DOXOLOGY 2011 49

Including Children in Eucharistic Celebrations: A Korean Presbyterian Perspective Hwarang Moon

Should churches invite children to celebrate the Lords Supper? Since the 1971 Conference of Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches, the topic of children at the Lords Supper has been a topic of concern in many of the Presbyterian, Methodist, and Lutheran churches, as well as, to a limited extent, in the Roman Catholic Church.1 Especially after the publication of Christian L. Keidels article, Is the Lords Supper for Children? in 1975, many evangelical Reformed communities have expressed concern about this issue.2 Among the Reformed denominations in North America, the Reformed Church in America and the Christian Reformed Church permit age-appropriate participation by children in the Lords Supper while emphasizing the role of parents and a church committee in preparing them for the process of communion.3 In the case of the Korean Reformed churches, however, there have been no official arguments regarding infants or children at the Lords Table
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1

Christian Reformed Synodical Study Committee Report 34, Committee to Study the Issue of Covenant Children Partaking of the Lords Supper, in Agenda for Synod 1986 (Grand Rapids: Board of Publication of the Christian Reformed Church, 1986), 348. 2 See Is the Lords Supper for Children? Westminster Theological Journal, 37 (1975): 301341. Tim Gallant assesses, His article dropped like a bomb into the more conservative and evangelical Reformed community. See Tim Gallant, Feed My Lambs: Why the Lords Table Should Be Restored to Covenant Children (Grand Prairie, Alberta: Pactum Reformanda Publishing, 2002), 18. 3 In the case of the Christian Reformed Church, the Synod in 2006 decided to open the Lords Table to all baptized members on the basis of their full membership in the covenant community, though that decision was not ratified in 2007. See Christian Reformed Church in North America Synod, Acts of Synod 2006 (Grand Rapids: Board of Publications of the Christian Reformed Church, 2006), 727-731. Presently, the PCUSA allows the practice at the discretion of the local church. Many European churches also have adopted the practice, including the Reformed churches in the Netherlands (GKN), which allows consistories to permit the practice under certain conditions. See Children and Holy Communion: An Ecumenical Consideration amongst Churches in Britain and Ireland (British Council of Churches and Free Church Federal Council, 1989), 36-48.

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until now.4 However, current debates about the possibility of infant communion among the Reformed churches in North America who stand within the Calvinistic tradition give some important direction for the Korean Presbyterian Church. The Korean Presbyterian Church has great enthusiasm for the role of Gods Word in Christian worship. Not only in the public worship service, but also daily early morning prayer meetings, the Word plays an important role and receives liturgical emphasis. But, comparatively speaking, there is little concern for the sacraments, for the visible Word.5 Korean Presbyterian Church law permits confirmation for anyone who has received infant baptism, from the age of fourteen up. Until the age of fourteen, children are raised in the Sunday school system, and only people who have received adult baptism or confirmation can participate in the Eucharist.6 Under these circumstances, children have very little opportunity to experience the sacraments in public worship. Many Korean teenagers lose the opportunity to participate in public worship and experience the sacraments, which they should have from an early age.7 In fact, many young persons participate in the Eucharist for the first time only upon entering a university, over the age of twenty. How might Korean Christians encourage hospitality towards children in our public worship and in our sacramental life? Reformed opposition to the participation of children in communion

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4

This article draws on my previous work in Hwarang Moon, "What The Korean Presbyterian Church Can Learn From Contemporary Debates About Infant Communion Among Reformed Christians In North America." Calvin Theological Seminary Th. M. Thesis, 2009. 5 See Seung-Joong Joo and Kyeong Jin Kim, The Reformed Tradition in Korea, in The Oxford History of Christian Worship, ed. Geoffrey Wainwright and Karen B. Westerfield Tucker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 484-491. 6 Almost all of the Korean Presbyterian churches set the participation of public worship of children at age fourteen. In the case of the Korean Presbyterian Church in Kosin, see Korean Presbyterian Church, Constitution (Seoul: Kosin Presbyterian Church, 1992), 253. 7 In fact, many high school students do not attend worship on Sunday mornings because they are enrolled in college entrance examination (SAT) preparation programs.

DOXOLOGY 2011 51

Traditionally, Reformed churches and Presbyterian churches have opposed the participation of children in communion.8 This opposition is mainly related to the thought of John Calvin and his exegesis of 1 Corinthians 11. Therefore, prior to studying the possibility of childrens participation in communion, we should review Calvins and the Reformed churchs thoughts on infant communion and their interpretation of the phrase, discerning the body of Christ. John Calvin and the Reformed traditions thoughts on the communion of children What do Calvin and the Reformed tradition say about the communion of children? Calvin says, The Supper is intended for those of riper years, who, having passed the tender period of infancy, are fit to bear solid food."9 Also, discussing 1 Corinthians 11:28-29, he emphasizes, If they cannot partake worthily without being able duly to discern the sanctity of the Lord's body, why should we stretch out poison to our young children instead of edifying food?10 Along the same line, Ursinus says, Infants are not capable of coming to the Lords Supper, because they do not possess faith actually, but only potentially and by inclination. But here actual faith is required.11 We can summarize these core opinions in two ways. First, based on their exegesis on 1 Corinthians 11, they consider that the Eucharist
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8

I do not recommend the use of the term infant communion. First, this term suggests that some participants, namely infants, should come to the Table passively. Second, the Korean and English terminology for infants and young children can easily create confusion. The Korean term for infants, younga" or "yua, refers to unweaned children, up to the age of perhaps three, and it connotes extreme passivity, whereas infant in English generally refers to a baby less than one year of age. In contrast, the Korean term for children, (eerinyee), typically refers to children between four and thirteen years old. This term connotes children with the capacity for more active engagement, though it does not yet convey a level of engagement expected of adults. I would therefore call for the use of the term eerinyee communion, communion of children, to convey the importance of welcoming young children to active participation at the Table. However, in this article, I will use the term "infant communion," which has been widely used among scholars. 9 John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge (Edinburgh, Calvin Translation Society, 1845-46), IV.xvi.30. 10 Ibid. 11 Zacharias Ursinus, The Commentary of Dr. Zacharius Ursinus on the Heidelberg Catechism, trans. G. W. Willard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954), 425.

