces within the soft handoff theater (overlapping boundaries among the antenna faces). In 1xEV-DO, reverse link handoff may occur when the AT directs its DRC channel to a new antenna face, prompting a reverse link soft handoff scenario between the current antenna face and the handoff candidate antenna face. Duplicate data packets received by the RAN from the soft handoff diversity are discarded by the Radio Link Protocol (RLP) operating at the airlink Application Lay. The RLP performs frame selection on the reverse link. When an AT is in soft handoff, all the reverse link legs will send frames to the RLP. When the RLP receives multiple copies of the same frame, the RLP selects a frame that successfully passes the CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). Other copies of that frame are discarded. For open connections in soft handoff with sectors that are controlled by the same or by a different FMS frame, the same EVC always controls the connection. The control can be changed only when the AT re-registers with a new EVC under a different FMS. Re-registering occurs only when the AT is in the dormant mode. During softer handoff, which occurs when handoff is between antenna faces on the same, the same forward link and reverse link modems are used. The power control bits for the softer handoff legs are combined. In other words, the modem makes one decision for the up or down power control bits sent on the forward link power control channel.

7.7.2 Reverse Link Handoff

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7.7.3 Handoff Between 1xEV-DO and 3G-1X Systems

A hybrid AT support both 1xEV-DO and 3G-1X calls and is capable of transmitting and receiving data on the 1xEV-DO carrier and making voice calls, and transmitting and receiving data on the IS-2000 system. The frequency change between the 1xEV-DO system and the 3G-1X system is performed by the hybrid AT. There is no network involvement at all; in fact, the network is not aware of any switch. For example, if a hybrid AT is in the middle of transmitting data on the 1xEVDO system, when the AT receives a page for a voice call, the AT could switch to the 3G-1X system to receive the voice call if the user chooses to do so. The 1xEV-DO system would not know that the AT had left the 1xEV-DO system and gone to the 3G-1x system for a voice call, because the AT does not send any indication back the 1xEV-DO system. The 1xEV-DO system would finally determine that the reverse link is lost or that the Dormancy Timer has expired; then the 1xEV-DO system would release the connection. The 3G-1X system would not know that the AT has just broken a connection with the 1xEV-DO system for this voice call. The hybrid AT is able to receive a Page message when it is on the 1xEV-DO system because the AT is in slot-mode operation with the 3G-1X network. The AT will wake up in its designated 3G-1X slot to monitor the 3G-1X paging channel. If the AT is on the 1xEV-DO traffic channel, the AT may send a null DRC to indicate that it does not want to receive any data from the network while it is monitoring the 3G-1X paging channel. If there is no page message for the AT on the 3G-1X system, the AT would come back to the 1xEV-DO system to resume its data connection by pointing a non-null DRC to some sector. If there is a page message for the AT, the AT would stay in the 3G-1X system to continue call setup procedures.

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7.8

Power control
7.8.1 Introduction
Because the base station always transmits at full power in a time slot mode, CDMA power control is performed on the reverse link only to maximize system capacity and minimizie reverse link interference. Reverse link power control (RPC) effectively controls the AT transmit power so that the lowest signal power level sufficient to maintain a desired Frame Error Rate (FER) is received from each user at the base station. When all ATs transmit at the lowest power required to provide discernible data at the base station, the sector and cell capacity is maximized. Two algorithms, one providing open loop power control and the other providing closed loop power control, are used to control the AT output transmit power. Open loop control is based on the total signal power received by the AT from all base stations during a handoff situation. When not in a handoff situation, the strength of the base station transmit signal measured by the AT is an indication of the distance between the nearest base station and the AT. Reception of a strong signal from the base station indicates that the AT is either close to the base station, or has a good RF path to the base station. In either case, the AT can use less transmitter power to provide a discernible signal at an acceptable FER at the base station. By reducing its output power, RF interference to other users in the area is reduced. Open loop power control is useful when establishing a connection and reacting to large path loss fluctuations from shadow fading. However, open loop adjustments could cause overcompensation; hence, open loop control has a relatively slow response. The closed loop control is faster and will compensate for errors in the open loop control. Once the AT initiates reverse link traffic channel transmission, the initial mean output power of the reverse link Pilot Channel is equal to the mean output power used when transmitting the last access probe on the Access Channel (refer to Section 7.2.1).

