Networks

Huber, M.N., Daigle, J.N., Bannister, J., Gerla, M., Robrock II, R.B.
Networks
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
72
efvorIs
72.1 B-ISDN
B-ISDN Seivices and Applications Asynchionous Tiansfei
Mode Tiansmission of B-ISDN Signals ATM Adaptation
Layei B-ISDN Signaling
72.2 Computei Communication Netwoiks
Geneial Netwoiking Concepts Computei Communication
Netwoik Aichitectuie Local-Aiea Netwoiks and Inteinets Some
Additional Recent Developments
72.3 Local-Aiea Netwoiks
The LAN Seivice Model Othei Featuies The Impoitance of
LAN Standaids
72.4 The Intelligent Netwoik
A Histoiy of Intelligence in the Netwoik The Intelligent
Netwoik Intelligent Netwoik Systems The CCS7
Netwoik The Seivice Contiol Point Data Base 800
Seivice Alteinate Billing Seivices Othei Seivices The
Advanced Intelligent Netwoik Back to the Futuie
72.1 B-ISDN
Monfred N. Huber
Since the mid-1980s the idea of the integrated services digital network (ISDN) has become ieality. In ISDN
voice seivices with supplementaiy featuies and data seivices with a bit iate of up to 64 kbit/s aie integiated in
one netwoik. Foi voice communication and many text and data applications the 64-kbit/s ISDN will be
suffcient. Although it is minoi as yet, theie exists alieady a giowing demand foi broadband communication
with bit iates fiom some megabits pei second up to appioximately 130 Mbit/s Wiest, 1990] (e.g., high-speed
data communication, video communication, high-iesolution giaphics).
In oidei to piovide the same advantages of ISDN to bioadband communication useis, netwoik opeiatois,
and seivice piovideis, the development of an intelligent bioadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) is necessaiy. The futuie
B-ISDN will become the univeisal netwoik integiating diffeient kinds of seivices with theii individual featuies
and iequiiements. B-ISDN will suppoit switched, semipeimanent and peimanent, point-to-point, and point-
to-multipoint connections and piovide on-demand, ieseived, and peimanent seivices. B-ISDN connections
suppoit packet mode and ciicuit mode seivices of mono- and/oi multimedia type of a connection-oiiented oi
connectionless natuie in a unidiiectional oi bidiiectional confguiation Hndel and Hubei, 1991b].
B-ISDN Services and App!icatiuns
As alieady mentioned, theie exists some demand foi bioadband communication which oiiginates fiom business
customeis as well as iesidential customeis. In the iesidential aiea, on the one hand, people aie inteiested in
video distiibution seivices foi enteitainment puiposes, like television and high-defnition TV; on the othei
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hand, they will use video telephony with acceptable quality. Ovei the long teim, video mail seivices and video
ietiieval seivices will become moie impoitant.
Voice and text aie no longei suffcient foi business customeis. In the offces and factoiies of tomoiiow,
inteiactive bioadband seivices will be iequiied. Handling complex tasks in the futuie demands compiehensive
suppoit by seivices foi voice, text, data, giaphics, video, and documents. In addition to the individual seivices,
the multimedia seivices and the simultaneous oi alteinating use of seveial seivices with multifunction woik-
stations will gain impoitance Aimbiustei, 1990].
Inteiconnection of local-aiea netwoiks (LANs) oi laige computeis, computei-aided design, and computei-
aided manufactuiing will become impoitant data applications. The fist video seivices will be video telephony
and video confeiencing (studio-to-studio and woikstation video confeiencing). Initially these seivices may have
diminished quality, but foi the long teim TV quality can be expected.
The bit iates of all seivices mentioned above aie in the iange of 2 to 130 Mbit/s (depending on the individual
application). Taking into account that in the futuie moie enhanced video coding mechanisms will be available,
the iequiied bit iates foi video seivices will become lowei without inuencing quality signifcantly.
Asynchrunuus Transler Mude
In today`s public switched netwoiks the synchionous tiansfei mode (STM) piedominates. Applying STM
technology, foi the duiation of a connection a synchionous channel with constant bit iate is allocated to that
connection. STM does not ft veiy well foi the integiation of seivices with bit iates fiom some kilobits pei
second to 130 Mbit/s. Theiefoie, in B-ISDN a new tiansfei mode called asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
is used.
In ATM all kinds of infoimation is tianspoited in cells. A cell is a block of fxed length, which consists of a
5-octet cell headei and a 48-octet cell payload (see Fig. 72.1). The cell headei contains all necessaiy infoimation
foi tiansfeiiing the cell thiough the netwoik and the cell payload includes the usei infoimation. The cell iate
of a connection is piopoitional to the seivice bit iate. Only if infoimation is available is a cell used by the
connection. By having diffeient iouting labels, cells of diffeient connections can be tianspoited on the same
tiansmission line (cell multiplexing). If no connection has infoimation ieady to tianspoit, idle cells will be
inseited. Idle cells do not belong to any connection; they aie identifed by a standaidized cell headei.
ATM uses only cells; multiplexing and switching of cells is independent of the applications and of the bit
iates of the individual connections. Applying ATM technology, the idea of one univeisal integiated netwoik
becomes a ieality. Howevei, the ATM technology also causes some pioblems. Because of the asynchionous
multiplexing buffeis aie necessaiy, which iesults in cell delay, cell delay vaiiation, and cell loss. In oidei to
compensate foi these effects additional measuies have to be piovided.
FIGURE 72.1 ATM piinciple.
Figuie 72.1 also shows the individual subfelds of the cell headei. The fist feld, called geneiic ow contiol
(GFC), is only available at the usei-netwoik inteiface (UNI). Its main puipose is media access contiol in shaied
medium confguiations (LAN-like confguiations) within the customei piemises Gldnei and Hubei, 1991].
The pioposed GFC pioceduies aie based eithei on the distiibuted queue algoiithm oi the ieset timei contiol
mechanism Hndel and Hubei, 1991a]. At the netwoik-node inteiface (NNI) these bits aie pait of the viitual
path identifei (VPI).
The VPI togethei with the viitual channel identifei (VCI) foim the iouting label (identifei of the connec-
tion). The VPI itself maiks only the viitual path (VP). The VP concept allows the exible confguiation of
individual subnetwoiks (e.g., signaling netwoik oi viitual piivate netwoik), which can be independent of the
undeilying tiansmission netwoik. VP netwoiks aie undei the contiol of netwoik management. The bandwidth
of a VP will be allocated accoiding to its iequiiements. Within the VP netwoik the individual connections aie
established and cleaied down dynamically (by signaling).
The payload type feld in the cell headei diffeientiates the infoimation in the cell payload of one connection
(e.g., usei infoimation, opeiation and maintenance infoimation foi ATM). The value of the cell loss piioiity
bit distinguishes cells that can be discaided undei some exceptional netwoik conditions without distuibing the
quality signifcantly fiom those cells that may not be discaided. The last feld of the cell headei foims the headei
eiioi contiol feld. The cell headei is piotected against eiiois with a mechanism that allows the coiiection of
a single bit eiioi and the detection of multibit eiiois.
The high tiansmission speeds foi ATM cell tiansfei iequiie veiy high-peifoimance switching nodes. Theie-
foie, the switching netwoiks (SNs) have to be implemented in fast haidwaie. Within the SN the self-iouting
piinciple will be applied Schaffei, 1990]. At the inlet of the SN the cell is extended by an SN-inteinal headei.
It is evident that the SN-inteinal opeiational speed has to be incieased. When passing the individual switching
elements, foi the piocessing of the SN-inteinal headei only simple haid-wiied logic is necessaiy. This ieduces
the contiol complexity and piovides a bettei failuie behavioi. When staiting seveial yeais ago with the imple-
mentation of the ATM technology, only the emittei coupled logic (ECL) was available. Nowadays, the comple-
mentaiy metal-oxide semiconductoi (CMOS) technology with its low powei consumption is used Fischei
et al., 1991].
Transmissiun ul B-ISDN Signa!s
Tiansmission systems at the UNI piovide bit iates of aiound 150 and 622 Mbit/s. In addition to these iates, at
the NNI aiound 2.5 Gbit/s and up to 10 Gbit/s will be used in the futuie Baui, 1991]. In addition to the high-
capacity switching and multiplexing technology, high-speed tiansmission systems aie iequiied. Optical fbeis
aie especially suitable foi this puipose; howevei, foi the lowei bit iates coaxial cables can be used. Optical
tiansmission uses optical fbeis as the tiansmission medium in low-diametei and low-weight cables to piovide
laige tiansmission capacities ovei long distances without the need foi iepeateis. Optical tiansmission equipment
cuiiently tends to mono-mode fbei and lasei diodes with wavelengths of aiound 1310 nm. Foi both diiections
in a tiansmission system eithei two sepaiate fbeis oi one common fbei with wavelength division multiplexing
can be used. The second solution may be a good alteinative foi subsciibei lines and shoit tiunk lines Bauch, 1991].
Foi ATM cell tiansmission, two possibilities exist, which aie shown in Fig. 72.2: synchionous pulse fiame
oi continuous cell stieam (cell-based). The basis foi the pulse fiame concept is the existing synchronous digital
hierarchy (SDH). In SDH the cells aie tianspoited within the SDH payload; the fiame oveihead includes
opeiation and maintenance (OAM) of the tiansmission system. In the cell-based system the OAM foi the
tiansmission system is tianspoited within cells. The SDH solution is alieady defned, wheieas foi cell-based
tiansmission some pioblems iemain to be solved (e.g., OAM is not yet fully defned).
ATM Adaptatiun Layer
The ATM adaptation layer (AAL) is between the ATM layei and highei layeis. Its basic function is the enhanced
adaptation of the seivices piovided by ATM to the iequiiements of the layeis above. In oidei to minimize the
numbei of AAL piotocols, the seivice classifcation shown in Fig. 72.3 was defned. This classifcation was made
with iespect to timing ielation, bit iate, and connection mode.
The AAL piotocols aie subdivided into two paits. The lowei pait peifoims, at the sending side, the segmen-
tation of long messages into the cell payload and, at the ieceiving side, ieassembly into long messages. The
uppei pait is seivice dependent and piovides the AAL seivice to the highei layei.
B-ISDN Signa!ing
Foi signaling in B-ISDN, existing piotocols and infiastiuctuie will be ieused as much as possible. Figuie 72.4
shows the piotocol stacks foi UNI and NNI. The uppei pait conceins signaling applications and the lowei pait
signaling tiansfei.
Foi the intioduction of simple switched seivices in B-ISDN, at UNI and NNI, existing signaling application
piotocols will be ieused. The 64-kbit/s ISDN-specifc infoimation elements will be iemoved and new B-ISDN-
specifc infoimation elements will be added. Right fiom the beginning these piotocols will piovide means that
allow smooth migiation towaid futuie applications, which will include highly sophisticated featuies like mul-
timedia seivices Hubei et al., 1992]. This appioach guaiantees compatibility foi futuie piotocol veisions.
At the NNI the existing signaling system no. 7 (SS7) can be ieused (see iight pait of the NNI piotocol stack
in Fig. 72.4). SS7 is a poweiful and widespiead netwoik that will continue to be applied foi iathei a long peiiod
until ATM penetiation has been ieached. Foi the middle teim, howevei, a fully ATM-based netwoik will be
available which also caiiies signaling messages (see left pait of the NNI piotocol stack in Fig. 72.4). ATM-based
signaling at the NNI needs a suitable AAL which piovides the seivices of the existing message tiansfei pait level 2.
At the UNI, iight fiom the beginning, all kinds of tiaffc (including signaling) is caiiied within cells. An
AAL foi signaling at the UNI is also iequiied. This AAL has to piovide the seivices of the existing layei 2 UNI
FIGURE 72.2 Tiansmission piinciples foi B-ISDN.
FIGURE 72.3 AAL seivice classifcation.
piotocol. The AAL foi signaling at UNI and NNI will be common as much as possible. In contiast to the NNI,
at the UNI meta-signaling is necessaiy. Meta-signaling establishes, checks, and iemoves the signaling channels
between customei equipment and the cential offce in a dynamic way. The signaling channels at the NNI aie
semipeimanent and, theiefoie, meta-signaling is not iequiied.
Dehning Terms
Asynchronous transfer mode: A tiansfei mode in which the infoimation is oiganized into cells; it is asyn-
chionous in the sense that the iecuiience of cells containing infoimation fiom an individual usei is not
necessaiily peiiodic.
ATM adaptation layer: A layei which piovides the adaptation of highei layeis to ATM.
Broadband: A seivice oi system iequiiing tiansmission channels capable of suppoiting bit iates gieatei than
2 Mbit/s.
Cell: A block of fxed length which is subdivided into a cell headei and an infoimation feld. The cell headei
contains a label which allows the cleai allocation of a cell to a connection.
Integrated services digital network: A netwoik which piovides end-to-end digital connectivity to suppoit a
wide iange of seivices, including voice and nonvoice seivices, to which useis have access by a limited set
of standaid multipuipose usei-netwoik inteifaces.
Signaling: Pioceduies which aie used to contiol (set up and cleai down) calls and connections within a
telecommunication netwoik.
Synchronous digital hierarchy: A standaid foi optical tiansmission which piovides tiansmission facilities
with exible add/diop capabilities to allow simple multiplexing and demultiplexing of signals.
Re!ated Tupic
72.2 Computei Communications Netwoiks
FIGURE 72.4 Piotocol stacks foi B-ISDN signaling.
Relerences
H. Aimbiustei, Bluepiint foi futuie telecommunications," Te|tom Reor Inernaona|, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 5-8, 1990.
H. Bauch, Tiansmission systems foi B-ISDN," IEEE LTS, Maga:ne o[ Lg|wae Te|etommuntaon, vol. 2, no.
3, pp. 31-36, 1991.
H. Baui, Technological peispective of telecommunications foi the nineties," Inegraon, Ineroeraon anJ
Inertonneton. T|s Vay o C|o|a| Sertes, ProteeJngs o[ |e Tet|nta| Symosum, Geneva, pait 2, vol.
1 papei 1.1, 1991.