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requires the power of discernment. Second, they believe that children do not possess enough intelligence or cognitive ability to declare faith as adults do. In contrast, these Reformers proposed different criteria in regard to infant baptism. Calvin emphasized that children should receive regeneration by baptism. Also, against the Anabaptists, by reminding us of Gods commandment to circumcise infants, he insisted that people could not forbid infant baptism.12 Calvin argued, rather, the Lord is able to furnish them (children) with the knowledge of Himself in any way He pleases.13 Calvin did not apply the same concept to infant communion: [Baptism] is a kind of entrance, and as it were initiation into the Church, by which we are ranked among the people of God, a sign of our spiritual regeneration, by which we are again born to be children of God, whereas on the contrary the Supper is intended for those of riper years, who, having passed the tender period of infancy, are fit to bear solid food.14 When we review his commentaries on First Corinthians and Matthew, we find that his criteria for accepting people to the Lords Supper emphasized confession, self-examination, and repentance.15 Calvins antipaedocommunionism suggests that baptism and the Lords Supper are evidently different sorts of sacraments. Cornelis Venema summarizes the Reformed Confessions character as follows: In the classic confessions of the Reformed churches, which were written during the period of the Reformation in the sixteenth century and the early seventeenth century, there is compelling evidence that
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12 13

Institutes, IV.xvi.20. Institutes, IV.xvi.18. Calvin says, Infants are baptized for future repentance and faith. Though are not yet been formed in them, yet the seed of both lies hid in them by the secret operation of the Spirit. See Institutes, IV.xvi.20. 14 Institutes, IV.xvi.30. 15 See Commentary on the Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), 348-395; see Calvins Commentaries, Vol. XVII, 210. Also, concerning the emphasis of faith in the Lords Supper, see Belgic Confession art. 35. In addition to this, see B. Kumphuis, Daddy, May I take Communion? Lux Mundi (September 1995), 9-11.

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the Reformed churches believe that the Lords Supper ought to be administered only to professing believers.16 As Venema points out, there is no evangelical creed that decisively supports the participation of infants or children in the Lords Supper.17 The Westminster Confession of Faith and the Larger Catechism (29:1; 29:7; Qqs. 170-175, 177) state that faith and the ability to examine ones faith and life are prerequisites for those who receive the Lords Supper. The Geneva Confession of 1536 (Art. 16), the Scottish Confession of Faith of 1560 (Ch. 22), the Belgic Confession of 1561 (Art.35), and the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566 are all in agreement with that the Lords Supper should be administered only to those who are of discernment and who have declared their faith in Christ. Therefore, from the Reformation era until the middle of the 20th century, the Reformed tradition has prohibited childrens participation in the Eucharist. So then, we need to closely examine the phrase discerning the body of Christ in 1 Corinthians 11 to evaluate the validity of infant communion. The meaning of recognizing the Body in I Corinthians 11:29 One reason why people hesitate to include children in communion is based on an inadequate interpretation of I Corinthians 11:29. Cornelis Venema says, It is no exaggeration to say that I Corinthians 11:23-29 is the most extensive and comprehensive New Testament passage on the subject of

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16

Cornelis Venema, Paedocommunion and the Reformed Confessions (I) The Outlook, 56.1 (Jan. 2006), 20. 17 The only Reformed theologian who supported the validity of infant communion was Musculus. Herman Bavinck summarizes his opinion as follows: (1) Those who possess the thing signified also have a right to the sign. (2) Children who can receive the grace of regeneration can also be nurtured in their spiritual lives without their knowledge. (3) Christ is the Savior of the whole Church, including the children, and feeds and refreshes all of its members with his body and blood. (4) The demand for self-examination (1 Cor. 11:26-29) is not intended by the apostle as a universal requirement. W. Musculus, Loci communes theologiae sacrae (Basel: Heruagiana, 1567), 471-73, in Herman Bavinck, Church Dogmatics, vol. IV, ed. John Bolt, trans. John Vriend (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 583.

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the Lords Supper.18 Traditionally, this passage was used to prove that participation in the Lords Supper required the faithful confession of its recipients.19 Thus, many scholars consider the context of this passage as a universal teaching about the Lords Supper. Pointing out whoever eats in verse 27, let a person in verse 28, and for anyone in verse 29, Venema emphasizes, This language clearly shows that Pauls instructions regarding participation in the sacraments are intended to apply in a general way to all believers whenever they commune with Christ and each other by means of the sacrament.20 His foundation is as follows: The shift that occurs in this section of 1 Corinthians 11:17-34 is evident from the change in language that Paul uses. Whereas the earlier section, which described the problem in the church in Corinth, uses primarily the second person plural you (vv 17-20, 22), this section shifts to the third person singular. The change in this section to that (27-29) of such third person forms has a significant bearing upon how the instructions of this section are to be
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18

