JFS

E: Food Engineering and Physical Properties

Effective Thermal Conductivity of Rice Flour and Whole and Skim Milk Powder
YOSHIKI MURAMA T SU, AKIO T AGA WA , AND T AKAMASA K ASAI URAMAT GAW ABSTRA CT : The effectiv e ther mal conductivity for 3 kinds of po w der ed food (r ice flour , whole milk po w der , and ABSTRACT CT: effective thermal pow dered (rice flour, pow der, skim milk powder) was measured at selected moisture contents, temperatures, and bulk densities. The transient heat pr obe method using twin pr obes was used for the deter mination of the effectiv e ther mal conductivity . The probe probes determination effective thermal conductivity. effects of moisture content, temperature, and bulk density on the effective thermal conductivity of samples were investigated. The observed values were compared with the values calculated from the thermal conductivity of air and po wder , using the 3 kinds of str uctur al model for ther mal conductivity , that is , the ser ies , par allel, and pow der, structur uctural thermal conductivity, is, series ies, parallel, random heat transfer models. An improved random heat transfer model, in which a correction term was incorporated in the random heat transfer model, with the term written as a function of moisture content and temperature, was developed. ds: r ice flour , milk po w der , effectiv e ther mal conductivity , twin pr obe method, heat tr ansfer model eywords: rice flour, pow der, effective thermal conductivity, probe transfer Keywor

hermal treatments such as pasteurization, concentration, drying, cooling, and so on are frequently used in food processing, transportation, storing, and cooking. Knowledge of the thermal conductivity of foods is thus important not only for the process design but also for the prediction and control of various changes occurring in food during thermal processing, and precise data of thermal conductivity are required both for existing foods and for new products and processes. Because of the wide variations in foods, it is practically impossible to obtain reliable thermal conductivity data for all kinds of food. Therefore, a predictive method for the thermal conductivity of foods is needed. To date, the thermal conductivities of many foods have been measured. The thermophysical properties of foods, such as thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and specific heat, were reviewed by Singh (1992), Sweat (1994), and so on. However, little research has been reported on the thermal conductivity of powdered food. Recently, the effective thermal conductivities of defatted soy flour (Wallapapan and Sweat 1982), skim milk powder (Maccarthy 1984), whole milk powder (Kent and others 1984; Maccarthy 1985), coffee powder (Singh and others 1997), and wheat flour (Muramatsu and others 2002) were measured at various moisture contents, temperatures, and bulk densities. Muramatsu and others (1999) predicted the effective thermal conductivity, the effective thermal diffusivity, and the specific heat of wheat flour simultaneously from line heat source probe data by using Blackwells equation, and these thermophysical properties were related to temperature and moisture content. Research on the thermal conductivity of the starches has been reported (Drouzas and Saravacos 1988; Maroulis and others 1990; Maroulis and others 1991; Fang and others 2000; Lan and others 2000; Krokida and others 2001; Sabliov and Heldman 2002). Kim and others (2003) mea-

MS 20040391 Submitted 6/14/04, Revised 8/23/04, Accepted 1/6/05. Authors Muramatsu and Kasai are with Dept. of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Bio-industry, Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture, 196 Yasaka, Abashiri-shi, Hokkaido, 099-2493, Japan. Author Tagawa is with Graduate School of Science and Technology, Chiba Univ., Chiba-ken, Japan. Direct inquiries to author Muramatsu (E-mail: y-murama@bioindustry.nodai.ac.jp).

Materials and Methods

hree kinds of powdered food adjusted to various moisture content, that is, rice flour (Nippon Flour Mills Co. Ltd., Tokyo, JaVol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE E279 Published on Web 4/28/2005

2005 Institute of Food Technologists

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E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

Introduction

sured the effective thermal conductivity of wheat flour milling coproducts (bran, germ, shorts, and red dog). The thermal conductivity in a packed bed, that is, the effective thermal conductivity, was affected by temperature, moisture content, and state of filling (bulk density or porosity). In addition, thermal conductivity depends on the composition and structure (the spatial distribution of the components) of the food. Therefore, a model to predict the effective thermal conductivity of food based on temperature, composition, and structure of food would be valuable for practical use. In the field of chemical engineering, many researchers have studied the effective thermal conductivities of packed beds, and various structural heat transfer models to estimate the effective thermal conductivity of packed beds have been proposed (Kunii and Smith 1960; Woodside and Messmer 1961; Okazaki and others 1977). However, the effective thermal conductivities of most powdered foods are only reported as a function of temperature and moisture content. There have been few reports of structural models to predict the effective thermal conductivity of powdered food. Recently, Maccarthy (1984), Murakami and Okos (1989), Maroulis and others (1990), Rahman and others (1991), Krokida and others (2001), Sabliov and Heldman (2002), and Muramatsu and others (2002) modeled the effective thermal conductivity of powdered food, for example, defatted soy flour, sea food powder, starch, and wheat flour, using the structural heat transfer model. In this study, the effective thermal conductivities of 3 kinds of powdered food (rice flour, whole milk powder, and skim milk powder) were measured at selected moisture contents, temperatures, and bulk densities. The transient heat flow method using twin probes (Kasubuchi 1977; Muramatsu and others 2000, 2002, 2003) was used for determination of the effective thermal conductivity. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the relationships between the effective thermal conductivity of a sample and moisture content, temperature, and bulk density, and (2) to develop a structural model to predict the effective thermal conductivity of the sample.