W. Fischei, O. Fundneidei, E.-H. Goeldnei, and K.A. Lutz, A scalable ATM switching system aichitectuie,"
IEEE Journa| on Se|eteJ reas n Communtaon, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 1299-1307, 1991.
E.-H. Gldnei and M.N. Hubei, Multiple access foi B-ISDN," IEEE LTS, Maga:ne o[ Lg|wae Te|etommu-
ntaon, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 37-43, 1991.
R. Hndel and M.N. Hubei, Customei netwoik confguiations and geneiic ow contiol," Inernaona| Journa|
o[ Dga| anJ na|og Communtaon Sysems, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 117-122, 1991a.
R. Hndel and M.N. Hubei, InegraeJ BroaJ|anJ Newor|s - n InroJuton o TM-BaseJ Newor|s, Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991b.
M.N. Hubei, V. Fiantzen, and G. Maegeil, Pioposed evolutionaiy paths foi B-ISDN signalling," ProteeJngs
o[ |e XIV Inernaona| Swt|ng Symosum, Yokohama, vol. 1, pp. 334-338, 1992.
B. Schaffei, ATM switching in the developing telecommunication netwoik," ProteeJngs o[ |e XIII Inernaona|
Swt|ng Symosum, vol. 1, pp. 105-110, 1990.
G. Wiest, Moie intelligence and exibility foi communication netwoik-Challenges foi tomoiiow`s switching
systems," ProteeJngs o[ |e XIII Inernaona| Swt|ng Symosum, vol. 5, pp. 201-204, 1990.
Further Inlurmatiun
CCITT Recommendations and CCITT Diaft Recommendations conceining B-ISDN (paits of F, G, I and Q
seiies), which aie published by the Inteinational Telecommunication Union.
Jouinals of the IEEE Communication Society (Communtaons Maga:ne, Journa| on Se|eteJ reas n
Communtaons, LTS. Maga:ne o[ Lg|wae Te|etommuntaon, Newor|s, Transatons on Communtaons),
which aie published by the Institute of Electiical and Electionics Engineeis, Inc.
Inernaona| Journa| o[ Dga| anJ na|og Communtaon Sysem, which is published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Pioceedings of inteinational confeiences such as GLOBECOM, INFOCOM, Inteinational Confeience on
Communications, Inteinational Confeience on Computei Communication, Inteinational Switching Sympo-
sium, Inteinational Symposium on Subsciibei Loops and Seivices, and Inteinational Teletiaffc Congiess.
A detailed desciiption of ISDN is given in ISDN-T|e InegraeJ Sertes Dga| Newor|- Contes,
Me|oJs, Sysems, by P. Bockei, published by Spiingei-Veilag.
72.2 Cumputer Cummunicatiun Netvurks
j. N. Dog|e
A computer communication network is a collection of applications hosted on diffeient machines and intei-
connected by an infiastiuctuie that piovides communications among the communicating entities. While the
applications aie geneially undeistood to be computei piogiams, the geneiic model includes the human being
as an application. In fact, one oi all of the applications`` that aie communicating may be human beings.
This section summaiizes the majoi chaiacteiistics of computei communication netwoiks. The objective is
to piovide a concise intioduction that will allow the ieadei to gain an undeistanding of the key distinguishing
chaiacteiistics of the majoi classes of netwoiks that exist today and some of the issues involved in the intio-
duction of emeiging technologies.
Theie aie a signifcant numbei of well-iecognized books in this aiea. Among these aie the excellent texts by
Schwaitz 1987], Tanenbaum 1988], and Spiagins 1991], which have enjoyed wide acceptance by both students
and piacticing engineeis and covei most of the geneial aspects of computei communication netwoiks. Stallings
1990a, 1990b, 1990c] coveis a bioad aiiay of standaids in this aiea. Othei books that have been found to be
especially useful by piactitioneis aie those by Rose 1990] and Black 1992].
The latest developments aie, of couise, coveied in the cuiient liteiatuie, confeience pioceedings, and the
notes of standaids meetings. A pedagogically oiiented magazine that specializes in computei communications
netwoiks is IEEE Newor|, but IEEE Communtaons and IEEE Comuer often also contain inteiesting aiticles
in this aiea. CM Communtaons Reew, in addition to piesenting pedagogically oiiented aiticles, often
piesents veiy useful summaiies of the latest standaids activities. Majoi confeiences that specialize in computei
communications include the IEEE INFOCOM and ACM SIGCOMM seiies, which aie held annually.
We will begin oui discussion with a biief statement of how computei netwoiking came about and a capsule
desciiption of the netwoiks that iesulted fiom the eaily effoits. Netwoiks of this geneiic class, called wide-area
networks (WANs), aie bioadly deployed today, and theie aie still a laige numbei of unansweied questions with
iespect to theii design. The issues involved in the design of those netwoiks aie basic to the design of most
netwoiks, whethei wide aiea oi otheiwise. In the piocess of intioducing these eaily systems, we will desciibe
and contiast thiee basic types of communication switching: ciicuit, message, and packet.
We will next tuin to a discussion of computei communication architecture, which desciibes the stiuctuie
of communication-oiiented piocessing softwaie within a communication piocessing system. Oui discussion is
limited to the International Standards Organization/Open Systems Interconnection (ISO/OSI) reference
model (ISORM) because it piovides a fiamewoik foi discussion of some of the modein developments in
communications in geneial and communication netwoiking in paiticulai. This discussion is necessaiily sim-
plifed in the extieme, thoiough coveiage iequiiing on the oidei of seveial hundied pages, but we hope oui
biief desciiption will enable the ieadei to appieciate some of the issues.
Having intioduced the basic aichitectuial stiuctuie of communication netwoiks, we will next tuin to a
discussion of an impoitant vaiiation on this aichitectuial scheme: the local-area network (LAN). Discussion
of this topic is impoitant because it helps to illustiate what the iefeience model is and what it is not. In paiticulai,
the aichitectuie of LANs illustiates how the ISORM can be adapted foi specialized puiposes. Specifcally, eaily
netwoik aichitectuies anticipate netwoiks in which individual node paiis aie inteiconnected via a single link,
and connections thiough the netwoik aie foimed by concatenating node-to-node connections.
LAN aichitectuies, on the othei hand, anticipate all nodes being inteiconnected in some fashion ovei the
same communication link (oi medium). This, then, intioduces the concept of adaption layeis in a natuial way.
It also illustiates that if the seivices piovided by an aichitectuial layei aie caiefully defned, then the seivices
can be used to implement viitually any seivice desiied by the usei, possibly at the piice of some ineffciency.
Aftei discussing LANs, we will conclude oui aiticle with a discussion of two of the vaiiants in packet switching
tiansmission technology: fiame ielay and a iecent development in basic tiansmission technology called the asyn-
chronous transfer mode, which is a pait of the laigei broadband integrated services digital network effoit. These
technologies aie likely to be impoitant building blocks foi the computei communication netwoiks of the futuie.
Genera! Netvurking Cuncepts
Data communication netwoiks have existed since about 1950. The eaily netwoiks existed piimaiily foi the
puipose of connecting useis of a laige computei to the computei itself, with additional capability to piovide
communications between computeis of the same vaiiety and having the same opeiating softwaie. The lessons
leained duiing the fist twenty oi so yeais of opeiation of these types of netwoiks have been valuable in piepaiing
the way foi modein netwoiks. Foi the puiposes of oui cuiient discussion, howevei, we will think of commu-
nication netwoiks as being netwoiks whose puipose is to inteiconnect a set of applications that aie implemented
on hosts manufactuied by possibly diffeient vendois and managed by a vaiiety of opeiating systems. Netwoiking
capability is piovided by softwaie systems that implement standaidized inteifaces specifcally designed foi the
exchange of infoimation among heteiogeneous computeis.
Duiing the late 1960s, many foiwaid-looking thinkeis began to iecognize that signifcant computing
iesouices (that is, supeicomputeis) would be expensive and unlikely to be affoidable by many of the ieseaicheis
needing this kind of computei powei. In addition, they iealized that signifcant computing iesouices would
not be needed all of the time by those having local access. If the computing iesouice could be shaied by a
numbei of ieseaich sites, then the cost of the iesouice could be shaied by its useis.
Many ieseaicheis at this time had computing iesouices available undei the scenaiio desciibed in the fist
paiagiaph above. The idea of inteiconnecting the computeis to extend the ieach of these ieseaicheis to othei
computeis developed. In addition, the inteiconnection of the computeis would piovide foi communication
among the ieseaicheis themselves. In oidei to investigate the feasibility of pioviding the inteiconnectivity
anticipated foi the futuie using a new technology called packet switching, the Advanced Reseaich Piojects
Agency (ARPA) of the Depaitment of the Aimy sponsoied a netwoiking effoit, which iesulted in the computei
communication netwoik called the ARPANET.
The end iesults of the ARPA netwoiking effoit, its deiivatives, and the eaily initiatives of many companies
such as AT&T, DATAPOINT, DEC, IBM, and NCR have been fai-ieaching in the extieme. Any fnitely delimited
discussion of the accomplishments of those effoits would appeai to undeiestimate theii impact on oui lives.
We will concentiate on the most visible pioduct of these effoits, which is a collection of piogiams that allows
applications iunning in diffeient computeis to inteicommunicate. Befoie tuining to oui discussion of the
softwaie, howevei, we will piovide a biief desciiption of a geneiic computei communication netwoik.
Figuie 72.5 shows a diagiam of a geneiic computei communication netwoik. The most visible components
of the netwoik aie the teiminals, the access lines, the trunks, and the switching nodes. Woik is accomplished
when the useis of the netwoik, the teiminals, exchange messages ovei the netwoik.
The teiminals iepiesent the set of communication teiminating equipment communicating ovei the netwoik.
Equipment in this class includes, but is not limited to, usei teiminals, geneial-puipose computeis, and database
systems. This equipment, eithei thiough softwaie oi thiough human inteiaction, piovides the functions
iequiied foi infoimation exchange between paiis of application piogiams oi between application piogiams
and people. The functions include, but aie not limited to, call set-up, session management, and message
tiansmission contiol. Examples of applications include electionic mail tiansfei, teiminal-to-computei connec-
tion foi time shaiing oi othei puiposes, and teiminal-to-database connections.
Access lines piovide foi data tiansmission between the teiminals and the netwoik switching nodes. These
connections may be set up on a peimanent basis oi they may be switched connections, and theie aie numeious
tiansmission schemes and piotocols available to manage these connections. The essence of these connections,
howevei, fiom oui point of view is a channel that piovides data tiansmission at some numbei of bits pei second
(bps), called the channel capacity, C. The access line capacities may iange fiom a few hundied bits pei second
to in excess of millions of bits pei second, and they aie usually not the same foi all teiminating equipments of
a given netwoik. The actual infoimation-caiiying capacity of the link depends upon the piotocols employed
to effect the tiansfei; the inteiested ieadei is iefeiied to Beitsekas and Gallaghei 1987], especially Chaptei 2,
foi a geneial discussion of the issues involved in tiansmission of data ovei communication links.
Tiunks, oi inteinodal tiunks, aie the tiansmission facilities that piovide foi tiansmission of data between
paiis of communication switches. These aie analogous to access lines, and, fiom oui point of view, they simply
piovide a communication path at some capacity, specifed in bits pei second.
FIGURE 72.5 Geneiic computei communication netwoik.
Theie aie thiee basic switching paiadigms: ciicuit, message, and packet switching. Circuit switching and
packet switching aie tiansmission technologies while message switching is a seivice technology. In ciicuit
switching, a call connection between two teiminating equipments coiiesponds to the allocation of a piesciibed
set of physical facilities that piovide a tiansmission path of a ceitain bandwidth oi tiansmission capacity. These
facilities aie dedicated to the useis foi the duiation of the call. The piimaiy peifoimance issues, othei than
those ielated to quality of tiansmission, aie ielated to whethei oi not a tiansmission path is available at call
set-up time and how calls aie handled if facilities aie not available.
Message switching is similai in concept to the postal system. When a usei wants to send a message to one
oi moie iecipients, the usei foims the message and addiesses it. The message switching system ieads the addiess
and foiwaids the complete message to the next switch in the path. The message moves asynchionously thiough
the netwoik on a message switch-to-message switch basis until it ieaches its destination. Message switching
systems offei seivices such as mail boxes, multiple destination deliveiy, automatic veiifcation of message
deliveiy, and bulletin boaid. Communication links between the message switches may be established using
ciicuit oi packet switching netwoiks as is the case with most othei netwoiking applications.
Examples of message switching piotocols that have been used to build message switching systems aie Simple
Mail Tiansfei Piotocol (SMTP) and the Inteinational Telegiaph and Telephone Consultative Committee
(CCITT) X.400 seiies. The foimei is much moie widely deployed, while the lattei has signifcantly bioadei
capabilities, but its deployment is plagued by having two incompatible veisions (1984 and 1988) and othei
pioblems. Many commeicial vendois offei message switching seivices based on eithei one of the above piotocols
oi a piopiietaiy piotocol.
In the ciicuit switching case, theie is a one-to-one coiiespondence between the numbei of tiunks between
nodes and the numbei of simultaneous calls that can be caiiied. That is, a tiunk is a facility between two
switches that can seivice exactly one call, and it does not mattei how this tiansmission facility is deiived. Majoi
design issues include the specifcation of the numbei of tiunks between node paiis and the iouting stiategy
used to deteimine the path thiough a netwoik in oidei to achieve a given call blocking piobability. When
blocked calls aie queued, the numbei of calls that may be queued is also a design question.
A packet-switched communication system exchanges messages among useis by tiansmitting sequences of
packets which compiise the messages. That is, the sending teiminal equipment paititions a message into a
sequence of packets, the packets aie tiansmitted acioss the netwoik, and the ieceiving teiminal equipment
ieassembles the packets into messages. The tiansmission facility inteiconnecting a given node paii is viewed
as a single tiunk, and the tiansmission capacity of this tiunk is shaied among all useis whose packets tiaveise
both nodes. While the tiunk capacity is specifed in bits pei second, the packet handling capacity of a node
paii depends both upon the tiunk capacity and the nodal piocessing powei.
In many packet-switched netwoiks, the path tiaveised by a packet thiough the netwoik is established duiing
a call set-up pioceduie, and the netwoik is iefeiied to as a viitual ciicuit packet switching netwoik. Othei
netwoiks piovide datagiam seivice, a seivice that allows useis to tiansmit individually addiessed packets without
the need foi call set-up. Datagiam netwoiks have the advantage of not having to establish connections befoie
communication takes place, but they have the disadvantage that eveiy packet must contain complete addiessing
infoimation. Viitual ciicuit netwoiks have the advantage that addiessing infoimation is not iequiied in each
packet, but have the disadvantage that a call set-up must take place befoie communication can occui. Datagiam
is an example of connectionless service while viitual ciicuit is an example of connection-oriented service.
Piioi to the late 1970s, signaling foi ciicuit establishment was in-band. That is, in oidei to set up a call
thiough the netwoik, the call set-up infoimation was sent sequentially fiom switch to switch using the actual
ciicuit that would eventually become the ciicuit used to connect the end useis. In an extieme case, this amounted
to tiying to fnd a path thiough a maze, sometimes having to ietiace one`s steps befoie fnally emeiging at the
destination oi just simply giving up when no path could be found. This had two negative chaiacteiistics: fist,
the iate of signaling infoimation tiansfei was limited to the ciicuit speed, and second, the ciicuits that could
have been used foi accomplishing the end objective weie being consumed simply to fnd a path between the
end-points. This iesulted in tiemendous bottlenecks on majoi holidays, which weie solved by viitually disal-
lowing alteinate ioutes thiough the toll switching netwoik.
An alteinate out-of-band signaling system, usually called common-channel interofnce signaling (CCIS),
was developed piimaiily to solve this pioblem. Signaling now takes place ovei a signaling netwoik that is
paititioned fiom the netwoik that caiiies the usei tiaffc. This piinciple is incoipoiated into the concept of
integiated seivices digital netwoiks (ISDNs), which is desciibed thoioughly in Helgeit 1991]. The basic idea
of ISDN is to offei to the usei some numbei of 64-kbps access lines plus a 16-kbps access line thiough which
the usei can desciibe to an ISDN how the usei wishes to use each of the 64-kbps ciicuits at any given time.
The channels foimed by concatenating the access lines with the netwoik inteiswitch tiunks having the iequested
chaiacteiistics aie established using an out-of-band signaling system, the most modein of which is signaling
system #7 (SS#7).
In eithei viitual ciicuit oi datagiam netwoiks, packets fiom a laige numbei of useis may simultaneously
need tiansmission seivices between nodes. Packets aiiive at a given node at iandom times. The switching node
deteimines the next node in the tiansmission path, and then places the packet in a queue foi tiansmission ovei
a tiunk facility to the next node. Packet aiiival piocesses tend to be buisty, that is, the numbei of packet aiiivals
ovei fxed-length inteivals of time has a laige vaiiance. Because of the buistiness of the aiiival piocess, packets
may expeiience signifcant delays at the tiunks. Queues may also build due to the diffeience in tiansmission
capacities of the vaiious tiunks and access lines. Combining of packets that aiiive at iandom times fiom
diffeient useis onto the same line, in this case a tiunk, is called statistical multiplexing.
In addition to the delays expeiienced at the input to tiunks, packets may also expeiience queueing delays
within the switching nodes. In paiticulai, the functions iequiied foi packet switching aie effected by executing
vaiious softwaie piocesses within the nodes, and packets must queue while awaiting execution of the vaiious
piocesses on theii behalf.
Both tiansmission capacities and nodal piocessing capabilities aie available ovei a wide iange of values. If
the tiunk capacities aie ielatively low compaied to nodal piocessing capability, then delays at switching nodes
may be ielatively small. If line capacities aie laige compaied to nodal piocessing capabilities, howevei, delays
due to nodal piocessing may be signifcant. In the geneial case, all possible souices of delay should be examined
to deteimine wheie bottlenecks, and consequently delay, occui.
It is often the case that a paiticulai point in the communication netwoik, eithei a piocessing node oi a
tiunk, is the piimaiy souice of delay. In this case, this point is usually singled out foi analysis, and a simple
model is invoked to analyze the peifoimance at that point. The iesults of this analysis, combined with iesults
of othei analyses, iesult in a piofle of oveiall system peifoimance. In this case, the key aspect of the analysis
is to choose an appiopiiate model foi the isolated analysis. In this way, a simplifed analysis leading to useful
iesults can be peifoimed, and this can lead to an impioved netwoik design.
Piotocol design and peifoimance issues aie fiequent topics of discussion at both geneial confeiences in
communications and those specialized to netwoiking. The ieadei is encouiaged to consult the pioceedings of
the confeiences mentioned eailiei foi a bettei appieciation of the iange of issues and the diveisity of the
pioposed solutions to the issues.
Cumputer Cummunicatiun Netvurk Architecture
In this section, we will begin with a biief, high-level defnition of the ISORM. The iefeience model has seven
layeis, none of which can be bypassed conceptually. In geneial, a layei is defned by the types of seivices it
piovides to its useis and the quality of those seivices. Foi each layei in the ISO/OSI aichitectuie, the usei of a
layei is the next layei up in the hieiaichy, except foi the highest layei foi which the usei is an application.
Cleaily, when a layeied aichitectuie is implemented undei this philosophy, then the quality of seivice obtained
by the end usei, the application, is a function of the quality of seivice piovided by all of the layeis. In oidei to
claiify the communications stiategy of the ISO/OSI aichitectuie, we will piovide a discussion of the layei 2
seivices in some detail.
Theie is signifcant debate ovei whethei the effoits of the ISO/OSI community aie leading to the best
standaids (oi even standaids that have any meiit whatevei!). Limiting oui discussion to the ISORM is, by no
means, an endoisement of the actual piotocols that have been developed in the ISO aiena; theie aie actually
moie widely deployed and successful standaids in othei aienas. On the othei hand, the ISORM is veiy useful
foi discussing netwoik aichitectuie piinciples, and these piinciples apply acioss the boaid. Thus, we choose to
base oui discussion on the ISORM.
Figuie 72.6, adopted fiom Spiagins 1991], shows the basic stiuctuie of the OSI aichitectuie and how this
aichitectuie is envisaged to piovide foi exchange of infoimation between applications. As shown in the fguie,
theie aie seven layeis: application, piesentation, session, tianspoit, netwoik, data link, and physical. Biief
defnitions of the layeis follow, but the ieadei should beai in mind that substantial fuithei study will be iequiied
to develop an undeistanding of the piactical implications of the defnitions:
P|ysta| |ayer. Piovides electiical, functional, and pioceduial chaiacteiistics to activate, maintain, and
deactivate physical data links that tianspaiently pass the bit stieam foi communication between data
link entities.
Daa |n| |ayer. Piovides functional and pioceduial means to tiansfei data between netwoik entities;
piovides foi activation, maintenance, and deactivation of data link connections, chaiactei and fiame
synchionization, giouping of bits into chaiacteis and fiames, eiioi contiol, media access contiol, and
ow contiol.
Newor| |ayer. Piovides switching and iouting functions to establish, maintain, and teiminate netwoik
layei connections, and tiansfei data between tianspoit layeis.
Transor |ayer. Piovides host-to-host, cost-effective, tianspaient tiansfei of data, end-to-end ow
contiol, and end-to-end quality of seivice as iequiied by applications.
Sesson |ayer. Piovides mechanisms foi oiganizing and stiuctuiing dialogues between application pio-
cesses.
Presenaon |ayer. Piovides foi independent data iepiesentation and syntax selection by each commu-
nicating application and conveision between selected contexts and the inteinal aichitectuie standaid.
|taon |ayer. Piovides applications with access to the ISO/OSI communication stack and ceitain
distiibuted infoimation seivices.
As we have mentioned pieviously, a layei is defned by the types of seivices it piovides to its useis. In the
case of a iequest oi a iesponse, these seivices aie piovided via invocation of service primitives of the layei in
question by the layei that wants the seivice peifoimed. In the case of an indication oi a confim, these seivices
aie piovided via invocation of seivice piimitives of the layei in question by the same layei that wants the seivice
peifoimed.
This piocess is not unlike a usei of a piogiamming system calling a subioutine fiom a scientifc subioutine
package in oidei to obtain a seivice, say, matiix inveision oi memoiy allocation. Foi example, a iequest is
analogous to a CALL statement in a FORTRAN piogiam, and a iesponse is analogous to the RETURN statement
in the subioutine that has been CALLed. The iequests foi seivices aie geneiated asynchionously by all of the
FIGURE 72.6 Layeied aichitectuie foi ISO/OSI iefeience model.
useis of all of the seivices and these join (typically piioiitized) queues along with othei iequests and iesponses
while awaiting seivicing by the piocessoi oi othei iesouice such as a tiansmission line.
The seivice piimitives fall into foui basic types: iequest, indication, iesponse, and confim. These types aie
defned as follows:
Reques. A piimitive sent by layei (N - 1) to layei N to iequest a seivice.
InJtaon. A piimitive sent by layei N to layei (N - 1) to indicate that a seivice has been iequested
of layei N by a diffeient layei (N - 1) entity.
Resonse. A piimitive sent by layei (N - 1) to layei N in iesponse to an nJtaon piimitive.
Confrm. A piimitive sent by layei N to layei (N - 1) to indicate that a iesponse to an eailiei reques
piimitive has been ieceived.
In oidei to be moie specifc about how communication takes place, we will now tuin to a biief discussion
of layei 2, the data link layei. The piimitives piovided by the ISO data link (DL) layei aie as follows Stallings,
1990a]:
DL_CONNECT.request DL_RESET.request
DL_CONNECT.indication DL_RESET.indication
DL_CONNECT.response DL_RESET.response
DL_CONNECT.confirm DL_RESET.confirm
DL_DATA.request DL_DISCONNECT.request
DL_DATA.indication DL_DISCONNECT.indication
DL_DATA.response DL_UNITDATA.request
DL_DATA.confirm DL_UNITDATA.indication
Each piimitive has a set of formal parameters, which aie analogous to the foimal paiameteis of a pioceduie
in a piogiamming language. Foi example, the paiameteis foi the DL_CONNECT.iequest piimitive aie the
Called Addiess, the Calling Addiess, and the Quality of Seivice Paiametei Set. The foui piimitives aie used in
the establishment of data link connections. The called addiess and the calling addiess aie analogous to the
telephone numbeis of two paities of a telephone call, while the quality of seivice paiametei set allows foi the
negotiation of vaiious agieements such as thioughput measuied in bits pei second.
All foui DL_CONNECT piimitives aie used to establish a data link. An analogy to an oidinaiy phone call
can bettei illustiate the basic idea of the piimitives. The DL_CONNECT.iequest is equivalent to picking up
the phone and dialing. The phone iinging at the called paity`s end is iepiesented by the DL_CONNECT.indi-
cation. DL_CONNECT.iesponse is equivalent to the called paity lifting the ieceivei and answeiing, and
DL_CONNECT.confim is equivalent to the calling paity heaiing the iesponse of the called paity.
In geneial, communication takes place between peei layei piotocols by the exchange of protocol data units
(PDUs), which contain all of the infoimation iequiied foi the ieceiving piotocol entity to piovide the iequiied
seivice. In oidei to exchange PDUs, entities at a given layei use the seivices of the next lowei layei. The data
link piimitives listed above include both connection-mode piimitives and connectionless-mode piimitives. Foi
connection-mode communications, a connection must be established between two peei entities befoie they
can exchange PDUs.
Foi example, suppose a netwoik layei entity in Host A wishes to be connected to a netwoik layei entity in
Host B, as shown in Fig. 72.6. Then the connection would be accomplished by the concatenation of two data
link connections: one between A and C, and one between C and B. In oidei to establish the connection, the
netwoik layei entity in Host A would issue a DL_CONNECT.iequest to its associated data link entity, pioviding
the iequiied paiameteis. This data link entity would then tiansmit this iequest to a data link entity in C, which
would issue a DL_CONNECT.indication to a netwoik entity in C. The netwoik entity in C would then analyze
the paiameteis of the DL_CONNECT.indication and iealize that the taiget destination is B. This netwoik layei
entity would then ieissue the DL_CONNECT.iequest to its data link entity, which would tiansmit the iequest
to a data link entity in B. The data link entity in B would send a DL_CONNECT.indication to a netwoik layei
entity in B, and this entity would issue a DL_CONNECT.iesponse back to the data link entity in B. This
DL_CONNECT.iesponse would be ielayed back to the data link entity in A following the same sequence of
events as in the foiwaid path. Eventually, this DL_CONNECT.iesponse would be conveited to a
DL_CONNECT.confim by the data link entity in A and passed to the netwoik entity in A, thus completing
the connection.
Once the connection is established, data exchange between the two netwoik layei entities can take place;
that is, the entities can exchange PDUs. Foi example, if a netwoik layei entity in Host A wishes to send a PDU
to a netwoik layei entity in Host B, the netwoik layei entity in Host A would issue a DL_DATA.iequest to the
appiopiiate data link layei entity in Host A. This entity would package the PDU togethei with appiopiiate
contiol infoimation into a data link seivice data unit (DLSDU) and send it to its peei at C. The peei at C
would delivei it to the netwoik entity at C, which would foiwaid it to the data link entity in C pioviding the
connection to Host B. This entity would then send the DLSDU to its peei in Host B, and this data link entity
would pass the PDU to Host B netwoik entity via a DL_DATA.indication.
Netwoik layei PDUs aie called packets and data link layei PDUs aie called fiames. The data link layei does
not know that the infoimation it is tiansmitting is a packet; to the data link layei entity, the packet is simply
usei infoimation. Fiom the peispective of a data link entity, it is not necessaiy to have a netwoik layei. The
netwoik layei exists to add value foi the usei of the netwoik layei to the seivices piovided by the data link
layei. In the example above, value was added by the netwoik layei by pioviding a ielaying capability since Hosts
A and C weie not diiectly connected. Similaily, the data link layei functions on a hop-by-hop basis, each hop
being completely unawaie that theie aie any othei hops involved in the communication. We will see latei that
the data link need not be limited to a single physical connection.
The philosophy of the ISO/OSI aichitectuie is that in addition to the softwaie being layeied, implementations
aie not allowed to bypass entiie layeis; that is, eveiy layei must appeai in the implementation. This appioach
was developed aftei the appioach defned foi the ARPANET pioject, which is hieiaichical, was fully developed.
In the hieiaichical appioach, the layei inteifaces aie caiefully designed, but any numbei of layeis of softwaie
can be bypassed by any application (oi othei highei-layei piotocol) that piovides the appiopiiate functionality.
These two appioaches have been hotly debated foi a numbei of yeais, but as the yeais pass, the appioaches aie
actually beginning to look moie and moie alike foi a vaiiety of ieasons that will not be discussed heie.
The ISO/OSI layeied aichitectuie desciibed above would appeai to be veiy iigid, not allowing foi any
vaiiations in undeilying topology oi vaiiations in link ieliability. Howevei, as we shall see, this is not necessaiily
the case. As an example, ISO 8348, which developed as a iesult of the X.25 pioject, piovides only connection-
oiiented seivice, and it was oiiginally intended as the only netwoik layei standaid foi ISO/OSI. Howevei, ISO
8473, oi ISO-IP, which is viitually identical to the Depaitment of Defense (DoD) inteinet piotocol (DoD-IP)
developed in the ARPANET pioject, has since been added to the piotocol suite to piovide connectionless seivice
as well as inteinet seivice. An inteiesting aside is that because of the addiessing limitations of DoD-IP, the
Inteinet Administiative Boaid (IAB) has iecently iecommended ieplacement of the DoD-IP piotocol by the
ISO-IP piotocol, thus biinging the piocess full ciicle.
The ISO/OSI piotocol suite is in a constant state of ievision as new expeiience ieveals the need foi additional
capabilities and exibility. Some of this additional exibility and functionality is being piovided thiough the
use of so-called adaption sublayers, which enhance the capabilities of a given layei so that it can use the seivices
of a lowei layei with which it was not specifcally designed foi compatibility.
Inteiestingly, the use of adaption sublayeis is only a shoit step away fiom using adaption layeis that would
allow applications to diiectly inteiface with any ISO layei. This would iesult in a hieiaichical iathei than layeied
aichitectuie; to wit: ISORM becomes DoDRM. Indeed, fundamental changes in the national (and woildwide)
communications infiastiuctuie appeai to be leading natuially in the hieiaichical diiection. Of couise, the
indisciiminate use of such adaptions would lead back to the piolifeiation of incompatible piotocols and
inteifaces, the fiustiation that led to the cuiient twenty-yeai standaidization ciusade! It is iefieshing to note
that a ietuin to oui foimei state does not appeai to be aiound the coinei; most standaidization woik is actually
headed in the diiection of allowing open systems to inteicommunicate.
Luca!-Area Netvurks and Internets
We will now tuin to a discussion of LANs, which have inheient piopeities that make the use of sublayeis
paiticulaily attiactive. In this section, we will discuss the oiganization of communications softwaie foi LANs.
In addition, we will intioduce the idea of internets, which weie biought about to a laige extent by the advent
of LANs. We will discuss the types of netwoiks only biiey and iefei the ieadei to the many excellent texts on
the subject. Layeis 4 and above foi local-aiea communications netwoiks aie identical to those of wide-aiea
netwoiks. Howevei, because the hosts communicating ovei a LAN shaie a single physical tiansmission facility,
the iouting functions piovided by the netwoik layei, layei 3, aie not necessaiy. Thus, the functionality of a
layei 3 in a LAN can be substantially simplifed without loss of utility. On the othei hand, a data link layei
entity must now manage many simultaneous data link layei connections because all connections enteiing and
leaving a host on a single LAN do so ovei a single physical link. Thus, in the case of connection-oiiented
communications, the softwaie must manage seveial viitual connections ovei a single physical link.
Theie weie seveial basic types of tiansmission schemes in use in eaily LANs. Thiee of these ieceived seiious
consideiation foi standaidization: the token ring, token bus, and carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA). In a
token iing netwoik, the stations aie confguied on a physical iing aiound the medium. A token iotates aiound
this physical iing, visiting each host (oi station) in tuin. A station wishing to tiansmit data must wait until the
token is available to that station. In a token bus LAN, the situation is the same, except that the stations shaie
a common bus and the iing is logical iathei than physical. In a CSMA netwoik, the stations aie bus connected,
and a station may tiansmit whenevei othei stations aie not cuiiently tiansmitting. That is, a station wishing
to tiansmit senses the channel, and if theie is no activity, the station may tiansmit. Of couise, the actual access
piotocol is signifcantly moie complicated than this.
In the eaily 1980s, theie was signifcant debate ovei which LAN connection aiiangement was supeiioi, a
single choice being viewed as necessaiy. This debate centeied on such issues as cost, netwoik thioughput,
netwoik delay, and giowth potential. Peifoimance evaluation based on queueing theoiy played a majoi iole in
putting these issues in peispective. Foi thoiough desciiptions of LAN piotocols and queueing models used to
evaluate theii peifoimance, the inteiested ieadei is iefeiied to Hammond and O`Reilly 1986].
All thiee of the access methods mentioned above became IEEE standaids (IEEE 802) and eventually became
ISO standaids (ISO 8802 seiies) because all meiited standaidization. On the othei hand, all existed foi the
expiess puipose of exchanging infoimation among peeis, and it was iecognized at the outset that the uppei
end of the data link layei could be shaied by all thiee access techniques. On the othei hand, the lowei-level
functions of the layei deal with inteifacing to the physical media. Heie, diastic diffeiences in the way the
piotocol had to inteiface with the media weie iecognized. Thus, a diffeient media-access control sublayer
(MAC) was needed foi each of the access techniques.
The decision to use a common logical link contiol (LLC) sublayei foi all of the LAN piotocols appaiently
usheied in the idea of adaption sublayeis. The ieason foi splitting the layei is simple: a usei of the data link
contiol (DLC) layei need not know what kind of medium piovides the communications; all that is necessaiy
is that the usei undeistand the inteiface to the DLC layei.
On the othei hand, the media of the thiee types of access piotocols piovide tiansmission seivice in diffeient
ways, so softwaie is needed to biidge the gap between what the usei of the seivice needs, which is piovided by
the LLC, and how the LLC uses the media to piovide the iequiied seivice. Thus, the MAC sublayei was boin.
This idea has pioven to be valuable as new types of technologies have become available. Foi example, the
new fbei-distiibuted digital inteiface (FDDI) uses the LLC of all othei LAN piotocols, but its MAC is completely
diffeient fiom the token iing MAC even though FDDI is a token iing piotocol. Reasons foi needing a new
MAC foi LLC aie piovided in Stallings 1990b].
One of the moie inteiesting consequences of the advent of local-aiea netwoiking is that many tiaditional
computei communication netwoiks became inteinets oveinight. LAN technology was used to connect stations
to a host computei, and these host computeis weie alieady on a WAN. It was then a simple mattei to piovide
a ielaying, oi biidging, seivice at the host in oidei to piovide wide-aiea inteiconnection of stations to LANs
to each othei. In shoit, the pieviously established WANs became netwoiks foi inteiconnection of LANs; that
is, they weie inteiconnecting netwoiks iathei than stations. Inteinet peifoimance suddenly became a piimaiy
concein in the design of netwoiks.
Moie iecently, FDDI is being thought of as a mechanism to piovide LAN inteiconnection on a site basis,
and a new type of netwoik, the metropolitan-area network (MAN) has been undei study foi the inteicon-
nection of LANs within a metiopolitan aiea. The piimaiy media confguiation foi MANs is a dual bus
confguiation and it is implemented via the distiibuted queue, dual bus (DQDB) piotocol, also known as IEEE
802.6. The net effect of this piotocol is to use the dual bus confguiation to piovide seivice appioaching the
fist-come-fist-seived seivice discipline to the tiaffc enteiing the FDDI netwoik, which is iemaikable con-
sideiing that the LANs being inteiconnected aie geogiaphically dispeised. Inteiestingly, DQDB concepts have
iecently been adapted to piovide wide-aiea communications. Specifcally, stiuctuies have been defned foi
tiansmitting DQDB fiames ovei standaid DS-1 (1.544 megabits pei second Mb/s]) and DS-3 (6.312 Mb/s)
facilities, and these have been used as the basis foi a new seivice offeiing called switched multimegabit data
seivices (SMDS).
As of this wiiting, advances in LANs design and new foims of LANs aie emeiging. One example is wiieless
LANs, which aie LANs in which iadio oi photonic links seive as cable ieplacements. Wiieless LAN technology
is viewed by many as ciucial to the evolution of peisonal communication netwoiks. Anothei example is the
asynchionous tiansfei mode-based LAN, which is mentioned in the next section following a geneial discussion
of asynchionous tiansfei mode.
Sume Additiuna! Recent Deve!upments
In this subsection, we will desciibe two iecent developments of signifcant inteiest in communication netwoik-
ing: fast packet networks and tiansmission using the asynt|ronous rans[er moJe (ATM), which is a pait of
the laigei |roaJ|anJ negraeJ sertes Jga| newor| (B-ISDN) effoit.
As we have mentioned pieviously, theie is ieally no iequiiement that the physical media between two adjacent
data link layeis be composed of a single link. In fact, if a path thiough the netwoik is initially established
between two data link entities, theie is no ieason that DLC piotocols need to be executed at inteimediate nodes.
Figuie 72.7, adapted fiom Bhaigava and Hluchyj 1990] shows how the end-to-end connection might be
implemented. A netwoik implemented in the fashion indicated in Fig. 72.7 is called a fast packet netwoik (FPN).
Fiom Fig. 72.7, it is seen that the data link layei is paititioned into thiee sublayeis: the data link contiol
sublayei (which paiallels the LLC layei of LANs), the fast packet adaption (FPA) sublayei, and the fast packet
ielay (FPR) sublayei. The function of the fast packet adaption sublayei is to segment the layei-2 PDU, the
fiame, into smallei units, called fast packets, foi tiansmission ovei the FPN. These fast packets contain infoi-
mation that identifes the souice and destination node names and the fiame to which they belong so that they
can be iouted thiough the netwoik and ieassembled at the destination.
The fast packets aie statistically multiplexed onto a common physical link by the FPR sublayei foi tiansmis-
sion. At inteimediate nodes, minoi eiioi checking, fast packet fiaming, fast packet switching, and queueing
takes place. If eiiois aie found, then the fast packet is diopped. When the fast packets ieach theii destination,
they aie ieassembled into a fiame by the FPA sublayei and passed on to the DLC sublayei wheie noimal DLC
functions aie peifoimed.
The motivation foi FPNs is that since link tiansmission is becoming moie ieliable, extensive eiioi checking
and ow contiol aie not needed acioss individual links; an end-to-end check should be suffcient. Meanwhile,
the savings in piocessing due to not piocessing at the netwoik layei can be applied to fiame piocessing, which
allows inteiconnection of the switches at highei line speeds.
Since bits-pei-second costs deciease with incieased line speed, seivice piovideis can offei savings to theii
customeis thiough FPNs. Signifcant issues aie fast packet loss piobability and ietiansmission delay. Such
factois will deteimine the ietiansmission stiategy deployed in the netwoik. Of couise, the goal is to impiove
FIGURE 72.7 Fast packet switched layeied aichitectuie.
netwoik effciency, so a signifcant issue is whethei FPNs aie bettei than oidinaiy packet netwoiks and, if
so, by how much.
Anothei iecent innovation is the ATM, usually associated with B-ISDN. The idea of ATM is to paitition a
usei`s data into many small segments, called cells, foi tiansmission ovei the netwoik. Independent of the data`s
oiigin, the cell size is 53 octets, of which 5 octets aie foi use by the netwoik itself foi iouting and eiioi contiol.
Useis of the ATM aie iesponsible foi segmentation and ieassembly of theii data. Any contiol infoimation
iequiied foi this puipose must be included in the 48 octets of usei infoimation in each cell. In the usual case,
these cells would be tiansmitted ovei netwoiks that would piovide useis with 135 Mb/s and above data
tiansmission capacity (with usei oveihead included in the capacity).
The segmentation of units of data into cells intioduces tiemendous exibility foi handling diffeient types
of infoimation, such as voice, data, image, and video, ovei a single tiansmission facility. As a iesult, LANs,
WANs, and MANs based on the ATM paiadigm aie being designed, and indeed deployed. A signifcant poition
of the deployment activity is a national testbed piogiam, which involves industiial/academia coopeiation, undei
joint sponsoiship of the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Defense Advanced Reseaich Piojects
Agency (DARPA). Theie is also signifcant piivate investment in developing this technology; foi example,
expeiimental ATM-based LANs aie alieady in place at the Digital Equipment Coipoiation (DEC) ieseaich
facility in Palo Alto, Califoinia. Theie is some possibility that LANs of this type, iathei than of the FDDI type,
will be the dominant means of pioviding high-speed LAN and LAN-inteiconnect seivices.
Theie aie numeious possibilities foi connection of hosts to ATM netwoiks, but they all shaie a common
aichitectuie, which consists of thiee sublayeis: the ATM adaption layei (AAL), the ATM layei, and the physical
media-dependent (PMD) layei. Connection of hosts to ATM at a given layei is achieved thiough developing
an AAL foi the layei in question. Foi example, one might decide to adapt to ATM at the netwoik layei. In that
case, the tianspoit layei would opeiate as usual, and the AAL would be designed to piocess data stiuctuies
fiom the tianspoit layei to pioduce data stiuctuies foi use by the ATM layei and vice veisa. Of couise, all hosts
communicating with each othei in this way would use the same AAL.
Figuie 72.8 shows an example of how an ISO/OSI host might connect to an ATM netwoik. Below the data
link layei is the ATM adaption layei (AAL), which piovides foi call contiol acioss the ATM netwoik and foi
segmentation and ieassembly of fiames fiom the data link layei. The cuiient estimate foi the amount of
oveihead needed pei cell foi AAL puiposes is 4 octets, leaving 44 octets foi usei infoimation.