See Cornelis P. Venema, New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (IV) The Outlook, 57.3 (March 2007): 24. 19 See Venema, New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (V) The Outlook, 57.5 (May 2007): 26. See also Gallant, 75. Many scholars note the importance of the phrase in remembrance of me. Throughout history, this phrase contributes to prohibiting the participation of children in the Lords Supper. Also, the CRC reports, Or again, apart from remembrance there can be no meaningful participation. See Christian Reformed Church, Report 34, 355. Ronald Wallace says, A sacrament can never be celebrated without at least a clear repetition of the command promise of Christ in the hope of which the church fulfils this ordinanceCalvin approves of Augustines statement that the elements only become sacraments when the word is added, and himself adds the comments, Certainly if a man only brings his eyes and shuts his ears they will differ in no respect from the profane rites of the heathen. See Ronald Wallace, Word and Sacrament (Tyler, TX: Geneva Divinity School Press, 1953), 135. Against this trend, Heron says, Pauls warnings about unworthy reception have had the most unfortunate results where they have been misunderstood, as in the Scottish highlands, to mean that only those who are sure of their own worthiness can dare to receive the Eucharistic bread and wine. Alasdair I. Heron, Table and Tradition: Toward an Ecumenical Understanding of the Eucharist (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983), 42. 20 Venema, New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (IV), 24.

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understood. Though the apostle began his treatment of the Lords Supper in 1 Corinthians 11 with a description of the inappropriate behavior of some members of the Corinthian church, he now moves to a series of general instruction that apply to all members of the covenant community. The language in this transitional verse underscores the seriousness of an unworthy reception of the body and blood of Christ.21 Venema insists that those commands apply to every participant, and thus function as a general or universal rule about all participation in the Lords Supper. This automatically means that children cannot be permitted to partake in the Lords Supper. Thus, he insists that all people who participate in the Lords Supper should be professing members of the church who are in good standing. Against this, Keidel emphasizes, The crucial thing to understand about 1 Corinthians 11 in regard to infant and child participation in the supper is not the meaning of such words as remembrance (vv. 24, 25), or examine (v. 28) or to judge (v. 29), but the important thing to determine is to whom these statements and warnings are specifically addressed.22 That is to say, he believes these phrases are not universal instruction. Reading Romans 10:13, Acts 2:21, John 3:16, Romans 3:28, and 2 Thessalonians 3:10, he insists, This text cannot be applied universally.23 Therefore, when I study the literary context of 1 Corinthians 11, I see that Paul is concerned about divisions in the Corinthian community. Weima says, Although we cannot know with certainty what led to divisions over the Lords Supper at Corinth, it is clear that the problem involved social discrimination: the wealthy Christians celebrated the Lords Supper in a way that despised and humiliated their poorer fellow believers.24 The idea that
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21

Venema, The New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (VI), The Outlook. 57.5 (May 2007): 23-24. His opinion is based on his reading of Calvin. See John Calvin, Commentary on the Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), 385. 22 Keidel, 323. 23 Ibid. 24 Jeffrey A. D. Weima, Children at the Lords Supper and the Key Text of 1 Corinthians 11:17-34, Calvin Theological Seminary Forum (Spring 2007), 8.

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the Corinthians thought that partaking of the Supper automatically exempted them from judgment is widely recognized.25 In this respect, Paul stressed the necessity of examining oneself and discerning the body. Therefore, as Craig Koester says, we can think that Pauls reference to discerning the body (11:29) is another way of speaking about ones relationship to Christ and to other people.26 Weima concludes, When children today are excluded from the Lords Supper, there is the very real danger of committing the same sin for which Paul criticized the Corinthians: humiliating fellow believers. But, this interpretation does not automatically mean, however, that children ought to take part fully at the communion table, nor does it remove the need for some form of selfexamination.27 Examining the context of 1 Corinthians 11:23-29, Weima concludes that the main intention of the author of Corinthians is not to give universal instruction regarding the Lords Supper, but to give firsthand instruction to the Corinthian church, which had no concern for the poor and weak members in the church. Therefore, it is somewhat hard to uphold antipaedocommunion positions based on 1 Corinthians 11. Why should children participate in the Eucharist? How can we support childrens participation in the Lords Supper? To begin with, we should explore the foundation of the Lords Supper. Is it an act of Gods grace or of human faith? Secondly, we should attend to the work of the Holy Spirit in forming a persons faith. If the Holy Spirit is at work, isnt it possible for young children to confess God and have sufficient religious potential?
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25

See C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 220, 223; Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 443. 26 Craig R. Koester, Infant Communion in Light of the New Testament, Lutheran Quarterly 10 (1996), 237. 27 Jeffrey A. D. Weima, Children at the Lords Supper and the Key Text of 1 Corinthians 11:17-34, Calvin Theological Seminary Forum (Spring 2007), 8. Berkouwer says, We do not come to the Lords Supper to testify there to our worthiness, but with the acknowledgement that we seek our life in Jesus Christ and that without him we lie in the midst of death. G. C. Berkouwer, The Sacraments, trans. Hugo Bekker (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1969), 257.