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

Table 1Compositions (mass fraction and volume fraction) of each sample Composition (%) Sample Rice flour Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Whole milk powder Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Skim milk powder Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Mass fractiona (Volume fractionb) Moisture 8.8 (13.1) 12.1 (17.7) 15.4 (22.1) 18.2 (25.7) 1.4 (1.8) 3.8 (4.9) 2.3 (3.5) 4.5 (6.7) 7.6 (11.1) Protein 6.9 (7.7) 6.6 (7.3) 6.4 (6.9) 6.2 (6.6) 25.9 (25.3) 25.3 (24.5) 34.5 (39.2) 33.8 (37.9) 32.7 (36.1) Fat 1.4 (2.3) 1.3 (2.1) 1.3 (2.0) 1.2 (1.8) 26.6 (37.4) 26.0 (36.2) 1.0 (1.6) 1.0 (1.6) 1.0 (1.6) Carbohydrate 82.3 (76.4) 79.3 (72.4) 76.3 (68.4) 73.8 (65.3) 39.9 (32.2) 39.0 (31.2) 54.1 (50.8) 52.9 (49.0) 51.2 (46.7) Fiber 0.3 (0.3) 0.3 (0.3) 0.3 (0.3) 0.3 (0.3) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) Ash 0.3 (0.2) 0.3 (0.2) 0.3 (0.2) 0.3 (0.2) 6.1 (3.2) 6.0 (3.2) 8.0 (4.9) 7.8 (4.8) 7.6 (4.6)

aCalculated from the measured result of moisture content and data from the standard table of food compositions in Japan (Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Japan. 2002). b Calculated from Eq. 9.

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

pan), whole milk powder (Snow Brand Milk Products Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), and skim milk powder (Snow Brand Milk Products Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) were used in this study. The compositions of each sample are given in Table 1. The compositions of these samples were calculated from the measured results of moisture content and data from the standard table of food compositions in Japan (Resources Council, Science, and Technology Agency, Japan. 2002). For each of the conditions of moisture content and bulk density described below, the effective thermal conductivity of the sample was measured at 5 different temperatures (10, 20, 30, 40, 50 C). The moisture content for rice flour was 8.8%, 12.1%, 15.4%, and 18.2% wet basis (wb), and bulk density was 650, 700, 750, and 800 kg/m3. For whole milk powder, moisture content was 1.4% and 3.8% wb, and for bulk density, 550, 600, 650, and 700 kg/m3. Skim milk powder had moisture content of 2.3%, 4.5%, and 7.6% wb, and bulk density of 700, 750, 800, and 850 kg/m3. The effective thermal conductivity of each sample was measured at 10 to 50 C in consideration of the ability, the performance of the measuring device, and the accuracy of measurement. Four different bulk densities were set, dividing between the largest bulk density obtained by the adjusting method of bulk density used in this study and loose bulk density at intervals of about 50 kg/m3. Based on the results of the initial moisture content measurement, the sample moisture content was adjusted. The moisture content to obtain the desired bulk density was chosen. To obtain the desired moisture content for the measurement, each sample was dried in an oven at 40 C or remoistened by spraying water on the sample with an atomizer. To achieve moisture content lower than the initial moisture content, the sample was thinly spread on a shallow pan (40 cm 50 cm), and the pan was put into a dryer controlled to 40 C for about 5 h. To obtain higher moisture content than the initial moisture content, water was added to the sample thinly spread in the pan with an atomizer while mixing the sample. The dried or remoistened sample was sealed in a vinyl bag and stored at room temperature (18 to 25 C) for 3 d before measurement. To ensure a uniform distribution of moisture in the bag, the bag was mixed by rolling periodically. For the first 12 h after the sample was put in the bag, the bag was mixed for
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3 min every hour. Afterward, the bag was mixed for 3 min every 8 h. The moisture content of the sample was determined using the oven drying method in which 2 g rice flour was dried in an oven at 135 C for 1 h (Tutumi 1984), and 2 g whole milk powder or skim milk powder was dried in an oven at 100 C for 5 h (Yoshitake 1984), respectively. The initial moisture contents for rice flour, whole milk powder, and skim milk powder were 12.1%, 3.8%, and 4.5% wb, respectively. The