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7.8.2 Open loop power

7.8.3 Closed loop

Closed loop power control is faster than open loop power control, and will compensate for errors in the open loop control. The closed loop power control is made of an outer loop control and an inner loop control. The main objective of reverse link outer loop power control is to maintain the reliability of the reverse link Traffic Channels. The loop continuously adjusts a Power Control Threshold (PCT) used by the reverse inner loop power control to achieve an acceptable target frame error rate on the reverse link. The AT transmits reverse traffic data in the reverse Data Channel, and indicates to the base station the rate in which the reverse traffic data is transmitted via the reverse rate indicator channel (RRI Channel). The RRI data transmission is timeshared with the pilot channel (see Figure 3-18), and is transmitted at full power by the AT to provide reasonable assurance at high probability that valid RRI data will be received and correctly identified by the base station. When data is being transmitted, each base station in the Active Set of the AT receives the transmitted traffic data and tries to decode each data frame in its receiver modem (EVRx).

7.8.3.1 Outer loop power control

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The receiver modem at each base station that is included in the ATs Active Set decides whether the quality of each data frame received is good or bad. The quality decisions made are reported to the outer outter controller algorithm, which is run by the RLP and Signaling Manager (RMS) software module on the EVC. The outer loop controller algorithm then adjusts the level of the PCT threshold level according to the number of bad and good quality reports it receives. The decision, indicating bad quality, is rendered when the RRI Channel data indicates a data rate other than zero, indicating the reverse traffic data is being transmitted, and the receiver modem cannot validate a good frame. The decision, indicating good quality, is made if the receiver modem can validate a good frame. Even though the RRI data is transmitted at full power, there is low probability that a bad frame quality decision will be reported if the RRI symbols are misidentified at the base station when no reverse traffic data is being transmitted. Consequently, the misidentified RRI symbol causes the receiver modem to try to validate a frame which, by virtue of being non-existant, cannot be validated. When the reverse link is in soft handoff, the quality of a received frame reported by one base station will not necessarily be the same as those reported by other base stations in the Active Set. The outer loop control calculates the minimum PCT threshold level based on the quality of the received frames at each sector in the Active Set. This minimum PCT threshold level is then used at all receiver modems involved in the soft handoff, and is used by the reverse inner loop power control to achieve an acceptable target frame error rate on the reverse link.

7.8.3.2 Inner loop power control

The power control uses the PCT threshold level to determine an acceptable target frame error rate on the reverse link, and transmits its output to the AT in a continuous stream of 1s and 0s power control pits on the forward RPC (Reverse Power Control) Channel. The power control bits transmitted on the RPC Channel are covered by one of 59 Walsh codes (MAC indices) to direct to bit steam to the targeted AT. If the received quality is above the target threshold, a 1 RPC bit is transmitted, causing the AT to decrease its transmit power. If the received quality is below the target threshold, a 0 RPC bit is transmitted, and the AT increases its transmit power. The AT adjusts the power level in 1dB or 0.5 dB steps. If softer handoff is being performed, two different sectors at the same base station are transmitting the same RPC bit. In each slot containing power control bits, the AT will do diversity combining of the identical RPC Channels and obtain, at most, one power control bit from each set of identical RPC Channels.

7.8.3.3 RPC Channel and DRCLock Channel

The RPC Channel and DRCLock Channel are time-division multiplexed and transmitted on the same MAC Channel. The DRCLock Channel indicates to the AT whether a sector can send data to an AT if reqested by the DRC sent from the AT. If the AT receives a DRCLock bit that is set to 0 from the sector to which it is pointing its DRC, the AT should stop pointing its DRC at that sector. The RPC Channel is transmitted whenever the DRCLock Channel is not transmitted. The DRCLock is transmitted with an interval specified by DRCLockPeriod (default 16 slots).

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Because the RPC Channel and DRCLock Channel are multiplexed on the MAC Channel, the data rate of the RPC is 600 (1 -1/DRCLockPeriod) bps. Each RPC bit is transmitted four times in a slot bursts of 64 chips each. One burst is transmitted immediately preceding and following each pilot burst in a slot (see Figure 3-18).