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Gods grace or believers faith? Adult Christians have prohibited the participation of children based on the criteria of discernment and intellectual ability. Of course, discernment sufficient to consider the body of Christ is very important, but this seems to suggest that the validity of participation depends on a persons belief, making Gods grace in some way conditional. If grace is given to us according to our status of spirituality, how can it be unconditional? As Torrance says, We need to understand the relationship between the nature of the gospel of grace and faith of people.28 In other words, by studying the doctrine of grace, we may find a clue to the possibility of the participation of children in communion. Quoting Michael Polanyi, Torrance says, Our belonging to Christ is not conditional on our believing and repentingWe believe that we belongFaith is our response to the gospel, our acknowledgement that we are not our own but are bought at a price and bought long before we were born.29 He emphasizes that faith is Gods gracious gift, and belonging to God is an important factor in having faith. He also emphasizes that God calls us not according to our worth, but by His grace. In fact, the Reformed traditions emphasis on repentance before participating in the Lords Supper, according to 1 Corinthians 11:29 seems to focus on our worth. This does cause some debate over the possibility of infants and young childrens participation in the Eucharist. However, Torrance argues, On this New Testament and Reformed understanding, faith and repentance are not conditions of grace, but our response to grace. The fact that Christ died to take away our sins and restore us to communion with God, means that we are summoned unconditionally to renounce those sins for which Christ died, and to seek that communion for which we were reconciled.30 Torrance emphasizes that Gods unconditional grace is crucial to our understanding of baptism and the Eucharist. His opinion has great value in
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28

James B. Torrance, Some Theological Grounds for Admitting Children to the Lords Table, Reformed Review, 40.3 (Spring 1987), 200. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid., 201.

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helping us consider the aspect of grace in the debate on infant communion. However, his emphasis also carries the possible danger of turning Gods grace into a kind of "cheap grace."31 This is because even though salvation and faith are Gods gracious gifts, it is natural that people who receive salvation should also give a confession of faith. Though we cannot know whether others receive Gods salvation or not, by professing ones faith, people come to know how great our received grace is and confirm that our community is a real faith-based community. Even though we acknowledge the priority of Gods grace, we should consider that grace requires a profession of faith, which depends upon the work of the Holy Spirit.32 However, Torrance points out that the requirement of excessive preparation in communion would deny the essence of Gods grace and, even worse, would present the possibility of the danger of legalism. It is on these grounds that Torrance criticizes the Western Churchs stance towards communion: So our Highland tradition can in practice turn the sacrament of the Lords Supper into something like the sacrament of penance, by demanding evidences of grace as a condition for acceptance at the Table.33 However, the Dutch theologian Kamphuis develops a relationship between the sacraments and Gods grace with the help of the concept of covenant. He says, He does not treat us as senseless stock and blocks (Canons of Dort, III/IV, 16), but as people with full responsibility. That is why the Bible is filled with public professions of faith. Many times did Israel
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31

Regarding cheap grace, see Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Die teure Gnade in Nachfolge (Munchen: C. Kaiser, 1952). Torrance also considers the danger of cheap grace. See Torrance, 202. 32 See Charles Hodge, The Way of Life, ed. Mark A. Noll (New York: Paulist Press, 1987), 180-186; Calvin, Institutes, IV.xv.15; Z. Ursinus, Commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism, trans. G. W. Williard (Columbus, Ohio: 1852; reprint ed., Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., n.d.), 434. 33 Torrance, 202. Also see David Pearcy, Infant Communion. Part III: Reasons for its Restoration, Currents in Theology and Mission, 8.3 (June 1981): 162. David Pearcy says, The New Testament, however, always speaks of baptism as Gods work; and in the Eucharist, too, it is God who is activehe is the sole subject. The Western Church has placed such great stress on being worthy before receiving communion that the idea of the sacrament as a free gift has become clouded and occasionally lost.

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profess its faith, on crucial moments in history (Ex. 24:3; Joshua 24: 16-18, 21 24; Neh. 10; etc.).34 The Lords Supper is first and foremost an activity on Gods part. But our God does not remain the only One in the history of the covenant. In the Lords Supper His people give their response.35 Kamphuis emphasizes our response to God, even though the Lords Supper is given by Gods self-giving grace. How, then, can we express the relationship between our faith and Gods grace? John Murrays study on definitive sanctification and justification offers insight into the relationship between baptism and the Eucharist. The concept of definitive sanctification suggests that by receiving justification, Gods grace works in us, and our status is definitely transformed from sin.36 While baptism does not create faith, God has fellowship with those who have been baptized, and the baptized passively receive Gods salvific act.37 Therefore, Gods grace and fellowship begin with the baptized child who belongs to the covenant family. Also, the baptized child needs Gods continuous grace and nursing, as a CRC report makes clear: Children need this means of grace. If the sacraments are a means to strengthen faith, who but children need that strengthening most? Children are most in need of the visual to remind them of what Christ has done for them.38 The Lords Supper is Gods gift, which shows His grace. However, it also requires our faithful profession and the discernment of the Spirit. The Reformers emphasis on confession of faith did not come from knowing the character of Gods grace, but from enthusiasm and pursuit of the purity of the Church. Wallace says, Eating the bread cannot ensure a generating faith.39 In this sense, we cannot permit adult participation without
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34

B. Kamphuis, Infant Baptism and Infant Communion, Lux Mundi, 11.3. (September 1992), 5. 35 Ibid., 6. 36 John Murray, Definitive Sanctification Calvin Theological Journal, 2.1 (April 1967). 37 Edmund Schlink, kumenische Dogmatik: Grundzge (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983), 489. 38 Christian Reformed Church in North America, Acts of Synod 84, Overtures (Grand Rapids: Board of Publications of the Christian Reformed Church), 421. 39 Ronald Wallace, Calvins Doctrine of the Word and Sacrament (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd Ltd., 1953; reprint ed., Tyler, Texas: Geneva Divinity School Press, 1982), 211-212.