Figure 1Schematic diagram of heat probe for measuring thermal conductivity

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JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCEVol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

bulk density of the packed bed was adjusted by dropping a container filled with the sample from a constant height several times. The sample was filled into a sample container for thermal conductivity measuring with a known volume, and the filled sample was weighed. The sample container is a cylindrical container 30 mm in diameter and 200 mm in height. To obtain the desired bulk density, the height of the sample packed bed was decreased by dropping the container from a constant height (height on about 3 cm from table). After dropping the sample container about 50 times, the height of the decreased sample packed bed and the sample mass were checked. The volume of the sample packed bed was calculated from the decreased height of the sample packed bed and the total volume of the container, and the bulk density was determined from the volume that the sample actually filled and the sample mass. The same container was subsequently used for the thermal conductivity measurement. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the heat probe (Tokyo Riko Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) used in this study. This probe consists of a constantan heater wire (0.1 mm diameter, resistance 14.6 ) and a T-type thermocouple (0.1 mm diameter) in a stainless steel tube (1 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length). The internal space of the stainless steel tube is filled with silicon oil. Because the stainless steel tube has a 1-mm outer diameter and 100 mm length, the ratio of the length to the diameter of this probe is 100 to 1 and is negligible such that the length of the heat source is finite (Hooper and Lepper 1950). A schematic diagram of the thermal conductivity measurement apparatus is shown in Figure 2. The apparatus consists of 3 parts: heating part, temperature control part, and recording part. The heating part involves the 2 probes, a D.C. power source (Regulated D.C. power supply, Model 526, Metronix Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), a D.C. ammeter (Portable direct current meter/voltmeter, Model 2012, Yokogawa Electric Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), and a switch. To ensure consistent heat quantity, the heater wires in each probe were connected in series. The apparatus used for holding the temperature constant throughout the test was a circulating water bath (Thermocirculor, Model TC-100, Tokyo Riko Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), which has a temperature control accuracy of 0.004 C. The temperature change in the heat source, namely the change in thermo-electromotive force, was amplified with an OP-amplifier (D.C. amplifier, Model CA-25F , Tokyo Riko Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and was recorded with a data logger (Data logger, Model R7326B, Advantest Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The transient heat flow method using twin probes, called the twin probe method, is a kind of relative measurement, and can measure thermal conductivity with a high accuracy (Kasubuchi 1977; Muramatsu and others 2000, 2002, 2003). In this method, the temperature changes of the probes inserted in the reference material and sample are simultaneously measured, and the effective thermal conductivity of the sample is calculated by multiplying the thermal conductivity of the reference material by the ratio of the temperature rises of the 2 probes. In this study, to avoid natural convection, 1 wt% agar gel was used as the reference material, and this agar gel was considered equal to water because it contains 99wt% water. After the water temperature in the water bath reached a preset temperature, one probe was inserted into the center of the reference material (1 wt% agar gel), and the other into the measuring sample. The sample container was submerged in the water bath; thus the temperatures of sample, reference material, and reference point of thermocouple (cold junction) were precisely controlled. Because of the high thermal conductivity requirement, the cylindrical sample container and reference point container were made of 0.3-mm thick copper plate. The reference point container size was 30 mm in diameter and 200 mm in height, and 1 wt% agar gel was filled in the container. When the changes in the thermo-electromotive force of both sample and reference material were less than 0.4 V, it was assumed that these temURLs and E-mail addresses are active links at www.ift.org

peratures had reached the preset temperature, that is, they were both in thermal equilibrium. Approximately 90 min was necessary before this equilibrium state occurred. After the thermal equilibrium state had been established, the heater wires of the probes were energized, and the temperatures of the probes increased with time. The temperature changes of the probes were amplified with the amplifier (Specificationsinput range [sensibility]: 25, 50, 100, 250, 500 V, 1, 2.5, 10, 25, 50, 100 mV; input impedance: 100 k; Noise: 0.4 V; Speed of response: 1 s or less in 25 V range; Linearity: 0.5% of full scale; Output: 10 mV or 10 V for each input range) and recorded with the data logger. In this study, the input range and the output of the amplifier were adjusted to 100 V and 10 mV, respectively, and the current energized to the heater wire of the probe was adjusted to 60 mA to raise the temperature of the probe about 2 C. Current was supplied to the heater wires of the probes for 180 s. In the theory of the twin probe method, the ratio of the temperature rise of the 2 probes is represented by the following equation (Kasubuchi 1977; Muramatsu and others 2000, 2002, 2003).

(1)

Figure 2Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity Vol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE E281

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

where and are the temperature rises of the probes inserted in the sample and the reference material, respectively. In Eq. 1, and are the effective thermal conductivity and thermal conductivity of the reference material (water), respectively. The effective thermal conductivity of the sample is obtained from is plotted against , the general feature Eq. 1. When of the temperature change of the probe is seen as Figure 3. After the first few seconds, a linear relationship is obtained, and the

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

Table 2Effective thermal conductivity for rice flour (measured value) Temperature Bulk density (kg/m 3) 650 Moisture content (%) 8.8 12.1 15.4 18.1 8.8 12.1 15.4 18.1 8.8 12.1 15.4 18.1 8.8 12.1 15.4 18.1 10 C 0.070 0.076 0.079 0.084 0.080 0.083 0.089 0.092 0.090 0.093 0.100 0.105 0.100 0.103 0.107 0.112 20 C 0.074 0.080 0.086 0.092 0.084 0.087 0.094 0.100 0.094 0.099 0.103 0.111 0.103 0.110 0.117 0.119 30 C 0.078 0.086 0.092 0.100 0.088 0.091 0.102 0.110 0.097 0.106 0.110 0.121 0.109 0.115 0.124 0.130 40 C 0.082 0.091 0.099 0.107 0.092 0.098 0.109 0.119 0.102 0.112 0.116 0.131 0.113 0.122 0.133 0.140 50 C 0.090 0.097 0.106 0.120 0.097 0.106 0.118 0.127 0.106 0.117 0.130 0.141 0.122 0.129 0.146 0.159 [W/m C]