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7.9 Overload control


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7.9.1 Introduction

In Sections 5.2.5.3.3 and 5.3.7, the merits of designing a load margin (factor) in the reverse and forward link budgets were discussed. In both discussions, the effect of increased interference on decreasing the sector coverage was illustrated using a pole capacity diagram. This diagram (Figure 5-7) shows that when CDMA loading in a sector approaches its pole capacity, the coverage is at its minimum. At maximum capacity, or 100% loading, the noise rise is so high that the AT does not have enough power to achieve the required signal level. As a result, system performance degrades severely. The inclusion of a load margin (factor) in the link budgets provides an overlap to handle allotted fluctuations in interference without degradation of service. Overload control provides protection against performance degradation due to increased interference beyond the range allotted in the link budget design. Because the forward link uses time division multiplexing to transmit each users data, and always transmits at the maximum power level allowed by the sector, load control is primarily concerned with the reverse link. Essential for reverse load control is the maintenance of integrity of the DRC and ACK Channels, which are sub-channels of the reverse link MAC Channel. If the base station cannot get reliable DRC feedback, the scheduler cannot schedule any data packets to be sent on the forward link. Also important is the base stations ability to receive reliable ACK feedback. Extra forward link capacity could be wasted with needless retransmissions. Therefore, reverse link overload control is vital in maximizing forward link throughput.

7.9.2 Reverse link loading constraints

The principal way of constraining reverse link loading to protect against overloading is to reduce the data rate in which each AT in a sector is transmitting. There are several ways, provided by the 1xEV-DO standards, to accomplish this. These include the Reverse Activity Bit (RAB, discussed Section 7.6.6) and rate limit messages. The rate limit messages are transmitted from a sector in either a BroadcastReverseRateLimit message to all the ATs that include the sector in its Active Set, or in a UnicastReverseRateLimit message that is directed to a particular AT. The UnicastReverseRateLimit message is transmitted to an individual active user at any time to limit its transmit rate. This messge may be useful when QoS is implemented such that selective users can be targeted for rate limit control. However, it is not cost-effective to send one signaling message to every user across the sector at the same time when an overload situation occurs. A more efficient approach is to transmit the BroadcastReverseRateLimit message. The BroadcastReverseRateLimit message is sent on the overhead channel in a periodic, specified interval, and specifies the maximum transmit rate allowed by all ATs. This message can be sent as frequently as every Control Channel Cycle, every 426.66ms, but may be transmitted less frequently to preserve Control Channel capacity. Rate limit messages are not fast enough to control the interference variations in the system where users are allowed to double their rate every frame.

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Overload control

Call Processing

The RAB bit is transmitted every slot period, every 1.66ms, to provide a faster load control mechanism than the BroadcastReverseRateLimit message. The AT monitors the RAB bit transmitted from all the sectors in its Active Set, regardless of whether the slot has any data. If any one of the forward links have set the RAB bit, the AT must decrease its transmit rate by half if the AT passes its transition probability test. If all of the forward links in the Active Set have not set the RAB bit, the AT can double the rate.

7.9.3 Overload detection

Overload detection is used to determine when and how the overload constraints described in the previous section are used. The overload detection algorithm used considers two input values: Walsh code-based CDMA loading RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indication) rise.

Walsh code-based CDMA loading uses system interference factors, such as number of users, received Eb/No, power settings of each user AT, and interference from other sectors to compute loading. The computation does not consider out of system interference. Therefore, the RSSI rise method is also used to compensate for interference factors outside of CDMA loading computation. The RSSI is measured at the J4 antenna connector, where RSSI rise is the rise of the total CDMA signal above the noise floor. Under certain simplifying assumptions, RSSI Rise is related to sector CDMA loading when the noise floor is accurately measured, and no out-ofsystem interference is considered. In general, high CDMA loading will cause high RSSI, but the reverse is not true because the RSSI value has three components: Noise floor CDMA interference (corresponds to CDMA loading) Out of system interference.

Therefore, a high RSSI value can be caused by one or more of the above three components. By using a combination of total Ec/Io loading and RSSI rise, CDMA loading can be more accurately estimated. In addition, the value of RSSI rise defines the cell/sector coverage. The cell coverage shrinks as RSSI rise increases.

7.9.4 Overload control implementation

Reverse link overload control is implemented based on a short term average for fast control, and a long term average for slow control. Slow control is also achieved, limiting the maximum users allowed for a sector. The fast control periods are defined when the RSSI rise is increased above pre-defined thresholds. The fast control is implemented by using the RAB bit. When the RAB bit is set, all ATs will reduce the transmitting rate according to some pre-set probability until the AT reaches the minimum rate limit. When the RAB bit is not set, the ATs are allowed to double the rate until it reaches the maximum rate limit set by either the BroadcastReverseRateLimit or UnicastReverseRateLimit messages. The probability of decreasing the transmit rate, determined by the appropriate transition probability parameter described in Section 7.6.6.3, is larger than the probability of increasing the transmit rate. Thus, the loading will decrease faster than increase with the changing of the RAB bit.

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