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confession and baptism. However, we need to reconsider the participation of baptized children while considering the character of Gods grace. Gods grace has been given to the baptized child who belongs to the covenant family. Even though we cannot know whether a child has faith or not, we believe in and anticipate Gods sovereign grace for that child. If we acknowledge the objective character of a sacrament, children cannot taint or deteriorate the value of the Eucharist. Rather, a childs participation in the Lords Supper can be a beautiful moment for the covenant family in the presence of God. The participation of children in communion is a symbolic profession of the covenant familys commitment to feed and rear Gods children with Gods Word and faith. It can also be proof that the family rests on the work of the Holy Spirit in forming faith, not restricted by the work of human reason and criteria. The religious potential of children and the work of the Holy Spirit In his Institutes, Calvin says that God gave humans a sense of deity, or a sense of religion.40 In this respect, we can say that all people have religious minds and potential. However, we should keep in mind that real faith comes from the Triune God and is the gift of the Holy Spirit. If the formation of faith depends on the work of the Holy Spirit, then we know God not by observing the universe, but by Gods opening our eyes to see Him.41 In this dimension, we can know that God gives religious potential to children. Sofia Cavalletti points out that while adults tend to talk down to children and to present God in childish terms, children themselves have a profound sense of the majesty of God, reflected in the language they use to speak of God.42 She has also noted that children from three to six years of age have demonstrated particular sensitivity to the following points, among others: Jesus Christ, the Good Shepherd, Baptism, and the Eucharist.43 As a result of leading catechesis classes for three to eleven year old children for 25
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40 41

Institutes, I.iii.1. Institutes, II.vi.4. 42 Sofia Cavalletti, The Religious Potential of the Child: Experiencing Scripture and Liturgy with Young Children, trans. Patricia M. Coulter and Julie M. Coulter (Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications, 1992), 9. 43 Ibid., 15, 171.

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years, she came to know at an empirical level that children can gain religious understanding of certain theological concepts, and that their religious potential can surpass adult expectations.44 Although adults have a tendency to see faith only in terms of intellect, the faith of children and that of adults is the same in essence.45 It seems, then, that we must recognize children as religious beings. What is the essence of faith? Faith is a gift of God. Irenaeus says, The Lord taught us that no man is capable of knowing God, unless he be taught of God: that is, that God cannot be known without God: but that this is the express will of the Father, that God should be known. For they shall know Him to whomever the Son has revealed Him.46 But knowledge of God is not primarily knowledge that makes God an object, but personal knowledge that lies in the relationship to the covenant. In this respect, knowledge of God and faith are closely related. It is for this reason that Calvin defines faith as knowledge. Calvin says, We call faith a firm and certain knowledge of Gods benevolence toward us, founded upon the truth of the freely given promise in Christ, both revealed to our minds and sealed upon our hearts through the Holy Spirit.47 For faith consists in the knowledge of God and Christ (John 17:3),48 that is to say, faith is knowing Godthe knowledge of God is not general accumulation of knowledge, but the knowledge which is given by God as a gift. That knowledge which is given through revelation is personal knowledge.49 The faithful response of humans is the fruit of the Holy Spirit. So then, can children participate in the Lords Supper without knowing the meaning of it? The Lords Supper has a variety of theological meanings. Intellectually, children cannot understand the meaning of the
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44 45

Ibid., 21. John Westerhoff explains the essence of faith, and the meaning of faith growth by comparing them to the growth of the trees. That is to say, as time goes by, a tree adds a new annual ring each year. However, the tree is the same in essence. John Westerhoff, III, Bringing up Children in the Christian Faith (Minneapolis: Winston Press, 1980), 34. 46 Irenaeus, Adversus haereses, IV.vi.4, in ANF 1, 468. 47 Institutes, III.ii.7. 48 Institutes, III.ii.3. 49 In brief, the knowledge given in revelation is not simply knowledge that, or knowledge about, but knowledge of, J. Baillie, The Idea of Revelation in Recent Thought (New York: Columbia University Press. 1956), 47.

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Lords Supper in the way adults can. But understanding can sometimes transcend human reason. As James F. White asserts, To exclude baptized children from the Lords Table on the grounds that they do not fully understand it would, if we followed such an argument out, exclude us all. One does not understand a mystery, one experiences it. And children reared in the community of faith can experience it as well as anyone, perhaps better than some of their adult associates.50 Synthesizing the above opinions, we can conclude that children have religious potential by the work of the Holy Spirit. Even though the intellectual abilities of a child do not meet the expectations of adults, faith is not only a gift, but also a mystery of the Holy Spirit. Joyce Ann Mercer says, The Spirit works in and through the communitys practicescertainly in this process, Gods Spirit and procession of learning transform individual childrenThat is unarguable. But the way children learn to be Christians, through the Spirits gift of faith and the human process of learning, takes place in and through community.51 So then, it is better to give children the opportunity to participate in the Lords Supper while depending on the work of the Holy Spirit, who surpasses our intellect, and rely on the Triune God to open the eyes of children for understanding. The merits of early participation in the Eucharist Up to this point, we have seen that the participation of children in communion is neither contrary to Scripture nor to our understanding of Christian faith. Rather, when we consider the priority of Gods covenant, the essence of faith, and the role of the Holy Spirit, we see both the possibility and necessity of their participation. What, then, is its benefit?
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50 51

James White, Sacraments as Gods Self-Giving (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1983), 66. See Joyce Ann Mercer, Welcoming Children: A Practical Theology of Childhood (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2005), 179.