700

750

800

Table 3Effective thermal conductivity for whole milk powder (measured value) Temperature Bulk density (kg/m 3) 550 Moisture content (%) 1.4 3.8 1.4 3.8 1.4 3.8 1.4 3.8 10 C 0.058 0.066 0.066 0.073 0.074 0.079 0.080 0.085 20 C 0.060 0.069 0.068 0.077 0.076 0.082 0.082 0.089 30 C 0.062 0.072 0.070 0.079 0.077 0.085 0.084 0.091 40 C 0.064 0.076 0.071 0.082 0.079 0.089 0.086 0.094 50 C 0.066 0.079 0.073 0.085 0.081 0.092 0.087 0.097 [W/m C]

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

600 650 700

slope of the straight line is the ratio of the 2 probes temperature changes. In this study, the thermal conductivity of water in Eq. 1 was taken from a reference (Choi and Okos 1986). The measurements of the effective thermal conductivity were replicated 5 times for each experimental condition. The experimental apparatus and method used in this study were calibrated using glycerin, 10 wt% and 20 wt% sodium chloride solution, and 10 wt%, 20 wt%, 30 wt%, 40 wt%, 50 wt%, and 60 wt% sucrose solution. As a result, the relative errors were 2.0% or less.

The measured data of each bulk density of each sample were fitted by a linear least squares method to Eq. 2. The solid lines in Figure 4 show the calculated results from Eq. 2. For all samples, the calculations from Eq. 2 agreed well with the measured data. The parameters, standard error (SE) and coefficient of determination (R2), of Eq. 2 for each sample are shown in Table 5. The standard error is calculated from Eq. 3.

Results and Discussion

he measured results of the effective thermal conductivity for each sample are shown in Table 2, 3, and 4. In this study, the effects of moisture content and temperature on the effective thermal conductivity for each sample were investigated. The relationships between effective thermal conductivity and moisture content at 5 different temperatures and 650 kg/m3 (bulk density) of rice flour are shown in Figure 4. Figure 4 shows that the effective thermal conductivity of rice flour increases as the moisture content increases, and a linear relationship exists between the effective thermal conductivity and moisture content. Similar results were obtained for all samples. When the effective thermal conductivity of each bulk density was plotted against temperature, a linear relationship was obtained. Therefore, we assumed that the following empirical equation represents the relationship between effective thermal conductivity, moisture content, and temperature (Tagawa and others 1995). (2)
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(3)

The relationship between effective thermal conductivity and bulk density at 12% wb of rice flour is shown in Figure 5. The solid lines in Figure 5 show the calculated results from Eq. 4. (4) The parameters, SE and R2, of Eq. 4 for each sample are given in Table 6. The relationship between effective thermal conductivity and bulk density for all samples is represented by Eq. 4. In the field of chemical engineering, various structural heat transfer models to estimate the effective thermal conductivity of a packed bed have been proposed. However, little research has been reported on structural models to predict the effective thermal conductivity of powdered foods. In this study, the sample packed bed can be considered a two-phase system, consisting of a solid phase
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JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCEVol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

Table 4Effective thermal conductivity for skim milk powder (measured value) Temperature Bulk density (kg/m 3) 700 750 800 850 Moisture content (%) 2.3 4.5 7.6 2.3 4.5 7.6 2.3 4.5 7.6 2.3 4.5 7.6a 10 C 0.073 0.078 0.082 0.080 0.084 0.089 0.087 0.091 0.096 0.095 0.098 20 C 0.075 0.081 0.087 0.082 0.087 0.094 0.089 0.094 0.100 0.096 0.100 30 C 0.077 0.084 0.091 0.084 0.090 0.100 0.091 0.097 0.105 0.098 0.105 40 C 0.079 0.088 0.097 0.086 0.094 0.105 0.093 0.102 0.111 0.100 0.110 50 C 0.082 0.090 0.102 0.088 0.095 0.111 0.095 0.106 0.122 0.101 0.113 [W/m C]

a Because bulk density was not able to be adjusted to 850 kg/m 3 in the moisture content 7.6% wb, the effective thermal conductivity was not measured in this

condition.

(powder) and a gas phase (air), and the theoretical values of effective thermal conductivity of each sample were calculated from the series, parallel, and random heat transfer models. The series model (Sweat 1994) is

(8)

(5)

The parallel model (Sweat 1994) is (6) The random model (Woodside and Messmer 1961) is The thermal property models for intrinsic thermal conductivity and density of major components of foods are shown in Table 7. The porosity of the packed bed was calculated from the following equation (Murakami and Okos 1989):

(9)

(7) The thermal conductivity of powder was calculated from Eq. 8, using the volume fraction and intrinsic thermal conductivity of each component (Choi and Okos 1986).