At the piesent time, end-to-end connections at the ATM level aie expected to be connection oiiented. As
cells tiaveise the netwoik, they aie switched on a one-by-one basis, using infoimation contained in the fve
ATM oveihead octets to follow the viitual path established duiing the ATM call set-up. Typically, cells outbound
on a common link aie statistically multiplexed, and if buffeis aie full, cells aie diopped. In addition, if one oi
moie eiiois aie found in a cell, then the cell is diopped.
In the case of data tiansmission, a lost cell will iesult in an unusable fiame unless the data is encoded to
guaid against cell loss piioi to tiansmission. Coding might be piovided by the AAL, foi example. The tiade-
offs involved in coding and ietiansmission and theii impact upon netwoik thioughput, delay and complexity
aie not well undeistood at the time of this wiiting. Pait of the ieason foi this is that cell loss piobability and
FIGURE 72.8 Asynchionous tiansfei mode layeied aichitectuie.
the types of tiaffc that aie likely to use the netwoik aie not thoioughly undeistood. Resolution of these issues
accounts foi a signifcant poition of the ieseaich activity in computei communication netwoiking at this time.
The ielevant Ameiican National Standaids Institute and CCITT documents aie fiequently updated to include
the iesults.
Dehning Terms
Access line: A communication line that connects a usei`s teiminal equipment to a switching node.
Adaption sublayer: Softwaie that is added between two piotocol layeis to allow the uppei layei to take
advantage of the seivices offeied by the lowei layei in situations wheie the uppei layei is not specifcally
designed to inteiface diiectly to the lowei layei.
Architecture: The set of piotocols defning a computei communication netwoik.
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM): A mode of communication in which communication takes place
thiough the exchange of tiny units of infoimation called cells.
Broadband integrated services digital network (B-ISDN): A geneiic teim that geneially iefeis to the futuie
netwoik infiastiuctuie that will piovide ubiquitous availability of integiated voice, data, imageiy, and
video seivices.
Carrier-sense multiple access: A iandom-access method of shaiing a bus-type communications medium in
which a potential usei of the medium listens befoie beginning to tiansmit.
Circuit switching: A method of communication in which a physical ciicuit is established between two teiminating
equipments befoie communication begins to take place. This is analogous to an oidinaiy phone call.
Common-channel interofnce signaling: The use of a special netwoik, dedicated to signaling, to establish a
path thiough a communication netwoik, which is dedicated to the tiansfei of usei infoimation.
Computer communication network: Collection of applications hosted on diffeient machines and inteicon-
nected by an infiastiuctuie that piovides inteicommunications.
Connection-oriented service: A mode of packet switching in which a call is established piioi to any infoi-
mation exchange taking place. This is analogous to an oidinaiy phone call, except that no physical
iesouices need to be allocated.
Connectionless service: A mode of packet switching in which packets aie exchanged without fist establishing
a connection. Conceptually, this is veiy close to message switching, except that if the destination node
is not active, then the packet is lost.
Entity: A softwaie piocess that implements a pait of a piotocol in a computei communication netwoik.
Fast packet networks: Netwoiks in which packets aie tiansfeiied by switching at the fiame layei iathei than
the packet layei. Such netwoiks aie sometimes called fiame ielay netwoiks. At this time, it is becoming
in vogue to think of fiame ielay as a seivice, iathei than tiansmission, technology.
Formal parameters: The paiameteis passed duiing the invocation of a seivice piimitive; similai to the
aiguments passed in a subioutine call in a computei piogiam.
International Standards Organization reference model: A model, established by ISO, that oiganizes the
functions iequiied by a complete communication netwoik into seven layeis.
Internet: A netwoik foimed by the inteiconnection of netwoiks.
Local-area network: A computei communication netwoik spanning a limited geogiaphic aiea, such as a
building oi college campus.
Media-access control: A sublayei of the link layei piotocol whose implementation is specifc to the type of
physical medium ovei which communication takes place and which contiols access to that medium.
Message switching: A seivice-oiiented class of communication in which messages aie exchanged among
teiminating equipments by tiaveising a set of switching nodes in a stoie-and-foiwaid mannei. This is
analogous to an oidinaiy postal system. The destination teiminal need not be active at the same time as
the oiiginatoi in oidei that the message exchange take place.
Metropolitan-area network: A computei communication netwoik spanning a limited geogiaphic aiea, such
as a city; sometimes featuies inteiconnection of LANs.
Packet switching: A method of communication in which messages aie exchanged between teiminating
equipments via the exchange of a sequence of fiagments of the message called packets.
Protocol data unit (PDU): The unit of exchange of piotocol infoimation between entities. Typically, a PDU
is analogous to a stiuctuie in C oi a iecoid in Pascal; the piotocol is executed by piocessing a sequence
of PDUs.
Service primitive: The name of a pioceduie that piovides a seivice; similai to the name of a subioutine oi
pioceduie in a scientifc subioutine libiaiy.
Switching node: A computei oi computing equipment that piovides access to netwoiking seivices.
Token bus: A method of shaiing a bus-type communications medium that uses a token to schedule access
to the medium. When a paiticulai station has completed its use of the token, it bioadcasts the token on
the bus, and the station to which it is addiessed takes contiol of the medium.
Token ring: A method of shaiing a iing-type communications medium that uses a token to schedule access
to the medium. When a paiticulai station has completed its use of the token, it tiansmits the token on
the iing, and the station that is physically next on the iing takes contiol.
Trunk: A communication line between two switching nodes.
Wide-area network: A computei communication netwoik spanning a bioad geogiaphic aiea, such as a state
oi countiy.
Re!ated Tupics
71.3 Piotonic Netwoiks 72.1 B-ISDN
Relerences
D. Beitsekas and R. Gallaghei, Daa Newor|s, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1987.
A. Bhaigava and M. G. Hluchyj, Fiame losses due to buffei oveiow in fast packet netwoiks," Prot. IEEE
INFOCOM '90, San Fiancisco, 1990, pp. 132-139.
U. Black, Comuer Newor|s, Prooto|s anJ SanJarJs, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1994.
U. Black, TCP/IP anJ ReaeJ Prooto|s, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1992.
J. L. Hammond and P. J. P. O`Reilly, Per[ormante na|yss o[ Lota| Comuer Newor|s, Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley, 1986.
S. Haykin, Communtaon Sysems, 3id ed., New Yoik: Wiley, 1994.
H. J. Helgeit, InegraeJ Sertes Dga| Newor|s. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991.
M. Rose, T|e Oen Boo|. Pratta| Persete on OSF, Englewood Cliffs; N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1990.
M. Schwaitz, Te|etommuntaons Newor|s. Prooto|s, MoJe|ng anJ na|yss, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1987.
J. D. Spiagins, Te|etommuntaons. Prooto|s anJ Desgn, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1991.
W. Stallings, HanJ|oo| o[ Comuer-Communtaons SanJarJs. T|e Oen Sysems Inertonneton (OSI) MoJe|
anJ OSI-Re|aeJ SanJarJs, New Yoik: Macmillan, 1990a.
W. Stallings, HanJ|oo| o[ Comuer-Communtaons SanJarJs. Lota| Newor| SanJarJs, New Yoik: Mac-
millan, 1990b.
W. Stallings, HanJ|oo| o[ Comuer-Communtaons SanJarJs. Dearmen o[ De[ense (DOD) Prooto| San-
JarJs, New Yoik: Macmillan, 1990c.
A. S. Tanenbaum, Comuer Newor|s, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1988.
M. E. Woodwoid, Communtaon anJ Comuer Newor|s, IEEE Piess, 1993.
Further Inlurmatiun
Theie aie many confeiences and woikshops that piovide up-to-date coveiage in the computei communications
aiea. Among these aie the IEEE INFOCOM and ACM SIGCOMM confeiences and the IEEE Computei
Communications Woikshop, which specialize in computei communications and aie held annually. In addition,
IEEE GLOBCOM (annual), IEEE ICC (annual), IFIPS ICCC (biannual), and the Inteinational Telecommuni-
cations Congiess (biannual) iegulaily featuie a substantial numbei of papei and panel sessions in netwoiking.
The CM Communtaons Reew, a quaiteily, specializes in computei communications and often piesents
summaiies of the latest standaids activities. IEEE Newor|, a bimonthly, contains tutoiial aiticles on all aspects
of computei communications and includes a iegulai column on books ielated to the discipline. Additionally,
IEEE Communtaons and IEEE Comuer, monthly magazines, fiequently have aiticles on specifc aspects of
netwoiking.
Foi those who wish to be involved in the most up-to-date activities, theie aie many inteiest gioups on the
Inteinet, a woildwide TCP/IP-based netwoik, that specialize in some aspect of netwoiking. T|e User's Dretory
o[ Comuer Newor|s (Digital Piess, T. L. LaQuey, Ed.) piovides an excellent intioduction to the activities
suiiounding inteinetwoiking and how to obtain timely infoimation.
72.3 Luca!-Area Netvurks
joe| onnrer ond Moro Cer|o
The local-aiea netwoik (LAN) is a communication netwoik that inteiconnects computeis and computei-based
devices, such as fle seiveis, piinteis, and giaphics teiminals. The LAN is chaiacteiized as being contained
completely within the piemises of a single business entity-which almost always owns and opeiates the
netwoik-and this distinguishes the LAN fiom public-domain netwoiks such as metiopolitan- oi wide-aiea
netwoiks. The LAN, then, is noimally iestiicted to a few hundied stations (i.e., devices that attach diiectly to
the LAN) that span a limited geogiaphical aiea, so that no two connected stations aie sepaiated by a distance
of moie than a few kilometeis. Moieovei, the LAN can be distinguished fiom the computei oi backplane bus,
which inteiconnects components, boaids, oi devices that compiise a single computei. The LAN uses
seiial-iathei than paiallel-tiansmission, which also diffeientiates it fiom the computei bus. In contiast to
today`s wide-aiea netwoiks, infoimation is tiansmitted ovei LANs at high speeds and with veiy low eiioi iates.
The LAN often employs fully bioadcast media, oi physical media that allow each station`s tiansmissions to
be ieceived by all othei stations. Thus, a bioadcast capability is often an integial featuie of the LAN. Fiequently,
the LAN also piovides foi multicasting, a geneialization of bioadcasting in which a specifed subset of stations
ieceives a tiansmission.
LANs aie based on a vaiiety of technologies that include twisted coppei-wiie paiis, coaxial cable, optical
fbeis, wiieless infiaied and iadio foi signal tianspoit, as well as seveial integiated ciicuit families foi tians-
mitteis, ieceiveis, and the implementation of low-level piotocols.
The topology of a LAN iefeis to the physical layout of the tiansmission media and the logical aiiangement
of the stations on those media. Foui topologies aie commonly used in LANs: the bus, iing, stai, and tiee
topologies, which aie illustiated in Fig. 72.9.
The LAN Service Mude!
Within the scope of the well-known Open Systems Inteiconnection seven-layei iefeience model, the LAN
occupies the two bottom layeis, namely, the physical and data link layeis, as shown in Fig. 72.10. The physical
layei specifes the most piimitive seivices of the LAN, e.g., media chaiacteiistics, signal foimats, wavefoims,
signaling iates, timing, and mechanical aspects of connectois, etc. The data link layei uses the seivices of the
physical layei to piovide multiple access foi stations shaiing the media. Station oi netwoik management, which
is shown as a veitical layei" in Fig. 72.10, is iesponsible foi maintaining a necessaiy level of peifoimance, fault
detection and iecoveiy, and confguiation and secuiity functions.
The Physica! Layer
Since the physical layei piovides the most piimitive seivices to LAN useis, this layei is most closely associated
with the implementation technology of the LAN. At a fundamental level the tiansmission media can be eithei
electiical oi optical waveguides. The physical media can be laid out as one of those topologies illustiated in
Fig. 72.9. Howevei, ceitain media aie bettei suited to some topologies, e.g., the bus is fiequently used with
electiical but not with optical media, because theie is high inseition loss associated with taps in the lattei.
Signaling is also a ciitical element of the physical layei. Baseband modulation, in which digital signals (0s
and 1s) aie tiansmitted as electiical oi optical pulses, is common in LANs because of its simplicity. Modulation
of caiiieis is less common but especially impoitant when seveial independent channels aie employed. Amplitude,
fiequency, and phase modulation have been used in community antenna television (CATV) systems to suppoit
multichannel LANs. Coheient lightwave systems, although still laigely expeiimental, aie expected to inciease
in impoitance because they peimit multiplexing a laige numbei of channels ovei a single-mode optical fbei.
Also of incieasing impoitance is atmospheiic piopagation of electiomagnetic signals. The giowing demand foi
mobile communication and ubiquitous computing is diiving the development of the peisonal communication
netwoik, which is to be based on code-division multiple access.
The signaling iates and foimats aie also pait of the physical layei specifcation. Electiical media geneially
use Manchestei baseband encoding, which has a 50% duty cycle and opeiates at iates below 100 Mb/s. Optical
media often use the so-called 4B/5B intensity-modulation encoding, which achieves 80% effciency by iepie-
senting 27 distinct symbols (of which 16 aie data and 11 aie contiol symbols) by fve bits in such a mannei
that foui consecutive 0s (i.e., low-light powei levels) should nevei occui. Similaily, 8B/6T encoding is sometimes
used with electiical media to encode an octet of data as six teinaiy digits, achieving an effciency of 75%.
Connectoi and cable-plant technology is anothei ciitical element of the physical layei. Thoiough chaiactei-
ization of the tiansmission media is iequiied if useis aie to inteiopeiate with each othei. The type of cable-e.g.,
shielded oi unshielded twisted coppei-wiie paiis, coaxial cable, and single-mode oi multimode optical
fbei-must be specifed. Fuitheimoie, the connectois between stations and the cable plant aie defned as pait
of the physical layei. Stations can attach via passive taps oi can actively iepeat signals; in the lattei case a bypass
switch is usually piovided as the station`s inteiface to the cable plant.
The Data Link Layer
The data link layei is often divided into two sublayeis, i.e., the media-access and logical-link contiol (MAC
and LLC) sublayeis, as shown in Fig. 72.10. The LLC sublayei see Logta| Ln| Conro|] uses the seivices of
the MAC sublayei to piovide to its usei a connection-oiiented seivice between stations that includes ow and
eiioi contiol oi a connectionless seivice that does little moie than multiplex uppei-layei connections. The
FIGURE 72.9 LAN topologies.
connection-oiiented LLC piotocol gives the seivice usei the illusion of having a dedicated point-to-point link
between a paii of communicating stations.
The MAC sublayei specifes the media access protocol that stations use to shaie the media. In fully bioadcast
media no moie than one station may tiansmit at a time, so the MAC sublayei manages exclusive access to the
bioadcast media. The iing topology is well suited to a token-passing MAC piotocol, which gives tiansmission
iights to the station holding the token. The token is iepiesented by a special packet that is passed sequentially
fiom station to station. When a station iecognizes the token, it seizes it and begins tiansmitting buffeied packets,
oi passes the token to the next station if it has no packet to tiansmit. To limit the time that a station can hold
the token, the MAC piotocol can implement one of seveial disciplines:
One-shot seivice, in which the station ieleases the token when it has tiansmitted one packet
Exhaustive seivice, in which the station ieleases the token when it has no moie packets to tiansmit
Gated seivice, in which the station ieleases the token when all packets that weie buffeied at token-
acquisition time have been tiansmitted
Token-timing seivice, in which the station ieleases the token at the expiiation of a timei
The IEEE 802.5 token iing standaid specifes a token-timing seivice discipline that iequiies tiansmissions to
be completed within a fxed time aftei the token is seized, but implementations sometimes use the simplei one-
shot seivice discipline. The ANSI X3T9.5 fbei distiibuted data inteiface (FDDI) standaid uses an adaptive
token-timing seivice discipline that is intended to guaiantee a minimum amount of (synchionous) bandwidth
to each station.
A vaiiation of the token iing piotocol is the token bus piotocol, which allows the token to be passed in a
specifed oidei. In the token bus piotocol, which is often used with the bus oi tiee topologies, a station bioadcasts
the token, specifying the successoi station in an addiess feld of the token packet. Although all stations ieceive
the token, only the addiessed successoi station can seize it.
A MAC scheme that is widely used with the bus topology is caiiiei-sense multiple access (CSMA). A
contention piotocol, CSMA opeiates by allowing any station to tiansmit a buffeied packet if it senses that the
bus is idle. If two stations aie ieady to tiansmit theii packets at neaily the same time, they will both sense that
the bus is idle and theii tiansmissions will collide, i.e., the supeiimposed bits of the packets will be gaibled.
The piopagation delay-oi time it takes foi the packet to tiavel fiom one station to the othei-dictates the
window of vulneiability foi CSMA; the laigei the window, the moie collisions aie likely. To oveicome the
pioblem of collisions, CSMA is often enhanced with collision detection (CSMA/CD) by enabling stations to
monitoi theii tiansmissions foi the gaibled bits associated with collisions. When a collision is detected, the
station aboits its tiansmission and ieschedules it by backing off foi a peiiod of time. The binaiy exponential
backoff algoiithm specifes that the iandom backoff time is diawn unifoimly fiom the inteival between 0 and
2
n
- 1 time units, wheie n is the numbei of times the packet has collided.
FIGURE 72.10 LANseivice model.
A time-slotted bus maintains on the bus a continuous stieam of shoit, fxed-length fiames that aie initially
empty but can be flled with data as they pass stations with waiting packets. The distiibuted queue, dual bus
(DQDB) local- and metiopolitan-aiea netwoik uses two-diiectional buses so that a station can ieseive on its
downstieam bus a fiame foi its upstieam-destined packets.
In the stai topology stations aie homed into a cential hub which can manage theii access to the media.
Active hubs physically contiol media access, while passive hubs meiely bioadcast incoming packets to specifc
output poits. Lineai combinei/divideis based on lithium niobate technology allow incoming optical signals to
be combined and distiibuted to output poits accoiding to electionically piogiammed combining and dividing
iatios. A common scheme is to use time-division multiplexing with the stai topology. The hub can seive as the
cential contiollei, allocating time slots to individual stations, oi ieseivations can be used in the mannei of a
satellite-based netwoik.
The Management Layer
LAN-specifc netwoik management functions aie iefeiied to as station management. Station management
coveis fve aieas-confguiation, peifoimance, fault, accounting, and secuiity management.
Monitoiing and contiolling the LAN aie essential elements of station management. By monitoiing the media,
stations maintain a iecoid of impoitant measuiements, such as the numbei of a specifc type of packet
tiansmitted oi ieceived, the numbei of diffeient kinds of eiiois, and the souice addiesses of ieceived packets.
Such measuiements aie made available to an application in the station oi to a management centei. Thus aie
applications able to monitoi and collect, coiielate, and act upon key LAN statistics. Likewise, designated
applications aie able to effect changes in the LAN by wiiting to specifc vaiiables within stations, which
collectively compiise the so-called management infoimation base. Foi instance, station management infoims
the MAC sublayei of its unique LAN addiess by wiiting the value to a special MAC iegistei.
Some management functions aie distiibuted acioss the LAN and aie implemented at a low level. To iecovei
aftei the failuie of a dual-fbei cable, stations automatically entei into a pioceduie to ieconfguie aiound the
failuie and ieestablish connectivity. Although such pioceduies can be viewed as station management, they aie
sometimes specifed as pait of the MAC sublayei, because they aie so tightly integiated with media access.
Other Features
The basic featuies of media access aie often augmented to piovide specialized seivices and featuies.
Specia!ized LAN Services
LAN useis have special communication iequiiements that must be suppoited by the physical and data link
layeis. In paiticulai, the MAC sublayei is iesponsible foi pioviding specialized seivices. Although all MAC
sublayeis suppoit asynchionous tiaffc by pioviding foi the simple, best-effoit deliveiy of packets, some MAC
sublayeis also suppoit othei classes of tiaffc. To synchionous tiaffc, which iequiies a set amount of pieallocated
bandwidth, the piopeily designed MAC sublayei guaiantees a maximum packet iesponse time. The adaptively
timed token-passing piotocol of FDDI is capable of suppoiting synchionous tiaffc, i.e., at token-captuie time
the station has a fxed amount of time duiing which to tiansmit synchionous packets, and the token is
guaianteed to ietuin within a ceitain amount of time. Isochionous tiaffc, which iequiies a fxed amount of
tiaffc to be peiiodically deliveied, is also accommodated by some MAC sublayeis. DQDB uses pieallocated
time slots to piovide isochionous seivice.
Piioiities aie also impoitant in LANs. Theiefoie many LANs tiansmit queued packets in accoidance with
piioiities assigned to the packets. Piioiitization can be on a LAN-wide basis oi meiely within the station. Most
LANs offei some method foi piioiitizing the tiansmission of packets.
Re!iabi!ity and Avai!abi!ity
Being a shaied iesouice, the LAN should have a high degiee of ieliability and availability. The media should
not be a single point of failuie, and no individual station should be able to pievent-maliciously oi othei-
wise-the deliveiy of seivice to othei stations. LANs aie designed to withstand both tiansient and peimanent
failuies of the media and stations.
Tiansmitted infoimation is subject to shoit buists of eiiois and must also be piotected. The connection-
oiiented seivice at the LLC sublayei is intended to iecovei fiom eiiois-such as gaibled, diopped, oi out-of-
sequence packets-by positively acknowledging packets and ietiansmitting packets not acknowledged within
the timeout window. The MAC sublayei usually piovides eiioi-detecting codes that can iecognize an eiioi
buist of seveial consecutive bits (a favoiite is the 32-bit cyclic iedundancy code, which is easily implemented
as a lineai feedback shift iegistei). Eiiois can also be iecognized at the physical layei when they cause code
violations, e.g., the absence of tiansitions in the Manchestei oi 4B/5B codes. Some LANs even use eiioi-
coiiecting codes foi piotecting time-sensitive infoimation.
Othei piotection mechanisms aie used to toleiate cable bieaks and station malfunctions. The use of fully
bioadcast media makes a LAN vulneiable to media failuie, since this effectively paititions the stations into
noncommunicating gioups. To cope with this pioblem, iedundant cables aie piovided and a mechanism foi
ieconfguiing fiom the bad to the good cable is built into the LAN piotocols. A populai appioach foi the token
iing can be seen in the countei-iotating dual-iing scheme, which is illustiated in Fig. 72.11. If a cable segment
oi an active station fails, the stations adjacent to the failuie can ieconfguie the iing by executing wiap-aiound"
opeiations. The new confguiation uses the spaie cable in conjunction with the oiiginal cable to foim a new
iing. Given the complexity of such a ieconfguiation pioceduie, it is usually necessaiy foi station management
to cooidinate the actions of the stations.
Special mechanisms foi adding and iemoving stations to and fiom the LAN might also be iequiied. Since
the physical addition oi iemoval of a station can disiupt the tiansmission of data, piotocols foi ieestablishing
a lost token could also be necessaiy.
FIGURE 72.11 Reconfguiation of dual countei-iotating iings.
The Impurtance ul LAN Standards
LAN standaids play a cential iole in piomoting the goal of univeisal connectivity among a community of useis.
The standaidization of communication seivices and piotocols allows all confoiming implementations to
exchange infoimation. Consequently, the impoitance of LAN standaids has giown steadily. Cuiiently, seveial
LAN standaids have been established to suppoit the diffeient communication iequiiements of useis.
The fist LANs-developed in the eaily 1970s-weie piopiietaiy pioducts meant to inteiconnect one vendoi`s
computei pioducts. By 1980, howevei, Pioject 802 of the Institute of Electiical and Electionics Engineeis (IEEE)
had iecognized the need foi publicly disseminated LAN standaids and eventually published a specifcation of
the CSMA/CD piotocol that any vendoi may implement. Fuitheimoie, the defnition of the standaid was
sanctioned by companies that paiticipated in the IEEE Woiking Gioup`s balloting piocess, so that the standaid
was viewed as an open, nonpiopiietaiy solution. The IEEE 802.3 Woiking Gioup chose a piotocol that was
based closely on the Etheinet LAN oiiginally developed at Xeiox by Robeit Metcalfe and David Boggs.
The IEEE Pioject 802 has bioadened its scope to encompass othei LAN standaids. These include the
following:
802.3: The CSMA/CD piotocols foi baseband coaxial cable (10Base5 and 10Base2), unshielded twisted
coppei-wiie paiis (10BaseT), bioadband coaxial cable (10Bioad36), and optical fbei (10BaseF)
802.4: The token bus piotocol foi multichannel bioadband coaxial cable
802.5: The token iing piotocol foi shielded twisted coppei-wiie paiis
802.6: The DQDB piotocol foi iedundant optical fbeis
Othei standaids-making bodies, such as the Ameiican National Standaids Institute (ANSI) and the Intei-
national Oiganization foi Standaids/Inteinational Electiotechnical Committee (ISO/IEC) have developed oi
cioss-adopted LAN standaids. ANSI`s X3T9.5 committee is iesponsible foi the FDDI LAN standaid, a high-
speed token iing that uses iedundant optical fbeis. Some of the impoitant LAN standaids and theii chaiac-
teiistics aie shown in Table 72.1.
The tiend is foi vendois to maiket LAN pioducts that confoim to specifc standaids. Howevei, piopiietaiy
netwoiks have been successfully maiketed and weie instiumental in the development of LAN standaids. Some
of the bettei known piopiietaiy-LAN pioduct offeiings weie the Xeiox Etheinet, Datapoint Aicnet, Netwoik
Systems Hypeichannel, Pioteon Pionet, Sytek System 20, and AT&T DATAKIT.
TABLE 72.1 Chaiacteiistics of Standaid LANs
CSMA/CD Token Ring Token Bus FDDI DQDB
Standaid IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.5 IEEE 802.4 ANS X3T9.5 IEEE 802.6
Topology Bus, tiee, stai Ring Tiee Ring Pseudobus
Media Coax, UTP, MMF STP Coax MMF, SMF SMF
Encoding MC, FSK, AM/PSK 4B/5B, 8B/6T DMC FSK, AM/PSK 4B/5B 4B/5B
Data iate 10 Mb/s, 100 Mb/s 4 Mb/s 1 Mb/s 100 Mb/s 34 Mb/s
16 Mb/s 5 Mb/s 45 Mb/s
10 Mb/s 140 Mb/s
155 Mb/s
Featuies Piioiities Piioiities, ST, Piioiities, ST, Piioiities, IT,
multichannel dual iing dual bus
AM/PSK amplitude modulation/phase-shift keying MC Manchestei coding
ANS Ameiican National Standaid MMF multimode fbei
CSMA/CD caiiiei-sense multiple-access with collision detection SMF single-mode fbei
DMC diffeiential Manchestei coding ST synchionous tiaffc
DQDB distiibuted queue, dual bus STP shielded twisted paii
FDDI fbei distiibuted data inteiface UTP unshielded twisted paii
FSK fiequency-shift keying nB/mB n-bit/m-bit
IEEE Institute of Electiical and Electionics Engineeis nB/mT n-bit/m-tiit
IT isochionous tiaffc
Summary
The LAN is the piefeiied method foi connecting computeis within a customei`s piemises. A numbei of
tiansmission media, topologies, data iates, and seivices aie available to meet useis` needs. The seivices offeied
by the LAN aie used to implement highei-layei piotocols that aie iequiied by distiibuted computing systems.
LANs will continue to giow moie capable in the data and bit-eiioi iates they achieve, the functionality they
piovide, and the numbei and geogiaphical span of the stations they suppoit.
Dehning Terms
Media-access protocol: The piotocol that peimits one of a gioup of contending stations to access the media
exclusively. Media-access piotocols aie geneially based on token passing oi caiiiei sense.
Physical media: The communication channel ovei which signals aie tiansmitted. Bioadcast media, in which
all stations ieceive each tiansmission, aie piimaiily used in local-aiea netwoiks. Common media aie
optical fbeis, coaxial cable, twisted coppei-wiie paiis, and aiiwaves.
Topology: The paths and switches of a local-aiea netwoik that piovide the physical inteiconnection among
stations. The most common topologies aie the bus, iing, tiee, and stai.
Re!ated Tupics
72.2 Computei Communication Netwoiks 75.3 Wiieless Local-Aiea Netwoiks foi the 1990s
Relerences
mertan Naona| SanJarJ [or In[ormaon Sysems-F|er Dsr|ueJ Daa Iner[ate (FDDI), ANSI Standaids
X3.139, X3.148, X3.166, X3.184.
Carrer Sense Mu||e ttess w| Co||son Deeton (CSM/CD) ttess Me|oJ anJ P|ysta| Layer Setfta-
ons, ANSI/IEEE Standaid 802.3, ISO/IEC Standaid 8802/3.
Dsr|ueJ Queue Dua| Bus (DQDB) Meroo|an rea Newor| (MN), Pioposed IEEE Standaid 802.6.
Logta| Ln| Conro|, ANSI/IEEE Standaid 802.2, ISO/IEC Standaid 8802/2.
To|en-Passng Bus ttess Me|oJ anJ P|ysta| Layer Setftaons, ANSI/IEEE Standaid 802.4, ISO/IEC Standaid
8802/4.
To|en Rng ttess Me|oJ anJ P|ysta| Layer Setftaons, ANSI/IEEE Standaid 802.5, ISO/IEC Standaid
8802/5.
Further Inlurmatiun
A populai, fiequently updated textbook on LANs is W. Stallings, Lota| Newor|s, 3id ed., New Yoik: Macmillan, 1990.
Leading jouinals that publish ieseaich aiticles on LANs include:
IEEE Tiansactions on Communications
IEEE Tiansactions on Netwoiking
Computei Netwoiks and ISDN Systems
IEEE Netwoik
Foui annual confeiences that covei the topic of LANs aie:
The IEEE INFOCOM Confeience on Computei Communications
The IEEE Confeience on Local Computei Netwoiks
The ACM SIGCOMM Confeience on Communications Aichitectuies and Piotocols
The EFOC/LAN Euiopean Fibie Optic Communications and Local Aiea Netwoiks Confeience
72.4 The Inte!!igent Netvurk
Fc|ord . Fobroc| II
The teim ne||gen newor| iefeis to the concept of deploying centialized databases in the telecommunications
netwoik and queiying those databases to piovide a wide vaiiety of netwoik seivices such as 800 Seivice (toll-
fiee seivice) and ciedit caid calling. The fist use of these centialized databases was in AT&T`s netwoik in 1981
wheie they weie used to facilitate the setup of telephone calls chaiged to a Calling Caid. Today such databases aie
widely deployed thioughout Noith Ameiica and suppoit the handling of close to 100 billion telephone calls pei yeai.
The woids ne||gen newor|, when fist used, had a ielatively naiiow defnition, but that defnition has
bioadened consideiably with the intioduction of the advanced intelligent netwoik, the wiieless intelligent
netwoik, and soon, the bioadband intelligent netwoik. The advanced intelligent netwoik has intioduced
poweiful seivice cieation tools which have empoweied netwoik piovideis to cieate theii own netwoik seivices.
The netwoik piovideis, in tuin, aie beginning to bioaden the paiticipation in seivice cieation by allowing theii
customeis oi thiid paities to use these tools to cieate seivices. The iesult has been a iapid giowth in new
netwoik seivices.
A Histury ul Inte!!igence in the Netvurk
The fist intelligence" in the telephone netwoik took the foim of iows of human telephone opeiatois, sitting
side by side, plugging coids into jacks to facilitate the handling of calls. These opeiatois established calls to fai-
away points, selected the best ioutes and piovided billing infoimation. They weie also an infoimation
souice-pioviding time oi weathei oi peihaps disseminating the local news. Moieovei, they had the oppoitunity
to demonstiate a kind of heioism-gatheiing volunteeis to save a house fiom fie, helping to catch a piowlei,
locating a lost child, and on and on. In the eaily yeais of telephony, the feats of the telephone opeiatoi weie
indeed legendaiy.
In the 1920s, howevei, technology became available that allowed automatic switching of telephone calls
thiough the use of sophisticated electiomechanical switching systems. Initially, these switches seived as an aid
to opeiatois; ultimately, they led to the ieplacement of opeiatois. The combination of the iotaiy telephone dial
and the electiomechanical switch allowed customeis to diiectly dial calls without the assistance of opeiatois.
This led to a ieduction of human intelligence in the netwoik.
Anothei diamatic change took place in the telephone netwoik in 1965; it was called softwaie. It came with
the maiiiage of the computei and the telephone switching system in the fist stoied-piogiam contiol switch.
With the intioduction of switching softwaie came a family of Custom Calling seivices (speed calling, call
waiting, call foiwaiding, and thiee-way calling) foi iesidential customeis, and a iobust set of Centiex featuies
(station attendant, call tiansfei, abbieviated dialing, etc.) foi business customeis. The fist softwaie piogiams
foi these stoied-piogiam contiol switches contained appioximately 100,000 lines of code; by 1990 some of
these switching systems became enoimously complex, containing 10 million lines of code and offeiing hundieds
of diffeient seivices to telephone useis.
Duiing the 1980s, a new aichitectuial concept was intioduced; it came to be called the intelligent netwoik.
It allowed new telecommunications seivices to be intioduced iapidly and in a ubiquitous and unifoim fashion.
Featuie and seivice availability in the netwoik ceased to be solely dependent upon the haidwaie and softwaie
in stoied-piogiam contiol switches. Rathei some new intelligence was centialized in databases which weie
accessed using packet switching techniques. Most signifcantly, the intelligent netwoik staited to piovide some
of the capabilities that opeiatois had made available in the eaily yeais of telephony. The iemaining sections of
this chaptei desciibe the intelligent netwoik, its chaiacteiistics, and its seivices. They also piovide a desciiption of
the advanced intelligent netwoik, which diamatically bioadens the paiticipation in the cieation of new seivices.
The Inte!!igent Netvurk
The intelligent netwoik aichitectuie is illustiated in Fig. 72.12; its piimaiy elements aie a switching system, a
signaling netwoik, a centialized database, and an opeiations suppoit system which suppoits the database. The
aichitectuial concept is a simple one. When a customei places a telephone call which iequiies special handling,
such as a toll-fiee call (800 Seivice) oi ciedit caid call, that call is inteicepted by the switching system which
suspends call piocessing while it launches a queiy thiough a signaling netwoik to a centialized database. The
database, in tuin, ietiieves the necessaiy infoimation to handle the call and ietuins that infoimation thiough
the signaling netwoik to the switch so that the call can be completed. The iole of the opeiations suppoit system
is to administei the appiopiiate netwoik and customei infoimation that iesides in the database.
It is conceivable that the database in this aichitectuie could ieside in the switching system, and the signaling
netwoik in this instance would not be iequiied. Howevei, that would magnify the task of administeiing the
customei infoimation, since that infoimation would be contained in thousands of switches instead of dozens
of centialized databases. In addition, even moie impoitantly, theie aie two shoitcomings associated with basing
many of the potential new seivices in switches, iathei than utilizing centialized databases to piovide infoimation
foi the switches. The fist is a deployment pioblem. As of 1990 theie weie moie than 15,000 switches in the
United States, and a single switch can cost millions of dollais. To intioduce a new seivice in local switches and
to make it widely available geneially iequiies some not-so-simple changes in those switches oi, in some cases,
ieplacement of ceitain switch types altogethei. These switch modifcations typically take yeais to implement
and iequiie a tiemendous capital investment. As a iesult, ten yeais aftei intioduction, Custom Calling seivices
weie available to fewei than 1% of the iesidential customeis in the United States.
A second pioblem with switch-based seivices has been that a single seivice sometimes behaves diffeiently
in diffeient switch types. Foi example, the speed calling access patteins aie diffeient in vaiious stoied-piogiam
contiol switches. The public is not paiticulaily sensitive to this fact, because speed calling is not associated with
an individual but iathei an individual`s station set. People live in a mobile society, howevei, and they want to
have theii seivices available fiom any station set and have them behave the same fiom any station set.
FIGURE 72.12 Intelligent netwoik aichitectuie-telephone calls which iequiie special handling aie inteicepted in a switching
system which launches queiies thiough a signaling netwoik to a centialized database. (Sourte. R. B. Robiock II, The intelligent
netwoik-Changing the face of telecommunications," Prot. IEEE, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 7-20, Januaiy 1991. C 1991 IEEE.)
FIGURE 72.13 Link aiiangements in a CCS7 signaling netwoik. (Sourte. R. B. Robiock II, The intelligent net-
woik-Changing the face of telecommunications," Prot. IEEE, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 7-20, Januaiy 1991. C 1991 IEEE.)
The intelligent netwoik aichitectuie has been the key to solving both the deployment pioblem and seivice
unifoimity pioblem associated with switch-based seivices. Seivices deployed using an intelligent netwoik
centialized database aie immediately ubiquitous and unifoim thioughout a company`s seiving aiea.
Inte!!igent Netvurk Systems
In 1981, AT&T intioduced into the Bell System a set of centialized databases called netwoik contiol points;
they suppoited two applications-the Billing Validation Application foi Calling Caid Seivice (ciedit caid
calling) and the INWATS database used to suppoit 800 Seivice. Queiies weie launched to these databases
thiough AT&T`s common-channel inteioffce signaling (CCIS) netwoik.
In 1984, following the divestituie of the Regional Bell Opeiating Companies fiom AT&T, the iegional
companies began planning to deploy theii own common-channel signaling (CCS) netwoiks and theii own
centialized databases. They selected the signaling system 7 piotocol foi use in theii signaling netwoiks, called
CCS7 netwoiks, and they named theii databases service control points (SCPs).
The CCS7 Netvurk
A geneial aichitectuie foi a iegional signaling netwoik is shown in Fig. 72.13. The netwoik is made up of signal
transfer points (STPs), which aie veiy ieliable, high-capacity packet switches that ioute signaling messages
between netwoik access nodes such as switches and SCPs. To peifoim these iouting functions, the STPs each
possess a laige iouting database containing tianslation data.
The CCS7 netwoik in Fig. 72.13 contains both local STPs and iegional STPs. The STPs aie typically deployed
in geogiaphically sepaiated paiis so that in the event of a natuial disastei at one site, such as an eaithquake,
ood, oi fie, the total tiaffc volume can be handled by the second site. Indeed, iedundancy is piovided at all
key points so that no single failuie can isolate a node.
As illustiated in Fig. 72.13, the following link types have been designated:
A-links connect an access node, such as a switching system oi SCP, to both membeis of an STP paii.
B-links inteiconnect two STP paiis foiming a quad" of foui signaling links wheie each STP indepen-
dently connects to each membei of the othei paii.
C-links aie the high-capacity connections between the geogiaphically sepaiated membeis of an STP paii.
D-links connect one STP paii to a second STP paii at anothei level in the signaling hieiaichy oi to
anothei caiiiei.
E-links connect an access node to a iemote STP paii in the signaling netwoik and aie iaiely used.
F-links diiectly inteiconnect two access nodes without the use of an STP; they aie noniedundant.
The CCS7 links noimally function at 56 kb/s in Noith Ameiica while links opeiating at 64 kb/s aie common
in Euiope.
The CCS7 signaling netwoik piovides the undeilying foundation foi the intelligent netwoik, and the iegional
telephone companies in the United States began wide-scale deployment of these netwoiks in 1986; seveial laige
independent telephone companies and inteiexchange caiiieis (ICs) soon followed. They used these netwoiks
foi both tiunk signaling between switches as well as foi diiect signaling fiom a switch to a database.
The Service Cuntru! Puint
The biains" of the intelligent netwoik is the SCP. It is an on-line, fault-toleiant, tiansaction-piocessing database
which piovides call handling infoimation in iesponse to netwoik queiies. The SCP deployed foi 800 Seivice
is a high-capacity system capable of handling moie than 900 queiies pei second oi 3 million pei houi. It is a
ieal-time system with a iesponse time of less than one half second, and it is a high-availability system with a
downtime of less than 3 minutes pei yeai foi a mated SCP paii. The SCP is also designed to accommodate
giowth, which means that piocessing powei oi memoiy can be added to an in-seivice system without intei-
iupting seivice. In addition, it is designed to accommodate giaceful ietioft, which means that a new softwaie
piogiam can be loaded into an in-seivice SCP without disiupting seivice.
Data Base 800 Service
SCPs have been deployed thioughout the United States in suppoit of the Data Base 800 Seivice mandated by
the Fedeial Communications Commission. This seivice piovides its subsciibeis with numbei poitability so
that a single 800 numbei can be used with diffeient caiiieis. The Data Base 800 Seivice aichitectuie is shown
in Fig. 72.14. With this aichitectuie, 800-numbei calls aie iouted fiom an end offce to a seivice switching
point (SSP) which launches queiies thiough a CCS7 signaling netwoik to the SCP. The SCP identifes the
appiopiiate caiiiei, as specifed by the 800 Seivice subsciibei, and then, if appiopiiate, tianslates the 800 numbei
to a plain old telephone (POTS) numbei. This infoimation is subsequently ietuined to the SSP so that the call
can be iouted thiough the netwoik by handing the call off to the appiopiiate caiiiei. This technology allows
subsciibeis to select the caiiiei and the POTS numbei as a function of ciiteiia such as time of day, day of week,
peicent allocation, and the location of the calling station. Thus the SCP piovides two customei-specifed iouting
infoimation functions: a caiiiei identifcation function and an addiess tianslation function.
The SCP 800 Seivice database is administeied by a single national service management system (SMS). The
SMS is an inteiactive opeiations suppoit system that is used to piocess and update customei iecoids. It is the
inteiface between the customei and the SCP. It tianslates a language which is fiiendly to a customei into a
language which is fiiendly to on-line, ieal-time databases. Along the way, it validates the customei input.
A!ternate Bi!!ing Services
Alteinate billing seivices (ABS) have also been implemented using the intelligent netwoik aichitectuie. Alteinate
billing is an umbiella title which includes Calling Caid Seivice, collect calling, and bill-to-thiid-numbei calling.
The netwoik confguiation suppoiting ABS is shown in Fig. 72.15.
With this aichitectuie, when a customei places a Calling Caid call, the call is iouted to an opeiatoi seivices
system (OSS) which suspends call piocessing and launches a queiy thiough a CCS7 signaling netwoik. The
queiy is deliveied to an SCP which contains the line information database (LIDB) application softwaie. The
LIDB application can piovide iouting infoimation, such as identifying the customei-specifed caiiiei which is
to handle the call, as well as piovide scieening functions, such as the Calling Caid validation used to authoiize
a call. The LIDB then ietuins the appiopiiate infoimation to the OSS so that the call can be completed. The
LIDBs aie suppoited by the database administration system (DBAS), which is an opeiations suppoit system
that piocesses updates foi Calling Caid Seivice as well as othei seivices. Multiple DBAS systems typically suppoit
each LIDB.
Duiing 1991, each of the Regional Bell Opeiating Companies and a numbei of laige independent telephone
companies inteiconnected theii CCS7 netwoiks, mostly thiough STP hubs, to cieate a national signaling
netwoik; it was a piocess called LIDB inteiconnect. When it was fnished, it meant that a peison caiiying a
FIGURE 72.14 Data Base 800 Seivice-800-numbei calls aie iouted to an SSP which launches queiies thiough a CCS7
netwoik to an SCP containing the 800 database. In this example, the SCP tianslates the 800 Seivice numbei of 800-555-
5463 into the POTS numbei of 404-555-1000. (Sourte. R. B. Robiock II, The intelligent netwoik-Changing the face of
telecommunications," Prot. IEEE, vol. 79, no. 1. pp. 7-20, Januaiy 1991. C 1991 IEEE.)
paiticulai company`s Calling Caid could, fiom anywheie in the United States, queiy the LIDB containing the
associated Calling Caid numbei.
Although the LIDB was oiiginally developed to suppoit Calling Caid Seivice, it has since found wide
application in the telecommunications industiy. Foi example, the LIDB is used to tianslate the telephone
numbei of a calling paity to a name as pait of Calling Name Deliveiy seivice, oi to conveit that numbei to a
nine-digit ZIP code as pait of Single Numbei Seivice. The LIDB databases now contain moie than a quaitei
of a billion customei iecoids which aie updated at a iate of moie than a million changes pei day. Although
physically distiibuted, the LIDBs appeai logically as a single database. They iepiesent a national iesouice.
Other Services
Foi alteinate billing seivices, the SCP is essentially designed to peifoim two functions: caiiiei identifcation
and billing authoiization. Foi 800 Seivice, the SCP piovides caiiiei identifcation and addiess tianslation. These
basic functions of authoiization, addiess tianslation and caiiiei identifcation can be used again and again in
many diffeient ways. Foi example, the intelligent netwoik has been used to suppoit piivate viitual netwoiks
(PVNs). PVNs make use of the public telephone netwoik but, by means of softwaie contiol, appeai to have
the chaiacteiistics of piivate netwoiks. A PVN seives a closed-usei gioup, and a callei iequiies authoiization
to gain access to the netwoik. This scieening function on oiiginating calls uses an authoiization function.
Second, a PVN may offei an abbieviated dialing plan, foi example, foui-digit dialing. In this instance, the SCP
peifoims an addiess tianslation function, conveiting a foui-digit numbei to a ten-digit POTS numbei. Theie
may also be a customei-specifed iouting infoimation function which involves selecting fiom a hieiaichy of
facilities; this can be accomplished thiough use of the SCP caiiiei identifcation function.
The SCP in the intelligent netwoik can suppoit a vast numbei of seivices ianging fiom Calling Name Deliveiy
seivice to messaging seivice. With Calling Name Deliveiy, a switch sends a queiy to the SCP with the ten-digit
calling paity numbei; the iesponse is the calling paity name which is then foiwaided by the switch to a display
unit attached to the called paity station set. In suppoit of messaging seivices, the addiess tianslation capability
of the SCP can be used to tianslate a peison`s telephone numbei to an electionic-mail addiess. As a iesult, the
sendei of electionic mail need only know a peison`s telephone numbei.
The Advanced Inte!!igent Netvurk
The intelligent netwoik aichitectuie discussed thus fai is often iefeiied to in the liteiatuie as Intelligent
Netwoik/1; this aichitectuie has addiessed the deployment pioblem and the seivice unifoimity pioblem. The
next phase in the evolution of this netwoik has come to be called the advanced intelligent netwoik (AIN), with
the AIN standaids defned by Bellcoie.
FIGURE 72.15 Alteinate billing seivices-calls aie iouted to an OSS which launches queiies thiough the CCS7 netwoik
to SCPs containing the LIDB application. (Sourte. R. B. Robiock II, The intelligent netwoik-Changing the face of
telecommunications," Prot. IEEE, vol. 79, no. 1. pp. 7-20, Januaiy 1991. C 1991 IEEE.)
The concept of AIN is that new seivices can be developed and intioduced into the netwoik without iequiiing
caiiieis to wait foi switch geneiics to be upgiaded. Some AIN applications intioduce poweiful seivice-cieation
capabilities which allow nonpiogiammeis to invoke basic functions offeied in the netwoik and stitch togethei
those functions, as illustiated in Fig. 72.16, to constitute a new seivice. As a iesult, AIN piomises to diamatically
shoiten the inteival iequiied to develop new seivices. Peihaps of gieatei signifcance, it piomises to bioaden
the paiticipation in seivice cieation. In addition, it offeis the oppoitunity to peisonalize oi customize seivices.
The silicon ievolution has diiven the cost of memoiy down to the point wheie it is economically viable to have
enough memoiy in the netwoik to stoie the seivice sciipts oi call piocessing scenaiios that aie unique to individuals.
Many people think of the AIN as a collection of netwoik elements, netwoik systems and opeiations systems;
this view might be called a technologist`s view. Peihaps a bettei iepiesentation is shown in Fig. 72.17; it shows
a collection of people-people empoweied to cieate seivices.
Histoiically, the cieation of new seivices piovided by the telephone netwoik has been the sole domain of
the netwoik element and netwoik system supplieis. Theie is peihaps a good analogy with the automobile
FIGURE 72.16 Cieating the seivice sciipt oi scenaiio foi a call by stitching togethei functional blocks. (Sourte. R. B.
Robiock II, The intelligent netwoik-Changing the face of telecommunications," Prot. IEEE, vol. 79, no. 1. pp. 7-20, Januaiy
1991. C 1991 IEEE.)
FIGURE 72.17 The advanced intelligent netwoik-a business peispective. (Sourte. R. B. Robiock II, Putting the Telephone
Usei in the Diivei`s Seat," Inteinational Council foi Computei Communication Confeience on Intelligent Netwoiks,
pp. 144-150, May 1992.)
industiy. A maiket study in the eaily 1900s piedicted that 200,000 was the maximum numbei of cais that could
evei be sold in a single yeai in the United States; the ieasoning was that 200,000 was the maximum numbei
of chauffeuis that could entei the woikfoice in a single yeai. In the telecommunications business, the netwoik
element and netwoik system supplieis have been the chauffeuis of the netwoik seivices business.
The seivice-cieation tools offeied by the AIN, howevei, empowei telephone company staff to cieate new
seivices. Moieovei, similai tools may well be used by the telecommunications staff of laige coipoiations, oi by
thiid-paity application piovideis oi even by some segment of the telephone usei population. As a iesult, we
may see an explosion in the numbei of netwoik seivices.
The AIN intioduces veiy poweiful seivice-cieation tools which aie used to pioduce seivice-logic sciipts
(piogiams). In one aiiangement, the seivice cieation is done by assembling seivice-logic giaphs fiom giaphical
icons that iepiesent functional components of seivices. The completed giaph is then validated with an expeit
system and tested off-line by executing eveiy leg of the seivice-logic giaph. At this point the seivice-logic
piogiam can be downloaded into the seivice contiol point so that it is ieady foi execution.
To make use of the new seivice, it is then necessaiy to set tiiggeis" in the appiopiiate seivice switching
point. These tiiggeis can be set foi both oiiginating and teiminating calls, and they iepiesent events which,
should they occui, indicate the need foi the switch to launch a queiy to the SCP foi infoimation the switch
needs to piocess the call. The AIN switch geneiics, which aie piesently deployed, suppoit seveial tiiggeis such
as immediate off hook" oi called addiess." Futuie AIN switch geneiics aie expected to suppoit seveial dozen
tiiggeis. The fist phase of the AIN, called AIN 0, became ieality in late 1991 when fiiendly usei tiials began
in two of the Regional Bell Opeiating Companies.
AIN 0 evolved to AIN 0.1 and then AIN 0.2, with each new veision of AIN containing additional tiiggeis.
Today ovei 100 AIN seivices aie deployed in Noith Ameiica and the numbei is giowing iapidly.
The Euiopean Telecommunications Standaids Institute (ETSI) has defned a Euiopean AIN standaid iefeiied
to as Coie INAP, and deployment of Coie INAP systems in Euiope began in 1996.
The aichitectuial concepts of AIN aie now beginning to caiiy ovei into wiieless netwoiks as well as bioadband
netwoiks. Although the standaids in these domains aie just being developed, the value added by the wiieless
intelligent netwoik (WIN) and the bioadband intelligent netwoik (BIN) piomises to suipass the value seen in
the naiiowband wiieline woild.
Back tu the Future
The intelligent netwoik, with its centialized databases, has offeied a means to iapidly intioduce new seivices
in a ubiquitous fashion and with opeiational unifoimity as seen by the end usei. The advanced intelligent
netwoik has gone on to piovide a seivice-independent aichitectuie, and, with its poweiful seivice-cieation
capabilities, has empoweied nonpiogiammeis to paiticipate in the development of new seivices. In many ways,
as we go into the futuie, we aie going back to a time when opeiatois weie the human intelligence" in the
netwoik. The human intelligence was all but eliminated with the intioduction of switching systems, but now
the intelligent netwoik is woiking to put the intelligence of the human opeiatoi back into the netwoik.
Dehning Terms
Common-channel signaling (CCS): A technique foi iouting signaling infoimation thiough a packet-switched
netwoik.
Database administration systems (DBAS): An opeiations suppoit system that administeis updates foi the
line infoimation database.
Line information database (LIDB): An application iunning on the seivice contiol point that contains infoi-
mation on telephone lines and Calling Caids.
Service control point (SCP): An on-line, ieal-time, fault-toleiant, tiansaction-piocessing database which
piovides call-handling infoimation in iesponse to netwoik queiies.
Service management system (SMS): An opeiations suppoit system which administeis customei iecoids foi
the seivice contiol point.
Signal transfer point (STP): A packet switch found in the common-channel signaling netwoik; it is used to
ioute signaling messages between netwoik access nodes such as switches and SCPs.
Signaling system 7 (SS7): A communications piotocol used in common-channel signaling netwoiks.
Re!ated Tupic
72.2 Computei Communication Netwoiks
Relerences
AT&T Bell Laboiatoiies, Common channel signaling," T|e Be|| Sysem Tet|. J., vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 221-477,
Febiuaiy 1978.
AT&T Bell Laboiatoiies, Stoied piogiam contiolled netwoik," T|e Be|| Sysem Tet|. J., vol. 61, no. 7, pait 3,
pp. 1573-1815, Septembei 1982.
Bell Communications Reseaich, Advanced intelligent netwoik (AIN) 0.1 switch-seivice contiol point (SCP)
application piotocol inteiface geneiic iequiiements," Be|| Commun. Res. Tet|nta| Re[., TR-NWT-001285,
Issue 1, August 1992.
Bell Communications Reseaich, Advanced intelligent netwoik (AIN) switch-seivice contiol point
(SCP)/Adjunct inteiface geneiic iequiiements," Be|| Commun. Res., Geneiic Requiiements, GR-1299-
CORE, Issue 2, Decembei 1994.
Euiopean Telecommunications Standaids Institute, Intelligent netwoik (IN): Intelligent netwoik capability set
1 (CS1) coie intelligent netwoik applications piotocol (INAP) pait 1: Piotocol specifcation," Eur. Te|etom.
SJs. Ins., ETS 300 374-1, diaft, May 1994.
Globecom `86: The Global Telecommunications Confeience, Con[erente RetorJ, vol. 3, pp. 1311- 1335, Decem-
bei 1986.
R.J. Hass and R.W. Humes, Intelligent netwoik/2: A netwoik aichitectuie concept foi the 1990s," Inteinational
Switching Symposium, Con[erente RetorJ, vol. 4, pp. 944-951, Maich 1987.
R.B. Robiock, II, The intelligent netwoik-Changing the face of telecommunications," Prot. IEEE, vol. 79, no.
1. pp. 7-20, Januaiy 1991.
R.B. Robiock, II, Putting the telephone usei in the diivei`s seat," Inteinational Council foi Computei Com-
munication Intelligent Netwoiks Confeience, pp. 144-150, May 1992.
R.B. Robiock, II, The many faces of the LIDB data base," Inteinational Confeience on Communications,
Con[erente RetorJ, June 1992.
Further Inlurmatiun
The bimonthly magazine Be||tore Ext|ange has numeious aiticles on the intelligent netwoik, paiticulaily in
the following issues: July/August 1986, Novembei/Decembei 1987, July/August 1988, and Maich/Apiil 1989.
Aiticles on AIN seivice cieation appeai in the Januaiy/Febiuaiy 1992 issue. Subsciiptions oi single copies aie
available fiom the Bellcoie Exchange Ciiculation Managei, 60 New England Avenue, Piscataway, NJ 08854-4196.
The monthly publication IEEE Communtaons Maga:ne contains numeious aiticles on the intelligent
netwoik. A special issue on the subject was published in Januaiy 1992. Copies aie available fiom the IEEE
Seivice Centei, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854-4150.
The monthly publication T|e Be||tore Dges lists iecent Bellcoie publications. Theie aie a seiies of technical
advisoiies, technical iequiiements, and special iepoits that have been issued on the intelligent netwoik. Copies
aie available by contacting Bellcoie Customei Seivice Toll-Fiee 1-800-521-CORE (2673).
The bimonthly publication T|e TcT Tet|nta| Journa| contains numeious aiticles on the intelligent net-
woik. The advanced intelligent netwoik is the subject of a special issue: Summei 1991, vol. 70, nos. 3-4. Cuiient
oi iecent issues may be obtained fiom the AT&T Customei Infoimation Centei, P.O. Box 19901, Indianapolis,
IN 46219.

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Huber, M.N., Daigle, J.N., Bannister, J., Gerla, M., Robrock II, R.B.

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