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Faith formation by the covenant community One of the merits of age-appropriate participation in communion is that preparing for the Eucharist arouses the church's and the parents' educational duty for the churchs younger generation. Also, children can learn communal identity by participating in the Eucharist.52 Therefore, by participation in liturgy and education, through counseling and fellowship with members, children can learn the basics of the Christian faith. To ensure a positive outcome from their participation in communion, the role of community is especially important; through the community, believers gain a firmer Christian identity. The model of a community of faith-enculturation paradigm, which was proposed by John H. Westerhoff, III, and Gwen K. Neville, would be a good case to examine.53 According to them, one of the serious problems found in the praxis of church education that focuses on instructional teaching is that Christian faith is not transferred to the next generation. Westerhoff and Neville emphasize that the aim of Christian education is above all the transfer of the knowledge to help believers to live faithful lives. However, they also emphasize the importance of participation in worship and various liturgies, arguing that the educational function of liturgy, which disappeared after the Reformation, must again be revitalized.54 According to them, while participating in a faith communitys life and worship, people can obtain a special value system and can develop their identity in the realm of the cognitive and emotional. In the same vein, Joyce Ann Mercer says, The identity is learned through participation in the church as a community of practice that seeks to walk in the ways of Jesus and organizes its life and practices around the central symbol of the kingdom of God, with its
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52 53

See Mercer, Welcoming Children, 163. Gwen Kennedy Neville and John H. Westerhoff, III. Learning through Liturgy (New York: Seabury Press, 1978). Ellis Nelson says, Because Christian faith is formed, supported, enriched and corrected in congregations, education must be congregation-centered. See C. Ellis Nelson, Foundation and Transformation, in Growth in Grace and Knowledge: Lectures and Speeches on Practical Theology (Austin: Nortex Press, 1992), 241. 54 John H. Westerhoff, III and William Willimon, Liturgy and Learning throughout the Life Cycle (New York: The Seabury Press, 1980), 55-86; John H. Westerhoff, III. Will our Children Have Faith? (New York: Seabury Press, 1976), 52-54, 68-78.

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reordering of power and its transforming commitment to an alternative way of life. According to her, learning can happen in activity. Also, repetition of exposure to content increases learning. 55 According to Westerhoff and his colleagues, as well as Mercer, the sharing of experiences in which all generations participate has an effective educational outcome, and, in this respect, we come to find the necessity of liturgy and rite.56 We may note that the participation of the Christian in public worship and sacrament establishes a sense of community and continues to play a significant role in the creation of a healthy community and persons faith formation.57 The church, above all, has been gathered by God as a worshiping community.58 But the Korean Presbyterian Church, day by day, has been privatized, focused on seeking personal blessing and spiritual growth. To
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55 56

See Mercer, Welcoming Children, 163, 165. Also, Brett Webb-Mitchell says, Without their active participation in the liturgical life of a church, there is no chance to witness the reunion of the Christian community with its concept of God and with one another. Liturgy is the best place to integrate those who are mentally retarded into the life of faith communities. Here people with mental retardation, like anyone else in a congregation or parish, have as much to offer as receive. See Brett Webb-Mitchell, Dancing with Disability: Opening the Church to All Gods Children (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock, 1996), 7. The core of this opinion is not to compare children with the mentally handicapped, but to focus on the role and function of liturgy in faith formation. 57 Linda Cannell, Scottie May, Beth Posterski, and Catherine Stonehouse, Children Matter: Celebrating Their Place in the Church, Family, and Community (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 140. 58 See H.P. Muller, lh'q'' in Theologisches Handworterbuch zum Alten Testament, Vol. 2, Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, eds. (Gtersloher Verlagshaus Munich, 1984), 617; H.J. Kraus, Theologie der Psalmen (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1979), 83. For example, when Moses received the Ten Commandments on Sinai, or when Ezra read the book of the law in Jerusalem, the Bible describes the Israelites as an assembly (Deut. 5:22; I Kings 8:22; Nehemiah 8:2). The congregation is a crowd formed by Gods calling. Therefore, this is Gods congregation [lh'q', ekklesia kuriou, (Num.16:3; Deut. 23:2; 1 Chr. 28:8; Neh. 13:1; Mic. 2:5); edah, sunagoge kuriou (Num. 27:17; 31:16; Ps. 74:2)]. The Old Testament calls Israelites as people (~[;), and separate from Gentiles. People are not a social name, but a special relationship with God (Ex. 19:5; Dt. 14:2; 26:19). God elected the Israelites and made a covenant; the Israelites became a covenant people. J. Bright, Covenant and Promise: The Prophetic Understanding of the Future in Pre-Exilic Israel (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1976), 31-41.

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counter this, the Korean Presbyterian Church should consider the importance of the Eucharist and the merit of intergenerational worship. By participating in the Eucharist, all church members can experience the oneness of the body. And, the meaning of one body would become clearer and more faithfully embodied through childrens participation in that body. By participation children will learn what the church ishow they become the body of the churchand what the meaning of being Christian is, not theoretically, but practically, and more vividly. This type of faith formation by the church community directs us to the importance of ritual knowledge. The Importance of Ritual in Faith Formation The second benefit of practicing childrens communion in the Korean Church is the faith formation that comes through ritual knowledge. In the context of the Korean Church, the term ritual is not familiar. Also, as Edward Muir says, Because rituals conjure emotional responses, they are extremely difficult to define.59 However, in Roy Rappaports words ritual can be defined generally as denoting the performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not entirely encoded by the performers.60 But this definition is very terse, and needs some discussion. Therefore, we need a more precise definition. According to Paul Connerton, ritual refers to rule-governed activity of a symbolic character which draws the attention of its participants to objects of thought and feeling which they hold to be of special significance.61 Therefore, if we accept these two definitions, ritual is repetitive, prescribed, rigid, stereotyped, and so on.62 More, ritual is not only related to performance, but also conveys meaning. Therefore, it can affect a persons identity and social cohesion; through it people or community can be formed, reformed and transformed.63
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59

Edward Muir, Ritual in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 2. 60 Roy A. Rappaport, Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 24. 61 Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 44. 62 Mark Searle, Ritual in Foundations in Ritual Studies, ed. Paul Bradshaw and John Melloh (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 11. 63 Muir, Ritual in Early Modern Europe, 6.