(10)

Figure 3General features of the temperature change of probe

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Figure 4Empirical relationships between effective thermal conductivity and moisture content at 5 different temperatures for rice flour (Bulk density 650kg/m3) Vol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE E283

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

The volume fraction of each component was obtained by substituting the values of mass fraction (Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Japan. 2002) and density (Choi and Okos 1986) for each component into Eq. 9. The volume fractions of each component are given in Table 1.

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

As a result, the porosities were 0.43 to 0.56 for rice flour, 0.45 to 0.58 for whole milk powder, and 0.41 to 0.54 for skim milk powder. The values of particle density, bulk density, and porosity of each sample at 30 C are given in Table 8. Figure 6 shows a comparison of the measured results to the calculated results by Eq. 5, 6, and 7 at 18% wb, 650 kg/m3 (bulk density) for rice flour. The solid line and the open circle in the figure are the calculated values from Eq. 5 to 7 and the measured values, respectively. In this case, the relative error between the measured values and the predicted values was 48% to 60% in Eq. 5, 50% to

Table 5The parameters, standard error (SE) and coefficient of determination ( R2), of Eq. 2 for each sample Sample Rice flour Bulk density (kg/m 3 ) 650 700 750 800 550 600 650 700 700 750 800 850 a1 4.024 5.124 105 5.363 105 6.769 105 5.481 105 4.978 105 5.736 105 4.642 105 5.486 105 6.974 105 8.195 105 1.062 104 105 b1 1.033 8.073 104 8.804 104 4.473 104 2.742 103 2.543 103 1.606 103 1.588 103 1.094 103 9.335 104 5.529 104 4.518 105 103 c1 7.175 4.710 105 6.777 105 1.079 104 1.110 104 1.134 104 1.046 104 1.183 104 7.503 105 1.343 105 8.456 106 7.348 105 105 d1 5.650 6.774 102 7.730 102 9.022 102 5.247 102 6.046 102 6.961 102 7.616 102 6.909 102 7.635 102 8.383 102 9.288 102 102 SE (W/m C) 1.340 1.409 103 1.886 103 1.943 103 7.919 105 1.580 104 1.359 104 2.015 104 5.825 104 4.570 104 1.203 103 3.840 104 103 R2 0.9982 0.9877 0.9797 0.9832 0.9998 0.9993 0.9994 0.9984 0.9999 0.9999 0.9996 0.9954

Whole milk powder

Skim milk powder

Table 6The parameters, standard error (SE) and coefficient of determination ( R2), of Eq. 4 for each sample Sample Moisture content (%) 8.8 Temperature (C) 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 a2 1.930 1.904 104 2.016 104 2.020 104 2.068 104 1.861 104 2.016 104 2.090 104 2.176 104 2.123 104 1.918 104 2.014 104 2.080 104 2.158 104 2.607 104 2.084 104 1.977 104 2.178 104 2.402 104 2.781 104 1.519 104 1.545 104 1.520 104 1.538 104 1.510 104 1.344 104 1.380 104 1.342 104 1.313 104 1.321 104 1.458 104 1.403 104 1.458 104 1.420 104 1.346 104 1.411 104 1.365 104 1.466 104 1.546 104 1.708 104 1.739 104 1.619 104 1.782 104 1.752 104 2.515 104 104 b2 5.604 5.015 102 5.411 102 5.043 102 4.761 102 4.724 102 5.318 102 5.315 102 5.342 102 4.280 102 4.627 102 4.706 102 4.493 102 4.315 102 6.553 102 5.282 102 3.813 102 4.303 102 4.996 102 6.499 102 2.550 102 2.519 102 2.182 102 2.121 102 1.750 102 7.716 103 6.601 103 1.381 103 3.574 103 6.157 103 2.936 102 2.334 102 2.558 102 2.085 102 1.305 102 2.223 102 1.550 102 2.009 102 2.193 102 3.171 102 4.059 102 2.715 102 3.410 102 2.603 102 7.593 102 102 SE (W/m C) 3.548 8.578 105 7.905 104 5.767 104 2.314 103 8.247 104 1.560 103 2.207 103 1.575 103 1.097 103 6.259 104 1.796 103 1.293 103 2.412 103 1.480 103 8.004 104 8.039 104 3.375 104 1.935 104 3.390 103 6.596 105 6.219 105 1.485 104 2.156 104 1.454 104 2.282 104 3.301 104 9.094 105 4.203 105 1.204 104 2.202 104 2.854 105 1.198 104 1.744 104 1.899 104 3.861 104 1.311 104 7.083 104 1.736 104 4.768 104 8.873 104 4.691 105 3.465 104 4.334 105 1.219 103 104 R2 0.9990 0.9999 0.9953 0.9975 0.9628 0.9937 0.9811 0.9654 0.9835 0.9915 0.9966 0.9752 0.9878 0.9616 0.9898 0.9946 0.9940 0.9991 0.9998 0.9485 0.9999 0.9999 0.9997 0.9993 0.9997 0.9989 0.9979 0.9999 0.9999 0.9997 0.9992 0.9999 0.9998 0.9995 0.9993 0.9973 0.9997 0.9917 0.9995 0.9972 0.9758 0.9999 0.9964 0.9999 0.9781

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

Rice flour

12.1

15.4

18.2

Whole milk powder

1.4

3.8

Skim milk powder

2.3

4.5

7.6

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JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCEVol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005

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Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

86% in Eq. 6, and 5% to 24% in Eq. 7. In all of the measured conditions, the effective thermal conductivity of the sample was not predictable by Eq. 5, 6, and 7. In the series model (Eq. 5), heat conduction is assumed to be perpendicular to alternate layers of powder and air. In the parallel model (Eq. 6), the layers of powder and air are arranged parallel to the direction of heat flow. The parallel model yields the highest values of thermal conductivity, while the lowest values are obtained by the series model. In the random model (Eq. 7), the 2 phases (powder and air) are assumed to be randomly mixed and the effective thermal conductivity is the geometric mean of the values for the individual phases. Because the sample packed bed can not be considered to be the simple structure assumed by Eq. 5, 6, and 7, it seems that these models failed to predict experimental data. Therefore, models combining Eq. 5 to 7 were proposed (Murakami and Okos 1989; Rahman and others 1991). Muramatsu and others (2002) reported that the effective thermal conductivity of wheat flour can be predicted by the following parallel/series heat transfer model. porosity were examined. As a result, the values of parameter F for each sample could be expressed by Eq. 13 as a function of moisture content and temperature. (13) The values of parameter, SE and R2, for Eq. 13 determined using the least squares method are shown in Table 9. Using the values of F shown in Table 9 and Eq. 13, the effective thermal conductivities of samples were calculated from Eq. 12. A comparison of the results calculated from Eq. 12 and 13 for 18% wb rice flour to the measured results is shown in Figure 7. The solid line and the symbols , , and so on in Figure 7 show the calculated values from Eq. 12 and 13 and the measured results, respectively. In this case, the error between the measured values and the estimated values by Eq. 12 and 13 were less than 5%. In all measurement conditions, the values calculated from Eq. 12 and 13 agreed well with the measured values. The standard errors between the measured values and the calculated values from Eq. 12 and 13 for each sample are shown in Table 10. In addition, in this study, all values of F calculated using the measured effective thermal conductivity were simultaneously fitted to Eq. 13 by the least squares method. As a result, it was found that values of F for all samples in Eq. 12 could be represented by the following Eq. 14. (14) The values of the standard error and coefficient of determination for Eq. 14 were 4.292 102 and 0.8527, respectively. Using Eq. 14 and 12, the effective thermal conductivities of samples were calculated. The dashed line in Figure 7 is the value calculated from Eq. 12 and 14. A comparison of the measured data with the calculated values from Eq. 12 and 14 showed good agreement. When the calculated results from Eq. 12 and 14 were compared with the results calculated from Eq. 12 and 13, no significant difference was observed (the relative error was 3% or less). The standard errors between the measured values and the calculated values from Eq. 12 and 14 are shown in Table 10. From Figure 7 and the values of standard error, it was confirmed that the measured values of all samples agreed well with the calculated values from Eq. 12 and 14. The effective thermal conductivity of all samples could

(11)

(12) Parameter F in Eq. 12 is unknown. Therefore, by substituting the values of , , and , and the measured value of effective thermal conductivity into Eq. 12, values of parameter F were calculated for each measurement condition of each sample, and the relationships between F and moisture content, temperature, and

Figure 5Empirical relationships between effective thermal conductivity and bulk density at 5 different temperatures for rice flour (Moisture content 12% wb)
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Figure 6Comparison of the measured results to the calculated results by Eq. 5, 6, and 7 for rice flour (Moisture content 18% wb. Bulk density 650 kg/m3) Vol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE E285

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

The values of A in Eq. 11 were written as functions of moisture content, temperature, and porosity. The value of B was calculated from the values of A and porosity. However, Eq. 11 is a little complicated. Thus, we propose a new model to predict easily the effective thermal conductivity of powdered food. Because the random model gave the closest approximation to the experimental values in Eq. 5, 6, and 7, a new model incorporating a correction term into the random model (Eq. 12) was presumed.

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

Table 7Thermal property models for intrinsic thermal conductivity and density of major components of foods (Choi and Okos 1986) Thermal property Intrinsic thermal conductivity (W/m C) Major component Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Ash Density (kg/m 3) Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Ash Group models temperature function

be estimated using Eq. 12 and 14. In this study, Eq. 12 and 14 were tested by using some published effective thermal conductivity data of powdered foods. The effective thermal conductivity of wheat flour (Muramatsu and others 1999, 2002; temperature 10 to 50 C; moisture content 9% to 18%, porosity 0.5 to 0.7) was compared with the calculat-

Table 8The particle density, bulk density, and porosity of each sample at 30 C Moisture content density (%) 8.8 Particle density (kg/m 3 ) 1476 Bulk density Porosity (kg/m 3 ) () 653 706 756 806 655 707 756 805 654 706 756 804 655 702 755 793 551 602 653 695 550 599 647 688 703 751 800 850 711 749 803 850 704 750 783 0.558 0.522 0.488 0.454 0.549 0.513 0.479 0.446 0.541 0.505 0.470 0.436 0.534 0.501 0.463 0.436 0.571 0.531 0.492 0.459 0.568 0.529 0.492 0.459 0.529 0.497 0.464 0.431 0.518 0.492 0.455 0.423 0.514 0.483 0.460

Sample Rice flour

12.1

1452

15.4

1426

ed value from Eq. 12 and 14. As a result, the relative error between the measured values and the calculated values was about 5% to 10%, and the measured data were almost equal to the calculated values. The effective thermal conductivity of the granular rice starch (Fang and others 2000; temperature 20 to 50 C, moisture content 4% to 20%, porosity 0.5 to 0.7) corresponded to the calculated value with an accuracy of 10% or less. The relative error between the predicted values from Eq. 12 and 14 and the data for skim milk powder (Maccarthy 1984) and whole milk powder (Maccarthy 1985) (temperature 10 to 50 C, moisture content 1% to 5%, porosity 0.4 to 0.8), measured by the steady state guarded hot plate technique or the line heat source thermal probe method was about 15%. In addition, the proposed model (Eq. 12 and 14) was applied to defatted soy flour (Wallapapan and Sweat 1982; temperature 20 C, moisture content 8% to 18%, porosity 0.5 to 0.7), seafood powder (Rahman and others 1991; temperature 20 C, moisture content 3% to 5%, porosity 0.4 to 0.6), and wheat milling coproducts (Kim and others 2003; temperature 25 C, moisture content 8% to 16%, porosity 0.7 to 0.9). As a result, the relative errors between the reported values and the values predicted from Eq. 12 and 14 were 10% to 30%. These errors could be due to inaccuracy of the

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

18.2

1406

Whole milk powder

1.4

1284

3.8

1273

Skim milk powder

2.3

1493

4.5

1474

7.6

1450

Figure 7Comparison of the measured results to the calculated results by Eq. 12 for rice flour (Moisture content 18% wb)
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JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCEVol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005

Effective thermal conductivity of . . .

Table 9The parameters, standard error (SE) and coefficient of determination (R2), of Eq. 13 for each sample Sample Rice flour a3 b3 5.070 103 2.772 102 6.360 103 c3 4.243 103 1.794 103 4.668 103 d3 9.006 101 1.036 8.714 101 SE 3.646 102 2.914 102 1.317 102 R2 0.8963 0.8272 0.9554 Sample Table 10The standard error (SE) and coefficient of determination (R2) of Eq. 12 for each sample Using F from Eq. 13 SE 103 R2 0.9836 0.9726 0.9916 Using F from Eq. 14 SE 2.344 2.682 103 2.468 103 103 R2 0.9826 0.9206 0.9433

7.331 104 Whole milk 8.022 powder 104 Skim milk 1.048 powder 103

Rice flour 2.278 Whole milk powder 1.575 103 Skim milk powder 9.505 104

model, differences in the composition, chemical or physical properties of powdered foods, measurement methods, and measurement conditions (temperature, moisture content, porosity, and so on). Therefore, it seems that the proposed heat conduction model (Eq. 12 and 14) can be used to predict satisfactorily the effective thermal conductivity of powdered foods with similar properties to rice flour and milk powder in the ranges 10 to 50 C (temperature), 1% to 20% (moisture content), and 0.4 to 0.7 (porosity).

References
Choi Y, Okos MR. 1986. Effects of temperature and composition on the thermal properties of foods. In: Maguer ML, Jelen P, editors. Food engineering and process applications, Vol. 1. Transport phenomena. New York: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. p 93101. Drouzas AE, Saravacos GD. 1988. Effective thermal conductivity of granular starch materials. J Food Sci 53(6):17959. Fang Q, Lan Y, Kocher MF, Hanna MA. 2000. Thermal conductivity of granular rice starches. Int J Food Prop 3(2):28393. Hooper FC, Lepper FR. 1950. Transient heat flow apparatus for the determination of thermal conductivity. Trans Am Soc Heating Ventilat Engin 56:30924. Kasubuchi T. 1977. Twin transient-state cylindrical-probe method for the determination of the thermal conductivity of soil. Soil Sci 124(5):2558. Kent M, Christiansen K, van Haneghem IA, Holtz E, Morley MJ, Nesvadba P, Poulsen KP. 1984. Cost 90 collaborative measurements of thermal properties of foods. J Food Eng 3(2):11750. Kim YS, Flores RA, Chung OK, Bechtel DB. 2003. Physical, chemical, and thermal characterization of wheat flour milling coproducts. J Food Process Eng 26(5):46988. Krokida MK, Maroulis ZB, Rahman MS. 2001. A structural generic model to predict the effective thermal conductivity of granular materials. Drying Technol 19(9):227790. Kunii D, Smith JM. 1960. Heat transfer characteristics of porous rocks. AIChE J 6(1):717. Lan Y, Fang Q, Kocher MF, Hanna MA. 2000. Thermal properties of tapioca starch. Int J Food Prop 3(1):10616. Maccarthy D. 1984. The effective thermal conductivity of skim milk powder. In: Mckenna BM, editor. Engineering and food, vol.1. Engineering science in the food industry. London: Elsevier Applied Science. p 52738. Maccarthy DA. 1985. Effect of temperature and bulk density on thermal conductivity of spray-dried whole milk powder. J Food Eng 4(4):24963. Maroulis ZB, Drouzas AE, Saravacos GD. 1990. Modeling of thermal conductivity of granular starches. J Food Eng 11(4):25571. Maroulis ZB, Shah KK, Saravacos GD. 1991. Thermal conductivity of gelatinized starches. J Food Sci 56(3):7736. Murakami EG, Okos MR. 1989. Measurement and prediction of thermal properties of food. In: Singh RP, Medina AG, editors. Food properties and computeraided engineering of food processing systems. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p 348. Muramatsu Y, Tagawa A, Kasai T, Sakai H, Fukushima M. 1999. Measurements of thermophysical properties of wheat flour by transient heat flow method using a probe. J Japan Soc Food Sci Technol 46(11):71924 Muramatsu Y, Tagawa A, Kasai T, Sakai H, Fukushima M. 2000. Thermophysical properties of apple juice. J Japan Soc Food Sci Technol 47(7):54850. Muramatsu Y, Tagawa A, Kasai T, Takeya K, Fukushima M. 2002. Effective thermal conductivity of wheat flour. J Japan Soc Agric Machinery 64(1):706. Muramatsu Y, Tagawa A, Kasai T, Takeya T. 2003. Measurement of thermal conductivity and selection of heat conduction model for milk and whey. J Japan Soc Food Sci Technol 50(9):399403. Okazaki M, Ito I, Toei R. 1977. Effective thermal conductivities of wet granular materials. AIChE Symposium Series 163(73):16476. Rahman MS, Potluri PL, Varamit A. 1991. Thermal conductivity of fresh and dried seafood powder. Trans ASAE 34(1):21720. Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Japan. 2002. Standard tables of food composition in Japan. 5th ed. Tokyo: Bureau of the Ministry of Finance in Japan. p 44, 254. Sabliov CM, Heldman DR. 2002. A predictive model for thermal conductivity of an intermediate moisture granular food. J Food Process Eng 25(2):91107. Singh PC, Singh RK, Bhamidipati S, Singh SN, Barone P. 1997. Thermophysical properties of fresh and roasted coffee powders. J Food Process Eng 20(1):3150. Singh RP . 1992. Heating and cooling processes for foods. In: Heldman DR, Lund DB, editors. Handbook of food engineering. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p 24776. Sweat VE 1994. Thermal properties of foods. In: Rao MA, Rizvi SSH, editors. Engineering properties of foods. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p 99138. Tagawa A, Murata S, Hinosawa H. 1995. Measurements of effective thermal conductivity of azuki beans by transient heat flow method using a probe. J Japan Soc Food Sci Technol 42(2):939. Tutumi C. 1984. Moisture content of foodscereal flour and bleaching bean jam. In: Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology. Methods of food analysis. 2nd ed. Tokyo: Korin Co. p 3738. Wallapapan K, Sweat VE. 1982. Thermal conductivity of defatted soy flour. Trans ASAE 25(5):14404. Woodside W, Messmer JH. 1961. Thermal conductivity of porous media. Unconsolidated sands. J Applied Physics 32:168899. Yoshitake M. 1984. Moisture content of foodsmilk powder. In: Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology. Methods of food analysis. 2nd ed. Tokyo: Korin Co. p 73.

Conclusions

Nomenclature
A B M n T X Yi Ei Parallel gas phase ratio () Series gas phase ratio () Moisture content % (wb) Number of data set Temperature (C) Volume fraction () Mass fraction () Measured value of effective thermal conductivity (W/m C) Calculated value of effective thermal conductivity (W/m C) Porosity () Temperature of probe (C) Thermal conductivity (W/m C) Density (kg/m3) a1-a3 Constant b1-b3 Constant c1, c3 Constant Constant d3

Subscript
b e g i, j r s 0 Bulk Effective value Gas (air) Component Reference material Solid (powder) Initial value

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Vol. 70, Nr. 4, 2005JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE

E287

E: Food Engineering & Physical Properties

he effective thermal conductivities of 3 kinds of powdered food were measured by the transient heat flow method using twin probes at various moisture contents, temperatures, and bulk densities. The relationships between effective thermal conductivity and both moisture content and temperature for the samples could be represented by the empirical equation shown as a linear function of both moisture content and temperature. The effective thermal conductivity of each sample was determined as a linear function of bulk density. In addition, an improved random heat transfer model in which the correction term was incorporated to the random heat transfer model, with the term written as a function of moisture content and temperature, was proposed, and the observed data agreed well with the values calculated from the model.