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In general, the Reformers insisted that ritual communication did not intend to make something present.64 According to Jonathan Smith, A Reformation ritual could be perceived as a matter of surface rather than depth; of outward representation rather than inward transformation. Ritual was to be classed with superstition (shallow, unreasoning action) or with habit (a customary, repetitive, thoughtless action).65 However, Reformed liturgical theologian Martha Moore-Keish insists, rituals both mean and do.66 According to her, rituals involve action: rituals relate and createrituals are about doing in the sense of affecting the world as a whole: presenting models for a different world and even changing social structures. Rituals can transform.67 How, then, might we understand the characteristics of ritual in relationship to formation? Paul Connerton shows how rituals can have a powerful impact on communal remembrance and on shaping consciousness. He says, Our experiences of the present largely depend upon our knowledge of the past, and that our images of the past commonly serve to legitimate a present social order.68 This denotes the importance of memory in the present. Connerton also emphasizes that social memory can be sustained by commemorative ceremonies only insofar as they are performative because performativity has a deep relationship with habit, then habit also is related to bodily automatisms.69 While explaining various sorts of memory, Connerton emphasizes the importance of habit memory.70 He says, For these habits of affection and behavior are not to be learned by precept, but only by living with people who
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64

See Muir, Ritual in Early Modern Europe, 7-8. Also see Eberhard Winkler, Praktische Theologische Elementar, (Neukirchen, 1997), 56. 65 Jonathan Z. Smith, To Take Place: Toward Theory in Ritual (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 100. 66 Martha Moore-Keish, Do this in Remembrance of Me: A Ritual Approach to Reformed Eucharistic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008), 90. Moore-Keish also says, Ritual performances do not only point to fixed meanings in the culture, but they actually shape those meanings in the process of performance. Moore-Keish, 99. 67 Moore-Keish, 90. 68 Connerton, How Societies Remember, 3. 69 Ibid., 4-5. 70 Ibid., 36.

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habitually behave in a certain manner.71 According to him, habit memory is not identical with the cognitive memory of rules and codes. This is related to communal ritual. That is to say, by participating in communal rituals, people can develop vivid memories and impressions. This impacts faith formation; the most impressive idea is B. Russells: Memory is a certain special kind of belief.72 The reason why rites are important is that repetition gives continuity with the past and meaning to the people who perform the rites.73 Along the same lines, E. Byron Anderson says, we see ritual practices as simultaneously expressive, constitutive, and normative for persons and community.74 So, when we consider faith formation, even though real faith can be given only by the work of the Holy Spirit, communal ritual has vivid and multi-sensory impact on the memory of the person and touches part of the human unconsciousness. For example, think about a limestone cave. This cave has been formed over several thousand years by the impact of dripping water. A single drop of water is a small particle and cannot penetrate stone; however, a thousand years worth of drops can make a deep hole or break in the rock. Ritual is very similar to this dripping water. Ritual itself seems very simple; however, the repeated action determines the shape of faith. This shows the power of habitus to form peoples attitudes and thoughts. Even though ritual itself cannot generate faith, it is a good educational tool for helping people more vividly understand Christian truth, self, and communal identity.75 Connerton emphasizes the merits of bodily practice in memory. According to him, our body, by performing a practice,
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71 72

Ibid., 30. Ibid., 23. Also see, B. Russell, The Analysis of Mind (London, 1921), 166. 73 Connerton, 45. Tom Driver says, Ritual is to assist the dynamic of social change through ritual of transformation. See Tom F. Driver, Liberating Rites: Understanding the Transformative Power of Ritual (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998), 166. 74 E. Byron Anderson, Worship and Christian Identity (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 2003) 68. Anderson gives a detailed explanation of ritual and ritualism. 75 There are many merits of rituals. Gesture, posture, and symbol are good multimedia tools for memory. Paul Connerton says, To kneel in subordination is to display it through the visible, present substance of ones body. Kneelers identify the disposition of their body with their disposition of subordination. Such performative doings are particularly effective, because unequivocal and materially which such sayings are drawn makes possible at once their performative power and their effectiveness as mnemonic system. Connerton, How Societies Remember, 59.

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re-enacts the images of the past and is sedimented in the body. In this dimension, this notion is very relative to the tacit mode of knowledge discussed by Michael Polanyi.76 For example, in the case of Korean Friday night worship services, many churches request that while praying, members kneel, raise their hands high, and shout a vocal prayer with enthusiasm. So, in light of the history of the Korean Presbyterian Church, two effects are produced: first, by kneeling, members naturally come to know the spirit of prayer, which is obedience to Gods will; second, with a vocal prayer and raising of the hands, they naturally come to learn the earnest and enthusiastic stance of prayer. So, these physical factors have a great impact on the formation of Korean Presbyterian spirituality, even though we are not conscious of this formation. Many Korean Church leaders have an antipathy toward ritual because of antiRoman Catholic ideas. They consider the term ritual a remnant of Roman Catholicism that came from synthesis with other religions. So, as a legacy of this bias, Korean church leaders tend to cut more of the churchs liturgical tradition than did the early Reformers. The reason why the Korean Presbyterian Church has a tendency to refute ritual is that they misunderstand the difference between ritual and ritualism. Craig Erickson explains this phenomenon: When individual, church, and liturgy cease to function as co-workers, worship becomes ritualistic. In this situation, the individual has significant difficulty in appropriating the liturgy as an authentic expression of his or her own faith. Consequently, the individual is no longer able to participate knowingly, actively, and fruitfullyDevotion to God is eclipsed by an expressive devotion to ritual.77

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76

Tacit knowing can be defined thus: We always know more than we can say or prove. Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension (Garden City: Anchor Books, 1967), 4. Tacit knowledge is, in a way, knowing something but not knowing that we know it; knowing but not being able to explain that we know. 77 Craig Douglas Erickson, Liturgical Participation and the Renewal of the Church Worship, 59.3 (May 1985): 231-243.

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That is to say, if we seek to worship routinely without understanding, there is a possibility of falling into ritualism. However, ritual itself is not a bad thing for Christianity. Christianity has used ritual as a method to proceed to Gods presence, and is also present, unwittingly, in Korean churches that perform many rituals in their worship services, for example, reciting the Apostles Creed or Decalogue all together, standing, devoted in worship. To this, Craig Erickson says, All worship is in some sense ritualistic only in that it foreshadows heavenly worship, in which minds all fully attentive upon God.78 While Calvin believed that ritual itself had no value, and that Roman Catholic practice had laid heavy duties on the people, he did believe ritual had value when it promoted peoples obedience to God rather than obedience to the church and its authorities, and when it lead people to concentrate on Jesus Christ. Calvin thought that God did not give us detailed instructions about worship, leaving us free to shape worship under the guidance of Gods Word according to the necessity of the Church.79 This is very important in that rituals in worship are not fixed, but can be accommodated to the churchs necessity and cultural differences based on the Bible and the illumination of the Holy Spirit. Perhaps it is time for the Korean Presbyterian Church to think of the formative value of ritual and the study of ritual tradition to set a new foundation for developing ritual in worship. Where does this lead us in our consideration of the participation of children in communion? Our eucharistic practice contains not only biblical preaching, but also various rituals: pouring the wine, breaking the bread, singing the psalm together, hearing the narrative of the Gospel. All of these provide multisensory biblical teaching. Also, these practices can arouse human memory more vividly by activating the auditory, tactile, and visual senses altogether.80 Also, while eating and drinking together, children come
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78 79

Ibid., 234. John Calvin, Institutes, IV.v.5; IV.x.12-13, 15, 29-30, 32. 80 Edgar Dales studies show that people learn most effectively when they are involved in direct, active, and purposeful learning experiences. See Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, 3rd. ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969), 108. That is to say, rather than mere teaching or learning, performing a task (including reading, hearing, seeing, writing, and doing) is the most efficient method in the learning process.

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to understand what oneness means, and what it means to be a member of the body of the Church. In other words, they can be more easily accustomed to the mood of community and public worship. Therefore, childrens participation in the Eucharist can be a sort of multisensory teaching, a practice that embeds the memory into not only the brain but also deeply into the body. Conclusion and Practical Guidelines Regarding the practice of childrens participation in communion, my own view is that young children of the covenant should be invited to participate in age-appropriate ways. This position rests on the following convictions: first, faith is given by the work of the Holy Spirit, and, as Calvin and the Reformers emphasized, even little ones can have faith. Second, because young childrens thoughts and expressions are not mature, we should not impose upon them adult expectations. Third, while I Corinthians 11 does call for active engagement at the Table, there is no biblical text that mandates a formal public profession of faith. In contrast to those who argue that only older children or younger adults should be welcomed after making a formal, public profession of faith, I would argue that young children should be welcomed after an ageappropriate expression of faith. This could be worked out as follows: the church would invite parents of young children, perhaps ages three to seven, to consider bringing their children to the Table. The church would offer ageappropriate instruction to these young children about the meaning of the Lords Supper, talk with the children about their questions, and listen to the faith expressions of these children. When the Lords Supper is celebrated, these young children, like all participants, would be invited to express their faith as participants in the liturgy through the songs, prayers, and acclamations of the entire congregation. This position rests on the following convictions. First, according to Reformed tradition and the Reformers thoughts, the meaning and significance of the Lords Supper arises out of the Holy Spirits work in and through the participation of the people. Second, I Corinthians 11 specifically calls for the active participation of each participant. Third, age-appropriate participation affirms the point that even young children have cognitive ability and religious potential, and it challenges the church to teach Christian
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doctrine to children in an accessible way. In summary, age-appropriate participation can be a wise approach both for those who emphasize the profession of faith and for early education for children. To this point, I have argued that the participation of children in the Eucharist is valid, and benefits not only childrens faith development, but also the church as a faith community. The younger generation that has experienced Gods Word and Sacrament from their early years in public worship grows to be more accustomed to Christian faith. The vivid experience that contains not only intellectual, but also emotional, visual, and multisensory approaches, will be inscribed in the brain and the body. Above all, parents and church will become more involved in childrens faith development. This public intergenerational worship, centering on Word and Sacrament, can provide an alternative for a contemporary church that suffers from generational gaps and cultural differences. However, we should note that infant communion cannot be an absolute rule. It requires dialogue among denominations and church members. My goal here has not been to devalue the importance of Christian education and the Sunday School, but to argue for worship, and especially participation in communion as a necessary component of that education. More could be said about this relationship, but that would require a series of articles. Hwarang Moon is a PhD candidate in liturgical studies at Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary.