Rural Transportation: An Annotated Bibliography

Dennis M. Brown and Oliver L. Flake

Economic Research Service U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re

"his paper was prepared !nder an intera enc# reim$!rsa$le a reement %&'()A(*'++(AA,- with the U.S. Department of "ransportation

March *&&&

Contents A. B. ,. A. Roads and Brid es.......................................................................................................... Railroads/Rail 0etwork ...............................................................................................** Air and 1ater "ransportation......................................................................................*2 Roads and Brid es.......................................................................................................*'

Additional Resources...................................................................................................................3* Other Studies A. R!ral "ransportation4 Availa$ilit#5 Demand5 and ,ondition........................................32 B. "ransportation and R!ral Development........................................................................36 ,. Federal and Local 7overnmental )ss!es.......................................................................3. D. Other )ss!es...................................................................................................................3& E. Additional Reso!rces.....................................................................................................6* Index 68

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)ntrod!ction "ransportation serves an important role in r!ral America. B# offerin mo$ilit# and access for r!ral residents to 9o$s and services and enhancin the movement of a ric!lt!ral prod!cts5 transportation f!nctions as an essential cornerstone of r!ral development %R!$el5 *&&:-. ;owever5 evidence s! ests that the transportation network in nonmetro America has fallen into

a state of disrepair in man# areas %U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 *&&*-. 0ot onl# are portions of the ph#sical infrastr!ct!re in need of overha!l5 $!t the s#stem re<!ires man# technolo ical chan es to $e $ro! ht !p(to(date.

"he literat!re on r!ral transportation is wide(ran in . M!ch attention is iven to the stat!s and condition of roads and $rid es5 with a ma9or theme $ein the inade<!ate condition of the infrastr!ct!re. Accordin to the U.S. Department of "ransportation %*&&+-5 nearl# +: percent of the 0ation=s 2.8 million miles of r!ral roads5 o!t of a total 0ational network of 2.& million hi hwa# miles5 are inade<!ate for c!rrent travel patterns. "he U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re %*&&*- reports that over +: percent of the 0ation=s +.:5::: $rid es %those that are at least 8: feet in len th- are either str!ct!rall# or f!nctionall# deficient. At the local level5 accordin to 1al>er and Deller %*&&6a-5 nearl# one half of the roads %$# milea e- maintained $# co!nties5 towns5 and townships in r!ral areas are considered less than ade<!ate !nder normal maintenance proced!res.

R!ral rail a$andonment is another iss!e iven attention in the r!ral transportation literat!re. "his topic is enerall# e?amined in terms of r!ral development5 with an emphasis on wa#s in which comm!nities can prevent a$andonments. For e?ample5 Ba$cock5 @rater5 Morrill5 and R!ssell %*&&2- e?amine a pop!lar alternative to r!ral rail a$andonment5 short line railroads5 and identif#
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factors that determine their s!ccess and fail!re. A ood reso!rce for comm!nities facin a$andonment is the st!d# $# Batson and 0orton %*&''- that looks at the rail a$andonment process.

M!ch less has $een written a$o!t r!ral air and water transportation. Ba#er5 Mitenko5 and O=;ara %*&&+- e?amine r!ral intrastate air service5 with the p!rpose of ainin a $etter !nderstandin of when it makes economic sense to !se air transportation compared to ro!nd($ased transportation. Fr!in and ;al$ach %*&&3- look at the importance of r!ral water transportation5 specificall#5 $ar e transportation5 with an emphasis on vario!s implications for a ric!lt!re.

Another area of the literat!re deals with r!ral development. )n eneral5 st!dies foc!sin on transportation=s impact on r!ral comm!nities can $e divided into those dealin with frei ht iss!es and those dealin with the transportation of passen ers %intercit# passen er rail service5 intercit# $!s service5 and p!$lic transportation-. A ood e?ample of a frei ht(oriented st!d# is R!ssell and Ba$cock %*&&3-5 which looks at the p!$lic cost associated with r!ral rail a$andonment in terms of its effects on farmers5 shippers5 and r!ral comm!nities. Amon those st!dies dealin with passen er transportation iss!es5 s!ch as B!rkhardt5 ;edrick5 and Mc7avock %*&&'-5 common themes incl!de inade<!ate f!ndin %)saacs5 *&&2-5 lack of coordination amon providers %Bo ren5 *&&*-5 and specific transportation modes5 s!ch as passen er rail5 and their importance for r!ral residents %Brown5 *&&.$-. Relativel# few Ar!ral developmentB st!dies deal with air transportationC those that do tend to foc!s on the developmental $enefits of r!ral airports. For e?ample5 ,ooper %*&&:- finds that airports are important in attractin hi h(technolo # ind!stries in r!ral areas.
8

A small n!m$er of st!dies deal with the eneral effects of infrastr!ct!re5 with specific mention of transportation. An e?ample is ,rane and Leatham %*&&2-5 which e?amines the impact of transportation spendin on r!ral development and concl!des that transportation e?pendit!res have a positive economic impact on nonfarm and farm incomes and on emplo#ment in r!ral areas. M!nnell %*&&:- looks at the effects of State investments in infrastr!ct!re and concl!des that those States with lar e investments e?perienced reater o!tp!t5 more private investment5 and more emplo#ment rowth.

Another cate or# of st!dies foc!ses on what can $e termed5 A overnmental involvement5B at the Federal and local levels. "his class of st!dies refers to a $road ran e of r!ral transportation concerns5 incl!din financin 5 plannin and mana ement5 and re !lator# iss!es. Man# st!dies s!pport the concl!sion that local f!ndin is inade<!ate for r!ral transportation. For e?ample5 1al>er and Deller %*&&6$- fo!nd that nearl# .: percent of local respondents in a co!nt#($ased s!rve# a reed that c!rrent f!ndin is inade<!ate for maintainin the local road and $rid e network. ;owever5 recent articles have noted the lar e transportation f!ndin increases !nder the new Federal hi hwa# le islation5 "EA(8* %the "ransportation E<!it# Act for the 8*st ,ent!r#-. Accordin to Bo ren and Deilin er %*&&'-5 r!ral areas and r!ral transit a encies sho!ld directl# $enefit from lar e f!ndin increases !nder "EA(8*5 which also encompasses a reater share of r!ral p!$lic transportation form!la f!nds. )n terms of plannin and mana ement iss!es5 Brown %*&&6$- notes that some of the diffic!lties associated with r!ral transportation plannin stem from the fact that man# nonmetro transportation pro9ects serve scattered and isolated pop!lations and have hi h per capita costs.
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R!ral transportation plannin 5 therefore5 re<!ires inp!t at the local level5 $!t !ntil )S"EA %the )ntermodal S!rface "ransportation Efficienc# Act of *&&*- Federal le islation had not re<!ired local participation in the plannin process o!tside of metropolitan areas. "he involvement of local r!ral officials sho!ld improve !nder "EA(8*5 which f!rther stren thened provisions that re<!ire cons!ltation $etween local officials and States in the State transportation plannin process %1ohl$r!ck5 *&&'$-.

A comprehensive treatment of re !lator# iss!es d!rin the *&':Es is provided $# D!e5 Allen5 Fihl5 and ,r!m %*&&:-5 which e?amines impacts res!ltin from chan es followin dere !lation in the airline5 tr!ckin 5 $!s5 and rail ind!stries. "he a!thors develop several lo$al5 intermodal policies and strate ies for maintainin ade<!ate transportation service for $oth passen ers and frei ht to small r!ral comm!nities. Batson5 Bearer5 and 0orton %*&&.- foc!s e?cl!sivel# on the effects of dere !lation in the rail ind!str# in terms of the effects on r!ral comm!nities. "he# concl!de that while dere !lation ma# have $ro! ht $enefits5 s!ch as lower costs5 to the rail ind!str#5 some r!ral $!sinesses5 incl!din a ric!lt!re5 have $een ne ativel# affected5 at least in the short r!n.

A final section of this $i$lio raph# deals with a $road ran e of st!dies not easil# classifia$le into one of the previo!s cate ories. "hese incl!de st!dies that look at s!ch iss!es as social services transportation5 safet# concerns5 and vario!s environmental iss!es.

Social services transportation st!dies deal with a $road ran e of mo$ilit# iss!es5 foc!sin mainl# on the !se of p!$lic transportation $# specific demo raphic ro!ps5 s!ch as older Americans5
+

women and children5 and 0ative Americans. Fihl %*&&:- looks at the transportation needs of the r!ral elderl# in so!thern )owa and ar !es that p!$lic transportation serves a vital role in small comm!nities5 with few transportation alternatives e?istin for elderl# transit !sers. A st!d# $# Moorehead and ;olden %*&&6- e?amines vario!s p!$lic transportation pro$lems enco!ntered $# 0ative Americans5 concl!din that inade<!ate transit services ne ativel# affect tri$al economic development efforts.

R!ral transportation safet# st!dies enerall# a ree that r!ral roads are5 on avera e5 more dan ero!s than !r$an roads5 with the n!m$er and severit# of accidents tendin to $e reater in r!ral areas. 1ilson and French %*&&8- advocate the need for postin c!rrent road and travel conditions to prevent wintertime traffic accidents. Gerni an and L#nn %*&&*- ar !e that hi her speeds associated with the 63(mph interstate hi hwa# speed limit in r!ral Hir inia contri$!tes to an increased n!m$er of traffic fatalities.

A common theme amon environmental st!dies is the effect of environmental re !lations5 often referred to as Aenhancements5B on transportation pro rams. Some have ar !ed that pro$lems arise when environmental re !lations have $een too strin entl# applied5 divertin limited reso!rces awa# from the primar# oal of providin transportation spendin %Beach# and Eck5 *&&3-. Others have $een less concerned with specific environmental re !lations5 $!t have ar !ed for improved standards in road $!ildin and maintenance activities to minimi>e ne ative environmental impacts %Ale?ander5 *&&8C Moll5 *&&2-.

"his annotated $i$lio raph# is intended to provide an overview of different aspects of transportation in r!ral America. Emphasis is on those st!dies p!$lished within the last *: #ears5 $!t some earlier citations are also incl!ded. ,itations are or ani>ed into five cate ories. St!dies dealin with the availa$ilit#5 demand5 and condition of r!ral infrastr!ct!re are descri$ed first. Second5 st!dies dealin with the importance of transportation for r!ral development are e?amined. "hird5 st!dies dealin with Federal and local overnmental iss!es are identified5 incl!din financin 5 plannin 5 and re !lator# iss!es. Fo!rth5 st!dies not fittin into one of the previo!s ro!pin s5 coverin topics s!ch as social services transportation5 safet# iss!es5 and environmental concerns5 are disc!ssed. A fifth section hi hli hts miscellaneo!s references5 s!ch as maps5 atlases5 and $i$lio raphies. Finall#5 a non(annotated $i$lio raph# of additional st!dies on r!ral transportation is incl!ded.

Rural Transportation: Availability, e!and, and Condition St!dies that foc!s on the overall state of r!ral transportation deal with a variet# of topics5 incl!din the demand for and condition of roads and $rid es5 railroad performance and a$andonments5 the <!alit# of e?istin air and water infrastr!ct!re5 and the importance of maintainin ade<!ate p!$lic transportation services to meet the needs and demands of r!ral residents. A ood e?ample of this t#pe of st!d# is the report $# Fr!in and Ba!mel %*&&8-5 which looks at r!ral America=s need for investments in transportation infrastr!ct!re and e?amines the deterioration of inland waterwa# s#stems as well as deficiencies in the r!ral rail infrastr!ct!re. A. Roads and Bridges ,rane5 La!rence M.5 0at @innoi5 and Stephen 1. F!ller. *&&+. AEstimatin Demand for @!$lic R!ral Roads in "e?as5B Review of Regional Studies 8+ %8-5 pp. *&3(8:&. Estimates private demand f!nctions5 at the co!nt# level5 for p!$lic r!ral roads in "e?as. )dentifies the effect of different income levels and ta? rates on the e?pected demand for r!ral roads over time. ,oncl!des that demand for roads has $ecome more inelastic5 while income had a moderatin infl!ence on demand for roads.

Daniels5 Bo$. *&&*. Modern Timber Bridges: An Alternative for Mississippi. Mississippi State Universit#5 ,ooperative E?tension Service5 p!$lication no. *.'2. Looks at the condition of r!ral $rid es5 with special emphasis on those that are str!ct!rall# and f!nctionall# deficient. )dentifies vario!s advanta es of modern tim$er $rid es for Mississippi. S! ests that solvin the pro$lems associated with r!ral $rid es will involve a com$ination of efforts $# le islators5 en ineers5 and local officials5 in association with the research comm!nit#.

Fr!in5 Gerr# E.5 and Dan ;al$ach. *&&2. ADoes Minnesota ;ave "oo Man# R!ral RoadsIB Minnesota Agricultural Economist 6.2 %S!mmer-5 pp. *(3. Disc!sses the need for the elimination of some r!ral roads d!e to technolo ical chan es in transportation5 a ric!lt!re5 and related ind!stries. Addresses the iss!es of road improvement5 $rid e replacement vers!s a$andonment5 and the effects of intensive crop prod!ction on r!ral roads. 7illis5 1illiam R.5 ed. *&'&. Profitability and Mobility in Rural America: Successful Approaches to Tac ling Rural Transportation Problems! Universit# @ark4 @enns#lvania State Universit# @ress.

@rovides an overview of emer in r!ral transportation iss!es and the ed!cational challen es associated with those concerns. Addresses critical transportation pro$lems faced $# r!ral areas from the perspective of ed!cational and technical assistance providers. Doc!ments s!ccessf!l approaches that have $een !sed $# State and local overnment and vario!s r!ral enterprises in dealin with r!ral transportation pro$lems.

;amlett5 ,ath# A.5 Sherr# Brennan5 and ,. @hillip Ba!mel. *&'&. ALocal R!ral Roads4 A @olic# Anal#sis5B "ournal of the Transportation Research #orum 2: %*-5 pp. *('. Uses a traffic sim!lation model to investi ate several polic# options for the r!ral road s#stem. @olicies disc!ssed incl!de a$andonment5 conversion of low(vol!me roads to low(maintenance5 ret!rnin p!$lic roads to private ownership5 and reconstr!ctin $rid es. S! ests that optimal restr!ct!rin of the s#stem will re<!ire m!ltiple investment and disinvestment policies and will var# at $oth the interstate and intrastate levels.

;o! h5 Gill A.5 A#man 7. Smadi5 and 7ene 7riffin. *&&6. An Assessment of Road $ser %eeds in a Rural Environment. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &6(3'. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. Addresses vario!s differences in the perception of r!ral road needs amon !sers and providers of transportation services. ,oncl!des that differences in perceptions with re ard to wintertime road maintenance iss!es s! est the need for $etter comm!nication $etween !ser ro!ps.

Lam$erton5 ,harles E. *&&8. South &a ota's Rural Roads. Economic Research Report &*(*:. Brookin s4 So!th Dakota State Universit#5 Department of Economics. Disc!sses the importance of transportation in providin access to a ric!lt!ral areas. O!tlines the eneral condition of So!th Dakota r!ral roads and $rid es. Addresses iss!es involved in the financin of local roads and $rid es5 with special emphasis on the availa$ilit# of f!nd so!rces. 0ice5 David ,. *&&8. A)nterstate and )nter overnmental Factors Affectin the ,onditions of R!ral Brid es5B Publius 88 %Fall-5 pp. *(*2. E?amines the role of the Federal and local overnments in financin and maintainin r!ral $rid es. )ndicates that the distri$!tion of responsi$ilit# $etween local overnments

and the Federal 7overnment affects the condition of the infrastr!ct!re. Finds that Federal involvement is associated with $rid es that tend to $e str!ct!rall# and f!nctionall# ade<!ate. Local financial responsi$ilit# is !s!all# associated with $rid es that have str!ct!ral or f!nctional pro$lems.

U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. *&&* %April-. Transportation in Rural America: A Policy Bac grounder. Disc!sses ke# r!ral transportation polic# iss!es5 with specific mention of individ!al modes. O!tlines the condition of the r!ral transportation network5 identifies iss!es of concern to transportation providers and !sers5 and details vario!s polic# options. 0otes that the relative share of reha$ilitation and replacement costs $orne $# the p!$lic sector vers!s the private sector remains a critical iss!e with re ard to r!ral roads and $rid es5 as well as rail transportation. ,oncl!des that p!$lic and private instit!tions need to develop a more inte rated transportation s#stem and that priorities for a ric!lt!re and r!ral America m!st $e more firml# esta$lished.

1al>er5 0orman5 and David L. ,hicoine. *&&: %Septem$er-. Rural Roads and Bridges: (here &o (e )o from *ere+ 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. Reviews the condition of r!ral roads and e?amines the stat!s of local $rid es as a means of $etter informin polic#makers5 practitioners5 and the p!$lic a$o!t different aspects of r!ral road and $rid e finance and administration. Anal#>es costs to !p rade roads and $rid es to accepta$le standards for e?istin traffic. ,onsiders trends in financin methods with special emphasis on reliance on Federal and State reven!es. S!mmari>es State and local options for providin $etter maintenance of r!ral roads and $rid es.

1al>er5 0orman5 and Steven ,. Deller. *&&6a %Septem$er-. Rural Roads and Bridges: ,ondition and Status of Roads! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. E?amines the condition of roads maintained $# local overnments. Findin s are $ased on mail <!estionnaire responses from co!nt# en ineers and town/township road administrators thro! ho!t the 0ation. Disc!sses chan es in road s!rface t#pe5 road conditions5 and the priorities of local road mana ers when mana in the local

transportation s#stem. ,oncl!des that o$tainin ade<!ate financin for roads and $rid es will contin!e to $e pro$lematic d!e to the la in economic $ase and decreasin pop!lations of man# r!ral areas.

1al>er5 0orman5 and ,la!dia McFadden. *&'&. -in ing America: The ,ounty *ighway System. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational Association of ,o!nties. @resents an overview of the co!nt# hi hwa# s#stem on a State($#(State $asis. S!rve#s State hi hwa# a encies to $etter !nderstand ma9or iss!es affectin co!nt# and town roads and $rid es. Stresses the importance of co!nt# hi hwa# and $rid e finance5 maintenance concerns5 and the eneral condition of the infrastr!ct!re.

B. Railroads"Rail #et$or% Ba$cock5 Michael 1.5 Marvin @rater5 Gohn Morrill5 and E! ene R. R!ssell. *&&3. AShort(Line Railroads= @erformance5B Transportation .uarterly +& %8-5 pp. .2('6. E?amines factors that lead to the formation of short(line railroads. 0otes that some short( lines can $e operated profita$l# and are important for local r!ral and small comm!nit#( $ased shippers5 while man# others remain !nprofita$le. Ma# $e of interest to $oth transportation polic#makers en a ed in eval!atin the feasi$ilit# of State assistance for short(line railroads and to shippers eval!atin different modes of transportation.

Ba$cock5 Michael 1.5 E! ene R. R!ssell5 Marvin @rater5 and Gohn Morrill. *&&2. AState Short Line Railroads and the R!ral Econom#.B Report 0o. F("RA04 FSU(&8(8. Fansas State Universit#5 Department of ,ivil En ineerin . E?amines the iss!e of short line railroads in the conte?t of r!ral rail a$andonments. )dentifies ke# factors that determine short line s!ccess or fail!re and develops a profile for a profita$le short line railroad. ,oncl!des that short line railroads ma# represent a via$le transportation alternative for some r!ral areas5 $!t stresses the lon (term financial s!rviva$ilit# of short line railroads is not ass!red.

Batson5 Gohn A.5 Martha A. Bearer5 and Gerr# D. 0orton. *&&. %Gan!ar#-. Maintaining -ocal Rail #reight Service. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. @rovides r!ral comm!nities with an overview of the rail a$andonment process. Offers a detailed s!mmar# of how and wh# a$andonments occ!r5 and incl!des a disc!ssion of how the# can $e prevented. E?amines vario!s alternatives to a$andonment and provides additional so!rces of information and assistance for affected r!ral comm!nities. Represents a val!a$le reso!rce for r!ral comm!nities facin rail a$andonments.

1olfe5 F. Eric. *&'&. AFinancial and Demo raphic ,onditions Associated 1ith Local and Re ional Railroad Service Fail!res5B Transportation .uarterly +2 %*-5 pp. 2(8'.

Seeks to determine which <!antitative factors have $een historicall# related to local and re ional railroad s!ccess and fail!re. E?amines the role of vario!s financial and demo raphic ratios in assessin the via$ilit# of rail service. ,oncl!des that no sin le factor determines the s!ccess of a railroad5 and that other varia$les are also of si nificance5 incl!din macroeconomic conditions5 the competitive environment5 and railroad mana erial e?pertise.

C. Air and &ater Transportation Ba#er5 ,!rtis F.5 7raham R. Mitenko5 and Michael O=;ara. *&&+. AR!ral )ntrastate Air Service S#stems4 A Basic @lannin and Eval!ation "ool5B Regional Science Perspectives 8+ %*-5 pp. 2( *.. @rovides an anal#tical approach for comparin costs of air travel vers!s ro!nd travel. Advocates the need for air transportation plannin tools that can $e !nderstood and emplo#ed $# participants in the decision(makin process. )ntrod!ces a Asensitivit# anal#sis platformB that can $e !sed to $etter !nderstand the economic implications of alternative approaches to providin r!ral intrastate air services.

,onnin5 Larr#5 and Feith Le ett. *&&8. ADemand for R!ral Airport B!siness "ravel4 Altoona( Blair ,o!nt# Airport5B Transportation .uarterly +6 %2-5 pp. ++.(+3'. Addresses the <!estion of whether contin!ed financial s!pport for small5 r!ral airports is 9!stified when applied on a Aneeds assessmentB $asis. Specific attention is iven to the case of the Altoona(Blair ,o!nt# Airport5 in so!th(central @enns#lvania. Ar !es that contin!ed r!ral economic development re<!ires transportation planners to develop and desi n more fle?i$le strate ies s!ited to r!ral air travel needs.

Fr!in5 Gerr# E.5 and Dan ;al$ach. *&&+. ABar e Movements on the Upper Mississippi River4 "rends and @ro9ections *&62(8::8.B Staff @aper @&+(*&. Universit# of Minnesota5 Department of A ric!lt!ral and Applied Economics. Reviews trends and identifies contri$!tin factors related to the decline in commodit# shipments moved $# $ar e on the Upper Mississippi River d!rin the late *&':Es. Addresses the competitiveness of other modes of transportation and disc!sses vario!s str!ct!ral chan es in the econom#. ,oncl!des that rail dere !lation and other macroeconomic chan es had little effect on the competitiveness of the $ar e ind!str# for the movement of $!lk commodities.

Fr!in5 Gerr# E.5 and Dan ;al$ach. *&&3. A"he Mississippi River "ies Minnesota A ric!lt!re to the 1orld5B Minnesota Agricultural Economist 6':5 pp. *(+.

S!mmari>es the importance of $ar e transportation for U.S. a ric!lt!re. Specificall# e?amines the role of the inland waterwa# s#stem in movin Upper Midwest rain to ocean ports. Asserts that vast distances $etween the U.S. heartland and ocean ports wo!ld prove pro$lematic for American a ric!lt!re if the shallow draft $ar e s#stem5 with its low costs and efficiencies5 were not availa$le.

. 'eneral Transportation (All )odes* Bearer5 Martha A.5 R!th ". Mc1illiams5 and Eileen S. Stommes. *&'& %Gan!ar#-. ABe#ond )solation4 "he F!t!re of R!ral "ransportation as Descri$ed at the "ransportation 8:8: For!ms.B Transportation #acts. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. @rovides an overview of ma9or r!ral transportation iss!es in the late *&':Es. Descri$es str!ct!ral chan es occ!rrin within r!ral America and e?amines how the transportation sector is likel# to $e affected. Esta$lishes priorities for polic# development $# local5 State5 and national transportation leaders.

Bo ren5 Scott. *&&'. AR!ral "ransit4 Jo! ,an 7et "here From ;ere5B ,ommunity Transportation *6 %2-5 pp. *:(*2. Disc!sses the histor# of r!ral p!$lic transportation5 with an emphasis on f!ndin chan es. )dentifies vario!s $enefits of the Section 32** %r!ral p!$lic transportation- pro ram for r!ral comm!nities. ;i hli hts several ma9or challen es faced $# r!ral p!$lic transportation providers5 incl!din rowin demand and ins!fficient reso!rces.

Brown5 Dennis M. *&&6a. A"he State of "ransportation in R!ral America5B Small Town 8. %2-5 pp. *8(*&. Disc!sses the need for an overha!l of r!ral America=s transportation infrastr!ct!re. Addresses specific iss!es dealin with r!ral roads and $rid es5 r!ral passen er transportation5 air service5 intercit# $!s service5 local p!$lic transit5 r!ral rail frei ht5 and inland waterwa#s. Reviews recent chan es in Federal transportation polic# and concl!des with a disc!ssion of vario!s transportation polic# options.

D!e5 Gohn F.5 Ben9amin G. Allen5 Mar# R. Fihl5 and Michael R. ,r!m. *&&:. Transportation Service to Small Rural ,ommunities: Effects of &eregulation! Ames4 )owa State Universit# @ress!

E?amines the impacts of chan in overnmental polic# on transportation service to small r!ral comm!nities. Foc!ses on the impacts res!ltin from chan es in the economic re !lator# environment. Addresses the effects of re !lator# reform in the airline5 tr!ckin 5 $!s5 and rail ind!stries. Develops lo$al5 intermodal policies and strate ies for maintainin ade<!ate transportation service for $oth passen ers and frei ht to small r!ral comm!nities in a time of dere !lation.

Fr!in5 Gerr# E. and ,. @hillip Ba!mel. *&&8. A;ow M!ch "ransportation )nfrastr!ct!re Does R!ral America 0eedIB Staff @aper 0o. @&8('. Department of A ric!lt!ral and Applied Economics5 Universit# of Minnesota. Disc!sses r!ral America=s need for lar e investments in transportation infrastr!ct!re. Addresses the need for investments in new rail technolo # and ade<!ate loadin facilities in r!ral areas. E?amines the deterioration of inland waterwa# s#stems and r!ral rail infrastr!ct!re. Ar !es that f!t!re r!ral transportation infrastr!ct!re investments will depend on the needs of a ric!lt!re and other r!ral interests.

7ildemeister5 Morris5 and Fred @. "an>er. *&&*. AM!ltimodal "ransportation Approaches in Minnesota5B Transportation Research Record *2:35 pp. 86+(86'. Disc!sses m!ltimodal and intermodal approaches aimed at red!cin transportation costs and providin effective r!ral access. S! ests that present transportation challen es can $est $e met if interested parties s!pport m!ltimodal transportation alternatives and intermodal connections.

R!$el5 "om. *&&:. AF!t!re of R!ral "ransportation5B in Proceedings of the /0th Annual Road School %;eld at @!rd!e Universit#5 March 6('-5 *6*5 pp. 33(6:. Disc!sses individ!al modes of r!ral transportation5 incl!din roads and $rid es5 passen er transportation5 and rail service5 in the conte?t of p!$lic and private sector involvement. Specific topics e?amined incl!de the mo$ilit# and access of r!ral residents

to 9o$s and services and the movement of a ric!lt!ral prod!cts. S! ests the need for $etter cooperation $etween the p!$lic and private sectors and enhanced inter overnmental cooperation.

U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. *&''. AR!ral )ntercit# @assen er "ransportation4 Report on the Eastern Re ional S#mposi!m.B Transportation #acts. )dentifies ke# components necessar# for a national strate # on r!ral transportation. O!tlines a variet# of demo raphic and economic factors tho! ht to impact the provision of transportation services in r!ral areas. E?amines the impact of transportation dere !lation on r!ral passen er transportation. )ncl!des an annotated $i$lio raph# on r!ral intercit# passen er transportation.

Transportation and Rural evelop!ent St!dies addressin the importance of transportation for r!ral development look at the effect of roads and $rid es5 rail service5 airports5 and passen er transportation on r!ral comm!nities. "he importance of infrastr!ct!re for attractin $!siness and providin emplo#ment is e?amined5 as are the economic impacts res!ltin from loss of transportation services. A ood e?ample is the st!d# $# Forken$rock and Foster %*&&6-5 which e?amines the de ree to which investments in hi h(capacit# hi hwa#s are likel# to infl!ence $!siness location decisions. A second representative st!d# is that $# ,ooper %*&&:-5 which looks at the relationship $etween airports and the location decisions of hi h(technolo # firms. A. Roads and Bridges Baldwin5 Fred D. *&&6. AAppalachian ;i hwa#s4 Almost ;ome $!t a Lon 1a# to 7o5B Appalachia 8& %8-5 pp. +(*2. E?amines the important role of Appalachian hi hwa#s for man# local comm!nities5 with an emphasis on the economic impacts that hi hwa#s have on r!ral areas. Descri$es the effect of the Appalachian Development ;i hwa# S#stem %AD;S- in attractin man!fact!rin plants alon hi hwa# corridors. Advocates the need for investment in low(vol!me r!ral roads.

Broder5 Gosef M.5 "eresa D. "a#lor5 and Fevin ". Mc0amara. *&&8. AK!asi(E?perimental Desi ns for Meas!rin )mpacts of Developmental ;i hwa#s in R!ral Areas5B Southern "ournal of Agricultural Economics 8+ %*-5 pp. *&&(8:.. Uses re ression(discontin!it# anal#sis to compare economic chan es in co!nties with AdevelopmentalB hi hwa#s to those in ad9acent and non(ad9acent control co!nties for the period *&.3('*. Res!lts show statisticall# si nificant chan es in pop!lation5 per capita income5 and ta?a$le sales related to hi hwa# development. Most co!nties $enefited from developmental hi hwa#s5 altho! h some were !naffected5 and a few even e?perienced economic decline. Res!lts also indicate that ad9acent co!nt# control models ma# have !nderstated hi hwa#(related impacts5 while non(ad9acent co!nt# models ma# have overstated these impacts.

Forken$rock5 David G.5 and 0orman S. G. Foster. *&&6. A;i hwa#s and B!siness Location Decisions5B Economic &evelopment .uarterly *: %2-5 pp. 82&(8+'.

E?amines the de ree to which investments in hi h(capacit# hi hwa#s are likel# to infl!ence $!siness location decisions. "hro! h case st!dies5 concl!des that access to hi hwa#s enerall# has $ecome a less important factor in location decisions than was the case previo!sl#. State(level hi hwa# investment policies that emphasi>e proper maintenance and relativel# minor improvements are likel# to $e more cost(effective strate ies for economic development than e?pensive hi hwa# constr!ction pro9ects.

Fr!in5 Gerr# E.5 and Dan ;al$ach. *&&8. AR!ral Roads5 )nvestment and Disinvestment in a Minnesota ,o!nt#.B Staff @aper 0o. @&8(83. Universit# of Minnesota5 Department of A ric!lt!ral and Applied Economics. E?amines the importance of the local road s#stem for r!ral residents and $!sinesses in @olk ,o!nt#5 Minnesota. Methodolo # consists of eval!atin different strate ies for maintainin and improvin roads with limited reso!rces. ,oncl!des that !p to +: percent of r!ral roads and $rid es in the st!d# area co!ld $e a$andoned with little impact on local economic development.

)sserman5 Andrew M.5 "erance G. Rephann5 and David G. Sorenson. *&'&. A;i hwa#s and R!ral Economic Development4 Res!lts from the K!asi(E?perimental Approaches.B @aper presented at the Seminar on "ransportation 0etworks and Re ional Development5 Lenin rad5 U.S.S.R.5 Ma# 82(86. )nvesti ates the effect of hi hwa#s on smaller comm!nities and r!ral areas $# e?aminin income rowth rates5 $# emplo#ment sector5 for the period *&6&('+. Findin s indicate that r!ral co!nties with hi hwa#s did not row si nificantl# faster than those witho!t hi hwa#s. R!ral towns with more than one hi hwa# link did not row more rapidl# than those r!ral comm!nities with 9!st one link.

F!smin5 Lorin D.5 Gohn M. Redman5 and David 1. Sears. *&&6 %Septem$er-. #actors Associated with Rural Economic )rowth: -essons from the 12345s. "echnical B!lletin 0o. *'3:. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Economic Research Service. )dentifies characteristics of r!ral areas cond!cive to economic rowth for the period *&.&('&. E?plains rowth in total real earnin s $# place of work for nonmetro U.S.

co!nties from *&.&('& !sin m!ltiple re ression anal#sis. Finds that access to interstate hi hwa# interchan es contri$!ted to earnin s rowth in r!ral areas5 altho! h the relationship is not amon the most important factors in the anal#sis. Each interchan e was associated with appro?imatel# :.+8 percent in additional income rowth d!rin the period.

Moon5 ;enr# E.5 Gr. *&''. A)nterstate ;i hwa# )nterchan es as )nsti ators of 0onmetropolitan Development5B Transportation Research Record **835 pp. '(*+. Looks at the non!r$an impact of the )nterstate ;i hwa# S#stem $# e?aminin 63 nonmetropolitan interchan es in Fent!ck# in *&'3. Anal#>es the c#clic pattern of evol!tion of nonmetropolitan interchan es and disc!sses possi$le effects for this set of previo!sl# remote and isolated interchan e sites. Finds that nonmetropolitan interstate interchan es often var# accordin to different f!nctions that the# perform5 with some actin as Ainterchan e villa es5B performin the role of central places in their respective re ions. Fills a void in the literat!re $# providin an in(depth non!r$an anal#sis $ased on a si nificantl# lar e n!m$er of o$servations.

@orterfield5 Shirle# L. *&&:. A@rod!cer Services4 A Hia$le Option for R!ral Economic DevelopmentIB @aper presented at the 8&th Ann!al Meetin of the So!thern Re ional Science Association5 1ashin ton5 D.,.5 March. Meas!res emplo#ment rowth $# ind!strial sector for man!fact!rin and prod!cer services in r!ral areas for the period *&'*('6. Separate models are estimated for metropolitan co!nties5 nonmetropolitan co!nties ad9acent to metro areas5 and remote nonmetropolitan co!nties. Finds that access to interstate hi hwa#s ma# $e a si nificant factor for 9o$ rowth in prod!cer services5 $!t pro?imit# to an interstate hi hwa# was ne ativel# related to emplo#ment rowth in the man!fact!rin sector.

Rephann5 "erance G. *&&2. A;i hwa# )nvestment and Re ional Economic Development4 Decision Methods and Empirical Fo!ndations5B $rban Studies 2: %8-5 pp. +2.(+3:. Reviews Federal and State hi hwa# pro rams in the conte?t of re ional development theor#. Factors identified in determinin where hi hwa#s are ro!ted incl!de socioeconomic5 spatial5 reso!rce5 and instit!tional Atri erin forces.B Advocates the need for f!rther research to assess the impact of re ional development theories on local hi hwa# plannin practices.

Rephann5 "erance G. *&&.. A;i hwa#s and Re ional Economic Development4 1hat ,an 1e Learn from Re ional Economics "heor# and ModelsIB Disc!ssion @aper. ,!m$erland5 Mar#land4 Alle an# ,olle e of Mar#land. Reviews and eval!ates theories and models that descri$e hi hwa# economic impacts. Ar !es that re ional economic theor# is a !sef!l constr!ct for answerin <!estions a$o!t the relationship $etween hi hwa#s and economic development. Effects of different re ional economic policies are tho! ht to $e conditioned $# vario!s re ional and e?tra(re ional characteristics5 there$# infl!encin hi hwa# economic impacts.

Rephann5 "erance G.5 and Andrew M. )sserman. *&&+. A0ew ;i hwa#s as Economic Development "ools4 An Eval!ation Usin K!asi(E?perimental Matchin Methods5B Regional Science and $rban Economics 8+ %6-5 pp. .82(.3*. E?amines the effectiveness of hi hwa# investment as an economic development tool. Uses a <!asi(e?perimental matchin method to e?amine the effects of interstate hi hwa#s on co!nties that o$tained interstate links d!rin the period *&62(.3. Res!lts show that economic rowth of co!nties with interstate hi hwa#s is reatest for those in close pro?imit# to lar e cities or those with some de ree of prior !r$ani>ation. A)nterstate co!ntiesB that are isolated or r!ral are shown to have few $enefits. 1ilson5 E! ene M.5 Fhaled Fsai$ati5 Donald 1arder5 and 7ene Br#an. *&&+. &etermining Economic Effects of (yoming's -oop Tours. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &+(8&A. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#. Disc!sses vario!s models !sed to determine the economic $enefits associated with two Ascenic loop to!rsB in 1#omin . Ar !es that positive economic $enefits are associated with these roads. Advocates the need for $etter marketin of 1#omin =s scenic roads5 ar !in that local comm!nities wo!ld $enefit from increased to!rism reven!es.

B. Rail Service Ba$cock5 Michael 1.5 E! ene R. R!ssell5 and Ro$ert E. B!rns. *&&8. AEconomic Development and "ransportation )mpacts of Railroad Branchline A$andonment in So!th ,entral Fansas.B Report 0o. F("RA04 FSU(&*(8. Fansas State Universit#4 Department of ,ivil En ineerin . Meas!res the potential impacts res!ltin from a rail a$andonment in a ten co!nt# re ion in so!th(central Fansas. )dentifies lost economic development potential for comm!nities that lost rail service5 and assesses indirect effects on the social str!ct!re of affected comm!nities. Ar !es that one alternative for comm!nities facin a rail a$andonment is to provide p!$lic assistance for Atr!ck onl#B transportation.

Brown5 Dennis M. *&&.a. A"he Effects of ,onsolidation in the Rail Frei ht )nd!str# on R!ral America5B Small Town 8' %*-5 pp. *8(*.. E?plores consolidations in the rail frei ht ind!str# and their impacts on r!ral America. @rovides a historical overview of the 0ation=s rail network. Disc!sses vario!s strate ies for dealin with c!t$acks in rail service. ,oncl!des with a statement of how f!t!re consolidations ma# affect r!ral areas.

Fr!in5 Gerr# E. *&&8. AA S!mmar# of Research St!dies on the ,omm!nit# )mpacts of Rail A$andonment in the Midwest.B Staff @aper @&8(*6. Universit# of Minnesota5 Department of A ric!lt!ral and Applied Economics. Reviews the res!lts of st!dies dealin with the impacts of rail a$andonment in r!ral comm!nities in the Midwest. Details different cate ories of rail a$andonment comm!nit# impact st!dies. @rovides a comprehensive list of references.

;one#man5 Goel S. *&&3. A Method for Assessing the 6mpact of Railroad Abandonment on Rural ,ommunities! Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &3(+'. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. Develops a method for meas!rin the impacts of rail dere !lation on r!ral comm!nities. K!antifies res!lts !sin the case of rail a$andonment. @roposes a practical method for comm!nities to eval!ate whether additional local investment can help prevent the loss of rail service. Flindworth5 Feith A.5 and Gohn A. Batson. *&&* %G!l#-. Economic 6mpact of Proposed 7ansas Rail Abandonments! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service.

Assesses direct economic impacts associated with rail line a$andonments in r!ral comm!nities in Fansas. ;i hli hts the importance of rail service for a ric!lt!rall#( dependent comm!nities. Estimates specific economic impacts of proposed a$andonments on rain firms5 local comm!nities5 and State and local overnments.

0evel5 Bonnie5 and @eter ;arnik. *&&:. Railroads Recycled: *ow -ocal 6nitiative and #ederal Support -aunched the Rails8to8Trails Movement9 120:81224! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 Rails(to("rails ,onservanc#. @rovides a histor# of the Rails(to("rails movement5 with reference to specific trails. )dentifies vario!s economic impacts of the pro ram5 incl!din increased to!rism reven!e for small towns and a rise in propert# val!es alon some rail corridors. Lists other $enefits5 s!ch as Arail$ankin B %the preservation of the rail corridor network for potential f!t!re reconversion to rail !se-.

R!ssell5 E! ene R.5 and Michael 1. Ba$cock. *&&3. ASt!d# of )mpact of Rail A$andonment on Local Roads and Streets.B @aper presented at the Si?th )nternational ,onference on Low( Hol!me Roads %Hol!me *-5 Minneapolis5 Minn.5 G!ne 83(8&. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational Academ# @ress5 "ransportation Research Board. E?amines vario!s ne ative effects associated with railroad a$andonment in Fansas. Meas!res the p!$lic costs of rail a$andonment in terms of the effect on farmers5 shippers5 and r!ral comm!nities. Finds that rail a$andonment res!lted in onl# a ne li i$le increase in tr!ckin activit#5 $!t s!ch activit# led to a si nificant increase in road dama e costs. Advocates the !se of motor carrier !ser fees to provide for road maintenance costs.

C. Airports A>i>5 Ria>. *&&'. %orth &a ota Airport and #i;ed8Base <perator Study! Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te Report 0o. *8*. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#. E?amines the relationship $etween Fi?ed(Base Operators %FBOs-5 which are responsi$le for da#(to(da# operations at airports5 and local Economic Development A encies. Addresses the impact that re !lations have had on FBOs5 the ca!se of decline in aviation( related $!sinesses at airports5 and economic impacts on an airport and its local econom# res!ltin from clos!re of an FBO. ,oncl!des that the clos!re of an FBO often res!lts in economic loss to a comm!nit#.

A>i>5 Ria>5 and Do! Benson. *&&3. Survey of Aviation Activity at Airports in %orth &a ota! Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te Report 0o. *:&. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#. )dentifies iss!es critical to the aviation comm!nit# in 0orth Dakota. S!rve# methods reveal that airport mana ers are most concerned a$o!t maintainin profita$ilit# and contin!in to receive financial s!pport from State and local a encies. Res!lts also indicate that airport mana ers ma# need help in learnin how to more effectivel# participate in State and re ional economic development pro rams.

,ooper5 Ronald. *&&:. AAirports and Economic Development4 An Overview5B Transportation Research Record *8.+5 pp. *83(*22. Reviews the literat!re on airports and economic development. Finds that air transport !s!all# has stron connections to local $!sinesses. Reports that access to air transportation fre<!entl# pla#s an important role in allowin hi h(technolo # ind!stries to compete. Also finds that the location of airport facilities often infl!ences the location of hi h(tech ind!stries.

0orris5 Bahar B.5 and Richard 7olas>ewski. *&&:. AEconomic Development )mpact of Airports4 A ,ross(Sectional Anal#sis of ,ons!mer S!rpl!s5B Transportation Research Record *8.+5 pp. '8(''.

E?amines the comm!nit# economic impacts associated with airport constr!ction. Develops a methodolo # for !sin cons!mer s!rpl!s as a pro?# for the net economic development $enefits derived from the constr!ction of a re ional airport. Emphasi>es the importance of the ind!str# mi?5 the diversit# of the econom#5 re ional transportation infrastr!ct!re5 and the emplo#ment stat!s of the local econom# in determinin the si>e of the impact from an airport.

Reeder5 Richard G.5 and ,or# 1anek. *&&3. A"he )mportance of Local Airports to R!ral B!sinesses5B in Rural &evelopment Strategies5 David 1. Sears and G. 0orman Reid5 eds. ,hica o4 0elson(;all @!$lishers5 pp. *68(*'6. Reviews recent research on the importance of airports for $!sinesses5 with an emphasis on small towns and r!ral areas. E?amines the literat!re on $!siness location decisions !sin s!rve#s of $!sinesspeople. Looks at the empirical literat!re identif#in statistical relationships $etween airports and r!ral economic development. Finds that hi h(tech ind!stries rank access to air service amon the most important locational factors and that improvements to some eneral aviation airports are needed.

1eis$rod5 7len. *&&:. AEconomic )mpacts of )mprovin 7eneral Aviation Airports5B Transportation Research Record *8.+5 pp. *2+(*+2. E?amines State and local economic impacts of eneral aviation airports. @resents a model for eval!atin the $enefits arisin from improvements to these airports. Finds that $enefits incl!de those derived $# local and re ional $!sinesses5 as well as other5 less <!antifia$le impacts5 s!ch as <!alit#(of(life iss!es.

. +assenger Transportation Bo ren5 Scott. *&&*. ASmall "owns Reap Economic Benefits from "ransit5B ,ommunity Transportation Reporter & %'-5 pp. '(&. Disc!sses the role p!$lic transportation pla#s in r!ral economic development. @resents e?amples of transit(sp!rred economic rowth res!ltin from the ,omm!nit# "ransportation Association of America %,""A- R!ral @assen er "ransportation "echnical Assistance @ro ram. Specificall# mentions $enefits s!ch as $!siness attraction and <!alit# of life iss!es.

Brown5 Dennis M. *&&.$. A1hen R!ral ,omm!nities Lose @assen er Rail Service5B Rural &evelopment Perspectives *8 %8-5 pp. *2(*'. E?plores vario!s iss!es s!rro!ndin the provision of passen er rail service to nonmetro comm!nities and disc!sses some of the options availa$le to these comm!nities. 0otes that Amtrak=s recent financial diffic!lties have p!t parts of the national network in 9eopard#5 affectin some r!ral areas. ,oncl!des that while the loss of r!ral passen er rail service will not !s!all#5 $# itself5 threaten a comm!nit#=s economic s!rvival5 it ma# have adverse effects that can $e offset $# p!$lic polic#.

B!rkhardt5 Gon E.5 Games L. ;edrick5 and Adam ". Mc7avock. *&&'. Assessment of the Economic 6mpacts of Rural Public Transportation. Report 2+. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational Academ# @ress5 "ransportation Research Board. )dentifies and <!antifies the economic impacts of r!ral p!$lic transportation services at $oth local and national levels. Uses case st!dies to develop and present an economic impact methodolo # for eval!atin the importance of p!$lic transportation. Ma# $e of interest to State and local transportation planners5 anal#sts5 and decisionmakers involved in introd!cin or e?pandin r!ral p!$lic transportation services.

B!tler5 Darlene @.5 and "rac# Ma?well. *&&.. Assessment of Ar ansas Economic 6mpacts of Rural Public Transportation! Report MB", FR(*:68. Universit# of Arkansas5 Mack(Blackwell 0ational R!ral "ransportation St!d# ,enter.

Doc!ments the linka es e?istin $etween p!$lic transportation and economic activities in r!ral Arkansas. Develops a methodolo # for estimatin impacts of p!$lic transportation on r!ral development. Uses the developed methodolo # to address <!antitative deficiencies that c!rrentl# e?ist in man# r!ral p!$lic transportation s#stems.

)saacs5 Rand#. *&&2 %Septem$er-. 6ntercity Bus Transportation: %ew <pportunities for Rural America. "echnical Assistance Brief 0o. **. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 ,omm!nit# "ransportation Association of America5 R!ral "ransit Assistance @ro ram. @rovides a $rief overview of the histor# of intercit# $!s transportation. Disc!sses developments in financial s!pport of $!s transportation5 incl!din con ressional efforts and State assistance pro rams. Descri$es re !lator# iss!es affectin the provision of intercit# $!s services. E?amines new f!ndin opport!nities in the conte?t of the Section *' %r!ral transportation- pro ram.

,. 'eneral Studies on In-rastructure ,rane5 La!rence M.5 and David G. Leatham. *&&2. ADistri$!ted La Effects of "ransportation E?pendit!res on R!ral )ncome and Emplo#ment5B Review of Regional Studies 82 %8-5 pp. *62( *'*. E?amines the relationship $etween transportation e?pendit!res and economic rowth for r!ral and !r$an areas in "e?as. Uses pol#nomial distri$!ted la s to estimate income and emplo#ment rowth arisin from transportation investment. Res!lts indicate that transportation e?pendit!res have a positive economic impact on nonfarm and farm incomes and on emplo#ment in r!ral areas.

E$erts5 Randall 1. *&&:. A@!$lic )nfrastr!ct!re and Re ional Economic Development5B Economic Review %Federal Reserve Bank of ,leveland- 86 %*-5 pp. *3(8.. S!mmari>es recent work on the effect of p!$lic infrastr!ct!re on economic activit# at State and local levels. )dentifies the si nificant role that transportation s#stems pla# in determinin re ional economic o!tp!t. Sees transportation as a necessar#5 $!t not s!fficient5 condition for economic rowth.

Fendle#5 Fim5 and 1ill Miller. *&&3. A,omm!nit# )mpact of Re ional "ransportation )nfrastr!ct!re 7rowth.B Report 0o. MB", FR(*:*.. Universit# of Arkansas5 Mack(Blackwell 0ational R!ral "ransportation St!d# ,enter. Uses a mail s!rve# of voters in 0orthwest Arkansas to e?plore attit!des of local citi>ens toward improved transportation infrastr!ct!re %re ional airport5 hi hwa# e?pansion- and contin!ed rowth. ,oncl!des that local voters want the $enefits associated with rowth in the form of improved transportation and hi her <!alit# 9o$s5 while preservin <!alit# of life iss!es5 incl!din environmental factors.

Forken$rock5 David G. *&&:. A@!ttin "ransportation and Economic Development in @erspective5B Transportation Research Record *8.+5 pp. 2(**.

Disc!sses the relationship $etween transportation and economic development. Si? standards are identified for the t#pes of trade(offs that local development practitioners m!st make when choosin amon different pro9ects with limited reso!rces. @resents a series of Adecision screensB to provide a practical $asis for appl#in the principles disc!ssed.

Forken$rock5 David G.5 "homas F. @o !e5 David G. Finne an5 and 0orman S. G. Foster. *&&: %0ovem$er-. A"ransportation )nvestment to @romote Economic Development5B in 6nfrastructure 6nvestment and Economic &evelopment: Rural Strategies for the 1224's. Report 0o. A7ES(&:6&. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Economic Research Service. E?amines different modes of transportation in the conte?t of r!ral development. Ar !es that Ahi hwa#s are necessar# $!t not s!fficient for economic rowth and development.B @rovides a ood overview of the literat!re5 incl!din a disc!ssion of empirical st!dies5 and s!mmari>es some of the ma9or costs and $enefits associated with hi hwa# investment.

;a#nes5 Fin sle# E. *&&.. ALa$or Markets and Re ional "ransportation )mprovements4 "he ,ase of ;i h(Speed "rains5B Annals of Regional Science 2* %*-5 pp. 3.(.6. Reviews la$or market iss!es in terms of mo$ilit# and polic# res!ltin from transportation improvements. E?amines empirical evidence of the impact of hi h(speed rail on la$or markets and their str!ct!re. O!tlines a spatial interaction approach for assessin chan es in re ional access and re ional ind!strial mi?.

;enr#5 Mark5 and Gohnson5 "homas 7. *&&2. A"he ,ontri$!tion of "ransportation to R!ral Economic Development.B Southern Rural &evelopment ,enter %Mississippi State Universit#*.*5 pp. 23(+6. @rovides an overview of the literat!re on hi hwa#s and r!ral economic development. Finds that most st!dies s!pport the concl!sion that a positive association e?ists $etween hi hwa#s and economic rowth5 $!t individ!al st!dies var# in methodolo ies. Offers a n!m$er of recommendations for improvin the anal#sis of the effects of hi hwa#s. ;o! h5 Gill A.5 Frank Doole#5 and 7ar# Otto. *&&*. Transportation and Rural Economic &evelopment: A ,omparative Analysis of 6mportant -ocation #actors. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &+(*. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te.

Seeks to develop a $etter !nderstandin of the relationship $etween transportation and r!ral economic development. ,ompares the perceptions of economic development specialists and man!fact!rers a$o!t vario!s $!siness location factors5 incl!din transportation.

;!ddleston5 Gack R.5 and @rem @. @an otra. *&&:. ARe ional and Local Economic )mpacts of "ransportation )nvestments5B Transportation .uarterly ++ %+-5 pp. 3.&(3&+. @resents an Aimpact assessmentB framework for the re ional economic anal#sis of transportation investments. Descri$es the t#pes of stim!li that transportation represents for re ional economies. )dentifies a $road arra# of local economic varia$les likel# to $e impacted $# transportation investments.

Gohnson5 "homas 7. *&'&. %ew Alliances for Rural America: State Rural Transportation Programs in an Era of ,ontraction! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational 7overnors= Association. Foc!ses on the role of transportation infrastr!ct!re and services in r!ral economic development. E?amines methods of investin in transportation infrastr!ct!re in an era of fiscal a!sterit# and economic decline in man# r!ral areas. Reviews State e?periences with transportation investment strate ies and considers innovative strate ies.

Gohnson5 "homas 7. *&&6. A"he Economic )mpacts of )nfrastr!ct!re Development5B in Rural &evelopment Research: A #oundation #or Policy5 pp. '3(*:*. 1estport5 ,onnectic!t4 7reenwood @ress. E?amines the relationship $etween ph#sical infrastr!ct!re development and r!ral <!alit# of life iss!es5 with an emphasis on the associated economic effects. Reviews iss!es related to the empirical estimation of economic impacts of investin in infrastr!ct!re. ,onsiders the empirical evidence related to s!ch investments5 especiall# the differential impacts of alternative strate ies involved in providin infrastr!ct!re. M!nnell5 Alicia ;. *&&:. A;ow Does @!$lic )nfrastr!ct!re Affect Re ional Economic @erformanceIB %ew England Economic Review %Federal Reserve Bank of BostonSeptem$er/Octo$er5 pp. **(22. E?plores the effect of p!$lic capital on economic activit# at the State and re ional levels for the period *&.:('6. ,oncl!des that those States that have invested in infrastr!ct!re5 incl!din transportation5 have reater o!tp!t5 more private investment5 and more emplo#ment rowth. ;i hwa#s have the reatest effect on re ional o!tp!t in the So!th.

.ederal and /ocal 'overn!ental Issues St!dies e?aminin Federal and local overnmental iss!es foc!s on the financin 5 plannin 5 and mana ement of r!ral transportation s#stems5 and re !lator# iss!es affectin intercit# $!s5 rail frei ht5 and passen er air services. An e?ample of a st!d# foc!sin on financin iss!es is Deller and ;alstead %*&&*-5 which e?amines the condition and financin of the local road network in three 0ew En land States5 with special attention on mana erial practices in maintainin the local road network. 1al>er and Deller=s %*&&6$- article foc!ses on the impact of )S"EA %the )ntermodal S!rface "ransportation Efficienc# Act of *&&*- on local road mana ement practices. Re !lator# iss!es are e?amined $# Oster %*&''-5 which tries to determine whether small towns have $een h!rt $# dere !lation in the transportation ind!str#. A. .inancing".unding Ba!mel5 ,. @hillip5 Sherr# B. Miller5 7re or# @a!tsch5 and ,ath# A. ;amlett. *&'&. The -ocal Rural Road System: Alternative 6nvestment Strategies. ,ARD "echnical Report 0o. '&("R6. Ames4 )owa State Universit#. Emplo#s a cost($enefit anal#sis5 !sin three case st!d# areas in )owa5 to st!d# the effects of alternative investment strate ies on local r!ral road s#stems. Develops !idelines for local s!pervisors and en ineers in eval!atin investment or disinvestment proposals. @rovides information to State le islat!res for developin local r!ral road and $rid e policies.

Ba!mhover5 Stephen B.5 Mart# G. McHe#5 Michael Lipsman5 and ,. @hillip Ba!mel. *&&:. A)nvestment Strate ies for the R!ral Road and Branch Rail Line S#stems5B "ournal of the Transportation Research #orum 2* %*-5 pp. *6.(*.&. Disc!sses the need for s!$stantial reinvestment in the 0ation=s railroads and hi hwa#s. Develops a methodolo # for addressin the pro$lems of r!ral transportation s#stems that f!nction as inte rated !nits. )dentifies polic# implications for the redirection of p!$lic investment to r!ral s!rface transportation infrastr!ct!re.

Bo ren5 Scott5 and ,hris Deilin er. *&&'. A"EA(8*4 A Si nificant Hictor# for ,omm!nit# "ransportation5B ,ommunity Transportation *6 %3-5 pp. &(*8.

Descri$es f!ndin iss!es !nder "EA(8* %the "ransportation E<!it# Act for the 8*st ,ent!r#-. @rovides a eneral overview of the le islation5 with special attention to r!ral areas. Disc!sses r!ral p!$lic transportation f!ndin increases5 $oth in a$sol!te and proportional terms5 and lists possi$le impacts of the le islation for r!ral transit a encies.

Brown5 Dennis M. *&&'. A"he Federal ;i hwa# F!ndin Form!la and R!ral America.B @aper presented at the &+th ann!al meetin of the Association of American 7eo raphers5 Boston5 March 86(8&. E?amines Federal hi hwa# f!ndin in the conte?t of r!ral transportation needs and Federal transportation polic#. Disc!sses the importance of hi hwa#s for r!ral development and provides an overview of the hi hwa# f!ndin form!la !nder )S"EA %the )ntermodal S!rface "ransportation Efficienc# Act of *&&*-. ;i hli hts vario!s limitations of the form!la and descri$es spatial patterns of f!ndin . ,oncl!des with a statement of how chan es in the f!ndin form!la ma# affect r!ral areas.

Deller5 Steven ,.5 and Rodne# L. ,lo!ser. *&&2 %G!ne-. A,han es in the State and Local @!$lic Sector5B in Rural 6nfrastructure 6ssues: State and -ocal #inancing9 Transportation9 *ealth9 and Solid (aste. @!$lication 0o. *.*5 pp. *(2+. Mississippi State Universit#5 So!thern R!ral Development ,enter. Disc!sses the t#pes of e?pendit!res historicall# !ndertaken $# State and local overnments in the So!theast to identif# shifts in overnmental foc!s. @a#s special attention to capital e?pendit!res as the# relate to infrastr!ct!re investments. E?amines the a$ilit# of r!ral overnments to develop s!fficient reven!e so!rces while pop!lations are declinin .

Deller5 Steven ,.5 and Gohn M. ;alstead. *&&* %Octo$er-. #inancing Rural Roads and Bridges in the %orthern %ew England States. B!lletin 0o. '26. Universit# of Maine5 Maine A ric!lt!ral E?periment Station. E?amines the condition and financin of the local road s#stem in three 0ew En land States %Maine5 0ew ;ampshire5 and Hermont-. Foc!ses on local transportation

mana ement practices in an attempt to improve !pon c!rrent instit!tional arran ements. @rovides recommendations for improvin the deliver# of transportation services.

Deller5 Steven ,.5 and 0orman 1al>er. *&&3. AStr!ct!ral Shifts in the "reatment of )nter overnmental Aid4 "he ,ase of R!ral Roads5B "ournal <f Agricultural and Applied Economics 8. %8-5 pp. 388(323. Eval!ates the effects of str!ct!ral shifts in the treatment of inter overnmental aid d!rin the *&':Es $# !sin a sample of r!ral co!nties with local road responsi$ilities. Emplo#s a model to test the h#pothesis that local officials treated inter overnmental aid differentl# after the Rea an/B!sh polic# of fiscal federalism was implemented. Finds that Federal aid was more stim!lative at the end of the decade than in earlier #ears5 $!t the effects of State aid was !nchan ed thro! ho!t the *&':s. Attri$!tes these differences to a perception that Federal aid is seen as $ein less permanent than State financin .

Fit>patrick5 Fa#5 Faren F!en>er5 "orsten Liena!5 and "om Ur$anik )). *&&2. A)ntercit# B!s )nd!str# in "e?as.B Research Report 0o. *22.(*F. "e?as ALM Universit#5 "e?as "ransportation )nstit!te. E?amines !se of Section *' %r!ral p!$lic transportation- f!nds $# nonmetro "e?as comm!nities. Uses s!rve# methods to determine opinions and demo raphic characteristics of $oth the eneral p!$lic and intercit# $!s riders. S!rve# res!lts reveal a variet# of recommendations aimed at makin the "e?as intercit# $!s ind!str# more efficient and !ser(friendl#.

;o! h5 Gill A.5 A#man 7. Smadi5 and Gohn D. Bit>an. *&&.. 6nnovative #inancing Methods for -ocal Roads in the Midwest and Mountain8Plains States. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &.(.+. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. E?amines the need for co!nties to e?plore alternative financin methods that increase reven!e and/or decrease costs. Descri$es a n!m$er of innovative financin methods for local overnments that face challen es in maintainin their road networks5 incl!din the creation of r!ral improvement districts and cost sharin road maintenance e<!ipment. Disc!sses advanta es and disadvanta es of each of these strate ies.

Gohnson5 "homas 7. *&&:. AStrate ies in "ransportation Financin .B @aper presented at the re ional conference5 A,omm!nit# Strate ies for "omorrowEs Local )nfrastr!ct!re5B Birmin ham5 Ala$ama5 Ma# *(2. @!$lication 0o. *23. Mississippi State Universit#5 So!thern R!ral Development ,enter. Addresses the dilemma faced $# man# r!ral 9!risdictions of increasin transportation needs in an era of declinin financial reso!rces. )dentifies a eneral framework for $etter !nderstandin different cate ories of sol!tions for f!ndin shortfalls. Disc!sses five specific sol!tions4 new or diverted so!rces of reven!e5 tar etin of f!nds to economicall# strate ic pro9ects5 strate ic disinvestment in infrastr!ct!re5 reater efficienc# in service provision5 and reater reliance on the p!$lic sector.

Leistrit>5 F. Larr#5 and Steve ;. M!rdock. *&''. AFinancin )nfrastr!ct!re in Rapid 7rowth ,omm!nities4 "he 0orth Dakota E?perience5B in -ocal 6nfrastructure 6nvestment in Rural America5 pp. *+*(*3+. "homas 7. Gohnson5 Brad# G. Deaton5 and Ed!ardo Se arra5 eds. Bo!lder5 ,O4 1estview @ress. E?amines the e?perience of 0orth Dakota in assistin rapidl# rowin comm!nities with financin needed infrastr!ct!re and services. Foc!ses on the nat!re of fiscal pro$lems in developin areas within the State and disc!sses the conte?t of rapid5 ener #(related rowth. Descri$es different approaches for dealin with these iss!es5 incl!din vario!s ta?ation meas!res and other fiscal pro rams implemented to address the financial re<!irements for local overnment services.

1al>er5 0orman5 and Steven ,. Deller. *&&2. AFederal Aid and R!ral ,o!nt# ;i hwa# Spendin 4 A Review of the *&':s5B Policy Studies "ournal 8* %8-5 pp. 2:&(28+. E?amines the effect of Federal and State aid on co!nt# hi hwa# spendin thro! ho!t the 0ation. 0otes that some st!dies have shown that Federal aid has a stim!lative effect on spendin for infrastr!ct!re5 while others report that Federal aid s!$stit!tes for local reso!rces. Reports that Federal aid was stim!lative in *&'.5 $!t State aid was not5 revealin that Federal aid ma# have a stron er relationship with local hi hwa# spendin .

1al>er5 0orman5 and Steven ,. Deller. *&&. %Gan!ar#-. Rural Roads and Bridges: #inancing -ocal Roads and Bridges in Rural Areas! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. E?amines the mechanisms !sed $# co!nties and towns thro! ho!t the 0ation to finance local roads and $rid es and compares c!rrent patterns with those recorded d!rin the *&':Es. Disc!sses reliance on different reven!e so!rces. Looks at chan e in e?pendit!res compared to the rate of inflation and e?amines the perceptions of local road administrators re ardin the ade<!ac# of e?pected f!t!re f!ndin .

1al>er5 0orman5 Steven ,. Deller5 0icholas Marathon5 and Lori Jork. *&&6 %Septem$er-. Rural Roads and Bridges: ,ondition and #inancing of -ocal Bridges! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. E?amines the c!rrent condition of the 0ation=s r!ral co!nt# and town $rid es5 with special attention to whether conditions have improved or worsened since *&'&. Disc!sses the ade<!ac# of f!nds availa$le for $rid es in order to determine whether local administrators can maintain c!rrent str!ct!res and/or meet e?pansion needs. )nvesti ates mana ement practices !sed for maintainin $rid es and disc!sses potential chan es that ma# $e needed in these practices.

1elton5 Richard D. *&&3. A1hat Did )S"EA Do "o O!r R!ral RoadsIB Better Roads 63 %&-5 pp. 8*(88. S! ests that )S"EA %the )ntermodal S!rface "ransportation Efficienc# Act of *&&*created competition for f!nds availa$le to local overnments. Reports that criteria for receivin f!nds !nder )S"EA favor !r$an areas over r!ral areas and do not reco ni>e differences in !r$an and r!ral transportation s#stems. Ar !es that f!ndin for preservation and capacit# improvements sho!ld $oth $e hi h priorities !nder )S"EA. ,oncl!des that competition for f!nds and processin proced!res sho!ld $e red!ced or eliminated.

1heeler5 Linda M.5 Goseph Hoccia5 and 1illiam Lenski. *&'&. AFinancial Reso!rce 0eeds of @!$lic "ransportation S#stems5B Transportation .uarterly +25 pp. 38.(3+'. Anal#>es the differences $etween estimated capital investment costs and pro9ected availa$le capital f!ndin for three transportation s#stem cate ories4 s#stems servin !r$ani>ed areas5 those servin small !r$an areas5 and r!ral transit s#stems. ,oncl!des that5 iven c!rrent f!ndin patterns5 the condition of the 0ation=s p!$lic transportation facilities5 e<!ipment5 and rollin stock will si nificantl# deteriorate.

B. +lanning and )anage!ent Benhart5 Gohn E.5 and 1illiam 1elsh. *&&8. A"he )nterstate '* ,orridor of So!th(,entral @enns#lvania4 Land Use in 0onmetropolitan America5B Small Town 88 %+-5 pp. *8(*'. E?amines the )nterstate '* corridor in so!thern @enns#lvania to ill!strate a rowin r!ral nonmetropolitan re ion e?periencin a variet# of land !se pro$lems. Specific development(related iss!es cited incl!de water <!alit# concerns5 solid waste disposal iss!es5 preservation of a ric!lt!ral land5 and traffic con estion. S! ests that lack of plannin is responsi$le for these pro$lems. Basic land !se controls5 s!ch as >onin laws and s!$division and land development ordinances5 are recommended as possi$le tools availa$le to decisionmakers.

Bit>an5 Gohn D.5 and Gill A. ;o! h. *&&+. An Evaluation )uideboo for Rural and Small $rban Transportation Systems in the Mountain8Plains Region. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &+(26. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. Disc!sses the lack of eval!ation tools for r!ral and small !r$an transit operators. @rovides one s!ch tool availa$le for transit operators for eval!atin performance in comparison to similar transit s#stems. @rovides o$9ective criteria for convertin raw data elements into these performance meas!res. ,oncl!des with vario!s proposals aimed at dealin more effectivel# with poor performance.

,hicoine5 David L.5 Steven ,. Deller5 and 0orman 1al>er. *&'&. A"he Si>e Efficienc# of R!ral 7overnments4 "he ,ase of Low(Hol!me5 R!ral Roads.B Publius *& %1inter-5 pp. *8.(*2'. E?amines low(vol!me r!ral roads in order to investi ate si>e efficienc# in local overnment. Uses a sample of Midwest townships in )llinois5 Minnesota5 and Ohio to develop a simple decision model $ased on a lon (r!n avera e cost c!rve. Finds that s!$stantial si>e inefficiencies e?ist and s! ests that cost red!ctions mi ht $e reali>ed thro! h the restr!ct!rin of the prod!ction of r!ral roads. Recommends contract!al a reements $etween smaller 9!risdictions and lar er !nits of overnment.

Deller5 Steven ,.5 David L. ,hicoine5 and 0orman 1al>er. *&''. AEconomies of Si>e and Scope in R!ral Low(Hol!me Roads5B Review of Economics and Statistics .: %2-5 pp. +3&(+63.

E?plores technical efficiencies in prod!cin local overnment services. E?amines economies of si>e and s! ests that cost savin s ma# $e reali>ed from reor ani>in low( vol!me r!ral township road s#stems into lar er !nits. Economies of scope s! est that 9oint !se of inp!ts will prod!ce lower overall costs rather than havin townships speciali>e in providin certain t#pes of roads.

Deller5 Steven ,.5 and Gohn M. ;alstead. *&&+. AEfficienc# in the @rod!ction of R!ral Road Services4 "he ,ase of 0ew En land "owns5B -and Economics .: %8-5 pp. 8+.(83&. Anal#>es the si>e and mana erial efficienc# of northern 0ew En land towns in the prod!ction of r!ral road services. @rovides evidence on economies of si>e in the prod!ction of road service and notes that si>e inefficiencies are present. Res!lts s! est that mana erial inefficiencies5 or inp!t !se inefficiencies5 are operatin and costs ma# $e +: percent hi her than necessar#. Ar !es that small town overnments ma# $e matchin local demand with services5 $!t onl# at a hi h cost.

Deller5 Steven ,.5 and ,arl ;. 0elson. *&&*. AMeas!rin the Economic Efficienc# of @rod!cin R!ral Road Services5B American "ournal of Agricultural Economics .2 %*-5 pp. *&+(8:*. E?amines the a$ilit# of vario!s Midwest township officials to prod!ce low(vol!me r!ral road services in an economicall# efficient manner. S!rve# res!lts s! est that over 3: percent of costs ma# $e !nnecessar# $eca!se of inp!t !se inefficiencies and that lar er 9!risdictions ma# $e more efficient than smaller 9!risdictions. Estimates that nearl# '3 percent of townships sampled e?hi$it technolo # characteri>ed $# increasin ret!rns to scale. Ar !es that 9!risdictional consolidation of prod!ction(related responsi$ilities ma# #ield s!$stantial cost savin s.

Ford5 Gack G. *&&+. AMana in 7rowth Alon a R!ral ;i hwa# ,orridor4 "he Role of Donin on a @enns#lvania ;i hwa#5B Small Town 83 %*-5 pp. 86(8&. E?amines the chan in role of r!ral hi hwa#s as ad9acent land evolves from a ric!lt!ral to nona ric!lt!ral !ses. ,hronicles historic land !se chan es that have occ!rred alon a r!ral hi hwa# in so!th(central @enns#lvania. Descri$es polic# chan es that co!ld $e implemented to mana e rowth alon r!ral corridors. 7o$le5 Ro$ert ". *&&3. A@lannin )ntermodal and Operations Facilities for R!ral and Small Ur$an "ransit S#stems4 1orkshop Man!al.B *8th 0ational ,onference4 R!ral @!$lic and )ntercit# B!s "ransportation5 Des Moines5 )owa5 Octo$er 88(83. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 United States Department of "ransportation.

E?plores the possi$ilit# of developin an intermodal passen er facilit# in a r!ral or developin area. Disc!sses vario!s advanta es of s!ch facilities5 incl!din improvin comm!tin conditions5 increasin mo$ilit# of the elderl# and disa$led5 increasin the attractiveness of transit services5 and $ecomin a s!pport factor for rowth. Descri$es how facilities can $e developed to s!it the scale and conditions of r!ral and small !r$an areas. Reviews a se<!ence of steps and methods and provides technical anal#sis !sed for r!ral intermodal passen er facilit# development.

7reenstein5 G. *&&3. A)ss!es Related to @lannin and Administration of Low(Hol!me Roads5B Transportation Research ,ircular ++65 pp. .('. ,omments on several iss!es involved in r!ral road plannin . Addresses optimi>ation of e?pendit!res on road improvement5 the !se of knowled e($ased e?pert s#stems5 the applications of environmental proced!res in the administration of low(vol!me roads5 and the !se of the pavement condition inde? %@,)- and the )nternational Ro! hness )nde? %)R)- to descri$e road s!rface conditions.

;amlett5 ,ath# A.5 and ,. @hillip Ba!mel. *&&:. AR!ral Road A$andonment4 @olic# ,riteria and Empirical Anal#sis5B American "ournal of Agricultural Economics .8 %*-5 pp. **+(*8:. Disc!sses the chan in !se patterns of the r!ral road s#stem and considers vario!s polic# options for local overnment officials. Disc!sses a$andonment of some low(vol!me5 r!ral roads as one possi$le option. Develops a model5 !sin !tilit# ma?imi>ation and @areto(optimal criteria5 that allows for identification of polic# criteria for a$andonment.

Sorensen5 @a!l ,.5 Eric )relan5 Brian 1innin ham5 and "homas A. 0o#es. *&&.. ASka it ,o!nt#wide Air5 Rail5 1ater5 and @ort "ransportation S#stem St!d#5B Transportation Research Record *6:85 pp. +(*2. E?amines the movement of frei ht for different modes of transportation %road5 rail5 water5 air5 and pipeline-. @resents a methodolo # for estimatin e?istin frei ht traffic flows $# mode and $# location5 and forecasts f!t!re flows. Develops a methodolo # for

determinin f!t!re transportation s#stem plan priorities of small !r$an and r!ral comm!nities.

Stommes5 Eileen S.5 Steve Miller5 and ,ind# Gohnson. *&&8 %Gan!ar#-. AM!lticomm!nit# ,olla$oration Addresses R!ral "ransportation5B Rural &evelopment %ews *6 %*-5 pp. 8+(86. S!mmari>es some of the c!rrent iss!es involvin transportation in r!ral America and identifies emer in trends. 7ives e?amples of r!ral comm!nities providin cost( effective transportation infrastr!ct!re. ;i hli hts the advanta es of colla$oration amon local comm!nities in providin transportation services.

U.S. Department of "ransportation. *&&:. )uideboo for Planning Small $rban and Rural Transportation Programs. Hols. * and 8. @repared for the 0ew Me?ico State ;i hwa# and "ransportation Department5 "ransportation @ro rams Division. Assists small !r$an and r!ral comm!nities in 0ew Me?ico in assessin their p!$lic transportation needs and pro rams. E?amines vario!s iss!es of importance for providers of local p!$lic transportation services5 incl!din p!$lic transportation needs in small comm!nities and r!ral areas5 the role of alternative transportation s#stems5 f!ndin and finance iss!es5 eneratin comm!nit# involvement5 and pro ram monitorin . 1allace5 ,harles E.5 Andrew F. Filpatrick5 and Feith R. Schneider. *&&6 %April-. AR!ral Applications of )ntelli ent "ransportation S#stems.B Fno?ville4 Universit# of "ennessee5 "ransportation ,enter. Addresses the needs of r!ral transportation !sers and looks at potential $enefits that )ntelli ent "ransportation S#stems %)"S- can deliver. ,ompares )"S !ser re<!irements to perceived r!ral traveler needs. S!mmari>es the res!lts of several specialt# conferences on r!ral )"S and descri$es a n!m$er of related pro9ects. Recommends a plan for increasin the awareness of )"S needs in r!ral areas. 1alther5 Erskine S. *&&: %G!ne-. ,oordination of Rural Public Transportation Services in Three Southeastern States. Report 0o. DO"("(&:(*.. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 Ur$an Mass "ransportation Administration5 Office of "echnical Assistance and Safet#5 Universit# Research and "rainin @ro ram. E?amines the Federal Section *' %r!ral p!$lic transportation- pro ram in the conte?t of transit providers in the So!theast. Doc!ments the historical development and c!rrent practices of coordinated s#stems. Disc!sses the $enefits of coordination5 which incl!de <!alit# of service deliver# iss!es and financial concerns.

1al>er5 0orman and Steven ,. Deller. *&&6$ %Septem$er-. Rural Roads and Bridges: Management 6ssues #acing -ocal *ighway <fficials! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. Doc!ments mana ement practices !sed $#5 and iss!es facin 5 local transportation administrators. Addresses the impact of )S"EA %the )ntermodal S!rface "ransportation Efficienc# Act of *&&*- on local road mana ement. @roposes a shift in how local road officials view inter overnmental aid in mana ement decisions. ,oncl!des with a disc!ssion of polic# chan es for improvin local reso!rce mana ement in road and $rid e administration.

C. Regulatory Issues Astrop5 An ela. *&&2. The Trend in Rural Bus Services Since &eregulation! @ro9ect Report 8*. ,rowthorne5 Berkshire %U.F.-4 "raffic and "ransport Reso!rce ,entre5 "ransport Research La$orator#. E?amines the effects of dere !lation on r!ral $!s service in Britain !nder the "ransport Act of *&'3. Disc!sses the contin!ed provision of r!ral $!s service thro! h a samplin of small comm!nities. ;i hli hts parallels $etween the British and U.S. intercit# $!s ind!stries in terms of the diffic!lties of maintainin service to r!ral comm!nities in an environment of dere !lation.

Fihl5 Mar# R. *&''. A"he )mpacts of Dere !lation on @assen er "ransportation in Small "owns5B Transportation .uarterly +8 %8-5 pp. 8+2(86'. E?amines vario!s options in providin small town intercit# passen er service5 with a foc!s on developin a $road s#stems approach to service provision. Assesses the impact of sched!lin 5 service levels5 and pricin on air and $!s service to small comm!nities. Advocates the esta$lishment of coordinated intermodal linka es to deal more effectivel# with the effects of dere !lation.

Oster5 ,linton H.5 Gr. *&''. A)s Dere !lation ,!ttin Small ,omm!nities= "ransportation LinksIB Rural &evelopment Perspectives + %2-5 pp. *2(*6. Disc!sses vario!s chan es in the provision of r!ral $!s and airline service followin dere !lation and e?amines eo raphical variations in the loss of service. 0otes that man# $!s lines had a$andoned r!ral ro!tes prior to dere !lation5 and that most airline a$andonments occ!rred as a res!lt of market inefficiencies. Ar !es that c!ts in $!s service often have serio!s ne ative r!ral effects $eca!se patrons have few availa$le transportation options.

Other Issues in Rural Transportation St!dies not easil# classifia$le into previo!s ro!pin s are cate ori>ed as Aother.B "his ro!p incl!des st!dies dealin with a variet# of iss!es5 incl!din social services transportation5 r!ral transportation safet# concerns5 and r!ral transportation iss!es affectin the environment. Social services st!dies foc!s primaril# on transportation of the elderl#5 0ative Americans5 and women. A ood e?ample is Fihl=s %*&&8- st!d#5 which addresses the !nder!tili>ation of r!ral transportation s#stems $# older residents. St!dies on safet# often deal with pro rams and policies desi ned to improve r!ral roadwa#s. Famer!d=s %*&''- st!d# addresses the $enefits and costs of speed limits in improvin safet#. Beach# and Eck=s %*&&3- article5 which represents an environmental st!d#5 anal#>es environmental considerations in hi hwa# constr!ction pro9ects. A. Social Services Transportation Andin 5 "homas L.5 and R. Evan F!lton. *&&2. Assessing Transportation %eeds on 6ndian Reservations. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &2(8*. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. S!mmari>es ma9or transportation concerns for mem$ers of vario!s 0ative American tri$es in Minnesota. ,oncl!des that s!$standard <!alit# and lack of availa$ilit# of personal transportation on r!ral reservations is of chief concern to residents. S! ests several wa#s to improve transportation services on r!ral reservations.

Bo ren5 Scott. *&&'. A"he Secret @assa e5B ,ommunity Transportation *6 %2-5 pp. *.(*&. Descri$es the condition of transportation infrastr!ct!re on the D!ni 0ation Reservation in 0ew Me?ico. E?amines the efforts of D!ni Entreprene!rial Enterprises %DEE- in providin p!$lic transportation services to the reservation. Reviews the rowth and s!ccess of the pro ram in providin reservation residents with access to 9o$s5 ed!cation5 and p!$lic services.

Damiano5 @eter ,.5 Eli>a$eth ". Moman#5 0orman S. G. Foster5 and ;ermine ". McLeran. *&&+. Transportation of Rural Elders and Access to *ealth ,are. Ames4 Universit# of )owa5 @!$lic @olic# ,enter.

Disc!sses the !se of p!$lic transportation services $# elderl# )owa residents in r!ral areas. Assesses their needs and the capacit# for )owa=s p!$lic transit s#stem to provide an ade<!ate level of service. Disc!sses several iss!es of importance for r!ral elderl# residents5 s!ch as access to health care services.

Foster5 0orman S. G.5 @eter ,. Damiano5 Eli>a$eth ". Moman#5 and ;ermine ". McLeran. *&&6. AR!ral @!$lic "ransportation4 @erceptions of "ransit Mana ers5 Directors of Area A encies on A in 5 and Elders5B Transportation Research Record *33.5 pp. 3'(62. Uses s!rve# methods to determine the opinions of transit mana ers5 area a enc# on a in %AAA- directors5 and r!ral elders concernin the <!alit# and availa$ilit# of p!$lic transportation services for r!ral residents in )owa. S!rve# res!lts show that an !nmet transportation need e?ists in the st!d# area and that lack of information is a primar# ca!se. Res!lts also indicate that amon r!ral elderl# residents5 those who !se p!$lic transportation services enerall# have the hi hest opinions of transit.

;oward5 David M. *&&:. A *andboo on Rural Elderly Transportation Services: A Practical 6ntroduction to <perating and Evaluating a Rural Elderly Transportation System. Universit# of Misso!ri ( Fansas ,it#5 0ational Reso!rce ,enter for R!ral Elderl#. @resents practical information in a hand$ook format for initiatin 5 financin 5 and operatin transportation s#stems that primaril# serve r!ral elders. Offers vario!s s! estions on how $est to provide service to r!ral elderl# residents. @rovides criteria for effectivel# eval!atin r!ral elderl# transportation services.

;oward5 David M.5 and ,. 0eil B!ll. *&'&. Rural Elderly Transportation Services: A Self8 Evaluation ,hec list. Universit# of Misso!ri ( Fansas ,it#5 0ational Reso!rce ,enter for R!ral Elderl#. @resents transit operators and polic#makers with a checklist for eval!atin r!ral elderl# transportation operations. ;i hli hts wa#s to improve transit service for r!ral elderl# residents. @rovides information on technical assistance for transit operators and lists additional reso!rces. Fihl5 Mar# R. *&&:. The %eed for Transportation Alternatives for the Rural Elderly! Ames5 )owa4 Midwest "ransportation ,enter. Doc!ments transportation patterns of the r!ral elderl# in si? co!nties in so!thern )owa and identifies the potential need for alternative services. ,oncl!des that altho! h there are relativel# few elderl# transit patrons5 not man# transportation alternatives e?ist for

this pop!lation. Ar !es that others mi ht $e enco!ra ed to !se p!$lic transportation if the s#stem $etter met their needs.

Fihl5 Mar# R. *&&8. AMarketin R!ral "ransit Amon Senior @op!lations5B Transportation Research Record *22'5 pp. 6:(6+. E?amines !nder!tili>ation of r!ral transportation s#stems $# older residents. @roposes developin responsive r!ral transportation s#stems and tar etin them to senior residents. Reviews strate ies developed $# marketin anal#sts and provides vario!s perspectives of erontolo ists. S! ests several innovative approaches for $etter meetin the transportation needs of the r!ral senior pop!lation.

Moorehead5 @a!l5 and Ro$ert ). ;olden. *&&6 %March-. %ational 6ndian Tribal Transit Report. @ro9ect 0o. D,(86(.:88. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 United States Department of "ransportation5 Federal "ransit Administration. Addresses pro$lems faced $# American )ndian and Alaska 0ative tri$al overnments with re ard to transit and related iss!es. Disc!sses the importance of transit s#stems for tri$al economies and their comm!nities. Hiews inade<!ate transit services as ne ativel# affectin tri$al efforts in attractin and maintainin o!tside investment in infrastr!ct!re development %transportation services5 water s#stems5 waste disposal plants- and 9o$ creation. Ar !es that tri$al overnments sho!ld $e assisted $# the Federal 7overnment in development polic# efforts.

@eters5 Alan ;.5 and ;eather ). MacDonald. *&&+. A"he 1orktrips of R!ral 0on(Metropolitan 1omen in )owa5B )rowth and ,hange 83 %2-5 pp. 223(23*. @resents a model of worktrip len th for r!ral nonmetropolitan women. Finds that some factors important in constrainin the len th of !r$an womenEs comm!te5 s!ch as linkin worktrips with ho!sehold(related trips5 are less relevant in a r!ral settin . ,oncl!des that those women who either work in nontraditional occ!pations5 receive emplo#er(provided health $enefits5 and/or have access to $etter transportation reso!rces5 tend to have lon er worktrips.

Rams$ottom(L!cier5 Mar#5 Fim Emmett5 E! ene ,. Rich5 and Gohn F. 1ilson. *&&6. A;ills5 Rid es5 Mo!ntains5 and Roads4 7eo raphical Factors and Access to ,are in R!ral Fent!ck#5B "ournal of Rural *ealth *8 %3-5 pp. 2'6(2&+. )nvesti ates the relationship $etween road <!alit#5 co!nt# elevation5 and access to health care for individ!als in r!ral and !r$an areas of Fent!ck#. E?amines the demo raphic characteristics of r!ral and !r$an residents5 and notes that r!ral residents are enerall# poorer and older. Finds that poor road conditions5 as meas!red $# a road Aridea$ilit#B inde?5 res!lted in lon er times to reach medical care.

Shawn5 Fell#. *&&+. American 6ndian Transportation: 6ssues and Successful Models. "echnical Assistance Brief 0o. *+. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 ,omm!nit# "ransportation Association of America5 R!ral "ransit Assistance @ro ram. Addresses transportation(related iss!es faced $# American )ndians5 s!ch as soverei nt#5 f!ndin 5 coordination5 economic rowth5 and comp!teri>ation. @rovides e?amples of on oin efforts to provide transportation services to 0ative Americans in isolated r!ral areas of Mississippi5 Ari>ona5 1#omin 5 and Oklahoma. @rovides information on additional reso!rces.

St!nkel5 Edith. *&&.. AR!ral @!$lic "ransportation and the Mo$ilit# of Older @ersons4 @aradi ms for @olic#5B "ournal of Aging and Social Policy & %2-5 pp. 6.('6. Develops a comprehensive literat!re review of Federal p!$lic transportation polic# in r!ral areas. S! ests three alternative paradi ms for !idin f!t!re polic#4 addressin social iss!es5 foc!sin on economic concerns5 and emphasi>in s!staina$ilit#. @rovides specific recommendations within each paradi m.

B. Sa-ety ,aldwell5 R. ,rai 5 and E! ene M. 1ilson. *&&.. A Safety 6mprovement Program for Rural $npaved Roads! Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &.(.:. Universit# of 1#omin 5 Department of ,ivil and Architect!ral En ineerin . @resents a protot#pe safet# improvement pro ram %S)@- developed for !npaved roads. Ar !es that the S)@ is economicall# and proced!rall# appropriate for local road a encies. @rovides a s#stematic means of prioriti>in road sections for safet# anal#sis and identif#in safet# improvement needs5 and incl!des res!lts of case st!dies to validate the proced!re.

,larke5 David B5 Ar!n ,hatter9ee5 Stephen M. R!tner5 and ;arr# L. Sink. *&&6. A)ntermodal Frei ht "ransportation and ;i hwa# Safet#5B Transportation .uarterly 3: %8-5 pp. &.(**:. )dentifies a n!m$er of hi hwa# safet# implications of intermodal transportation. K!antifies the effect on hi hwa# safet# of switchin some frei ht traffic to railroads. Disc!sses overall tr!ck traffic red!ction5 shifts from r!ral to !r$an roads5 terminal location and access5 and other related iss!es. Gerni an5 G. D.5 and ,. 1. L#nn. *&&*. A)mpact of 63(M@; Speed Limit on Hir inia=s R!ral )nterstate ;i hwa#s "hro! h *&'&5B Transportation Research Record *2*'5 pp. *+(8*. Reviews the *&'. S!rface "ransportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act5 which permitted States to raise their ma?im!m speed limit on r!ral interstate hi hwa#s. Finds that fatal crashes and fatalities increased more in Hir inia5 on avera e5 than in other States that raised their ma?im!m speed limits. S! ests that the increased speed limit ma# have $een a contri$!tin factor for the increased n!m$er of accidents in Hir inia.

Famer!d5 Dana B. *&''. ABenefits and ,osts of the 33 mph Speed Limit4 0ew Estimates and "heir )mplications5B "ournal of Policy Analysis and Management . %8-5 pp. 2+*(238. S!mmari>es costs and $enefits of the national 33 mile(per(ho!r speed limit for r!ral interstates compared to all other roads. Estimates the cost of savin a life $# red!cin speed limits is si nificantl# hi her on r!ral interstates compared to other roads. S! ests that these findin s s!pport increasin speed limits on r!ral interstates. Mart>5 Eston. *&&+. ABeware of R!ral Roads5B Traffic Safety &+ %3-5 pp. *6(*&.

@rovides data on r!ral road accidents in ,anada. Disc!sses vario!s ha>ards associated with r!ral roads5 incl!din hi her speeds and poorer road conditions. S! ests several wa#s for drivers to red!ce risks associated with nonmetro roads.

Schwart>5 David G.5 Games A. Bonneson5 and @atrick ". Mc,o#. *&&+. Analysis of Policies for Safety 6mprovements on -ow8=olume Rural Roadways! Lincoln4 Universit# of 0e$raska5 Department of ,ivil En ineerin . ,ompares hi hwa# safet# policies of )owa5 Fansas5 Misso!ri5 and 0e$raska. @a#s special attention to low(vol!me r!ral roadwa#s. @rovides recommendations for red!cin ha>ardo!s conditions on these roads.

1ilson5 E! ene M.5 and Fevin A. French. *&&8. Evaluating the Potential of Remote Sensing Rural Road and Travel ,onditions. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &8(*:. Universit# of 1#omin 5 Department of ,ivil En ineerin . E?amines the iss!e of safet# on r!ral roads. Advocates the need for postin c!rrent road and travel conditions as a means of red!cin the n!m$er of wintertime accidents in r!ral mo!ntain States. Eval!ates the !se of real(time remote weather information for !pdatin road and travel conditions.

C. ,nviron!ental Issues Ale?ander5 S!san H. *&&8. Rural Roads: Pollution Prevention and ,ontrol Measures! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Environmental @rotection A enc#. Ar !es that chan es made $# local overnments in ro!tine maintenance and road !p rade activities can provide protection for an area=s streams5 rivers5 lakes5 and wetlands. @resents a fact sheet that lists vario!s roadwa# chan es that can $e easil# implemented. )dentifies a set of specific sites where s!ch practices ma# prove $eneficial.

Beach#5 Fevin ".5 and Ronald 1. Eck. *&&3. AEnvironmental Dilemma of Administerin and Maintainin Low(Hol!me Roads.B Si;th 6nternational ,onference on -ow8=olume Roads5 Hol!me *. Minneapolis5 G!ne 83(8&. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational Academ# @ress5 "ransportation Research Board. @rovides an overview of vario!s environmental re !lations and restrictions coverin maintenance5 reha$ilitation5 and reconstr!ction activities on low(vol!me r!ral roads in western Mar#land. Anal#>es environmental considerations concernin the feasi$ilit#5 desi n5 and constr!ction phases of hi hwa# pro9ects in con9!nction with constr!ction costs. Offers several recommendations desi ned to assist p!$lic officials to deal more effectivel# with environmental constraints.

Moll5 Geffr# E. *&&2. ARed!cin Low(Hol!me Road )mpacts on the Environment4 S!ccess in the United States Department of A ric!lt!re Forest Service5B Transportation Research Record *+865 pp. *:(*+. Disc!sses how low(impact roads can effectivel# miti ate vario!s ne ative environmental conse<!ences associated with road constr!ction activities. )dentifies the red!ction of sediment in road maintenance as a positive strate # for the environment. Advocates the need for comprehensive plannin prior to constr!ction activities.

Additional Resources "he followin citations are miscellaneo!s r!ral transportation references. "he# incl!de an assortment of s!mmaries5 stat!s reports5 !ides5 maps5 atlases5 and $i$lio raphies. Atlas of Public Transportation in Rural America. *&&3. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational "ransit Reso!rce ,enter5 ,omm!nit# "ransportation Association of America. @rovides a vis!al doc!mentation of the nat!re of r!ral p!$lic transit services on a re ional5 State5 and intrastate $asis. )ndicates that +* percent of r!ral residents live in co!nties witho!t an# p!$lic transportation services5 while another 83 percent live in areas with inade<!ate transit.

Batson5 Gohn A.5 and Gerr# D. 0orton. *&'' %0ovem$er-. Maintaining -ocal Rail Service! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. Descri$es how shippers and r!ral comm!nities can retain local rail service. 7ives a $rief s!mmar# of rail re !lation as it applies to railroad a$andonment and disc!sses the a$andonment process. )dentifies availa$le assistance pro rams for comm!nities faced with an a$andonment5 incl!din those from the U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re=s Office of "ransportation.

R!cker5 7eor e. *&&+. Status Report on Public Transportation in Rural America! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational "ransit Reso!rce ,enter5 ,omm!nit# "ransportation Association of America. Reports findin s from a nationwide st!d# of transit s#stems. @rovides a demo raphic profile of r!ral transit patrons5 and disc!sses characteristics of the services provided. )dentifies the n!m$er and selected attri$!tes of local r!ral transit a encies. Assesses the transit needs of r!ral residents who are !nderserved $# p!$lic transportation services.

Stommes5 Eileen S.5 and Martha A. Bearer. *&'' %A! !st-. AAnnotated Bi$lio raph# on R!ral )ntercit# @assen er "ransportation.B Transportation #acts. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation.

S!mmari>es State(level st!dies on r!ral intercit# passen er transportation. @rovides $ack ro!nd information on st!dies cond!cted and reports written d!rin the *&':Es. Emphasi>es those st!dies completed since passa e of the B!s Re !lator# Reform Act of *&'8.

"ransportation Research Board. *&&*. AR!ral and Speciali>ed "ransportation A$stracts5B @repared for the *:th 0ational ,onference on R!ral @!$lic "ransportation5 Asheville5 0orth ,arolina5 Octo$er *2(*6. @rovides references availa$le thro! h the Ur$an Mass "ransportation Research )nformation Service data$ase. ,itations incl!de report availa$ilit# statements5 which provide detailed $i$lio raphic information.

Other Studies (0nannotated* A. Rural Transportation: Availability, e!and, and Condition American Societ# of ,ivil En ineers. *&&8. -ocal -ow8=olume Roads and Streets. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of "ransportation5 Federal ;i hwa# Administration. Attal!ri5 @.5 @. 0. Seneviratne5 and M. Gavid. *&&.. AModelin Demand for @!$lic "ransit Services in R!ral Areas5B "ournal of Transportation Engineering *82 %2-5 pp. 8*6(888. Beadle5 ,harles R.5 and Sheldon M. Edner. *&''. AThe Eighth %ational ,onference on Rural Public Transportation: #inal Report. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of "ransportation4 "echnolo # Sharin @ro ram. Black5 1. R. *&&2. ADevelopment of an )deal Model For )dentification of R!ral @!$lic "ransit 0eeds5B Transportation Research Record *+:85 pp. *:.(*:&. Botha5 Gan L. *&&:. The Role of Transit and Paratransit in Rural ,ommunities in Alas a! Seattle5 1A4 "ransportation 0orthwest5 Department of ,ivil En ineerin 5 Universit# of 1ashin ton. MMMMMMMM. *&&8. AR!ral @!$lic "ransportation in Alaska4 @resent and F!t!re Options5B Transportation Research Record *22'5 pp. 2.(+3. Botha5 Gan L.5 Edward ,. S!llivan5 and Niaohon Den . *&&8. -evel of Service of Two8-ane Rural *ighways with &esign Speeds -ess Than 04 MP*. Sacramento4 ,alifornia Department of "ransportation. Brown5 Dennis M. *&&6$. AR!ral America=s "ransportation 0etwork4 )ss!es for the *&&:Es5B Rural &evelopment Perspectives ** %8-5 pp. *:(*.. MMMMMMMM. *&&.. A,onsolidations in the Rail Frei ht )nd!str# and R!ral America5B @aper presented at the &2rd ann!al meetin of the Association of American 7eo raphers5 Fort 1orth5 April *(3. B!rton5 Mark L. *&&3. ARail Rates and the Availa$ilit# of 1ater "ransportation4 "he Misso!ri Halle# Re ion5B Review of Regional Studies 83 %*-5 pp. .&(&3. ,asto5 Games. *&&2. AAerospace4 "akeoff in 1est Hir inia5B "ournal of the Appalachian Regional ,ommission 86 %8-5 pp. *(6. Deller5 Steven ,.5 and 0orman 1al>er. *&&. %Septem$er-. Rural Roads and Bridges: A ,omprehensive Analysis. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service.

E!se$io5 Hictor E. *&&8. ARail A$andonments and Road Dama e4 A ,omparison of Alternative Strate ies to @reserve the Fansas Road S#stem5B 7ansas Business Review *3/*6 %+/*-5 pp. &(*.. Fravel5 Frederic D. *&''. ,omprehensive Study of 6ntercity Bus Service in %ebras a: #inal Report. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 "echnolo # Sharin @ro ram5 U.S. Department of "ransportation. 7on>ale>(A#ala5 Salvador. *&&6 %March-. *istoric Trends and #uture ,onse>uences of Pro?ected Traffic Along Rural 6nterstate @:! Research Report 0o. *286(*. Universit# of "e?as5 ,enter for "ransportation Research. ;ansen5 ,hristian O. *&'. %Septem$er-. Rural Public Transport in %orth America: Planning and Technology. Research Report 0o. '.(6. Berkele#4 )nstit!te of "ransportation St!dies5 Universit# of ,alifornia. ;o! h5 Gill A.5 and 7ene 7riffin. *&&.. An Evaluation of RegionaliAing Rural Transit Systems in %orth &a ota! Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &.(... Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. Gones5 1arren5 ed. *&&:. Research in Rural 6ssues: An Annotated Bibliography! Macom$5 )L4 1estern )llinois Universit#5 )llinois )nstit!te for R!ral Affairs. La ,aille5 Gohn5 and @atricia ,omp. *&'&. Transportation Services in Rural Areas! "anuary 12/2 8 &ecember 1233! .uic Bibliography Series. U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re4 0ational A ric!lt!ral Li$rar#5 @!$lic Services Division. Marathon5 0icholas. *&'&. Rural Bridges: An Assessment Based $pon the %ational Bridge 6nventory. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. Mc)nt#re5 Ro$ert G. *&'6. ARural Public Transportation &emand: ,haracteristics and Estimation MethodologyB "echnical St!d# Report 0o. *:':(*F. Universit# of "e?as5 ,enter for "ransportation Research. 0orton5 Gerr# D. *&&3 %Septem$er-. Assessing the 6mpact of Railcar Availability on )rain Prices. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. Rosen$loom5 Sandra. *&&6. Service Routes9 Route &eviation9 and )eneral Public Paratransit in $rban9 Suburban9 and Rural Transit Systems! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of "ransportation5 Federal "ransit Administration5 Office of "echnical Assistance and Safet#.

Ro>ic5 @. *&&8. A,apacit# of "wo(Lane5 "wo(1a# R!ral ;i hwa#s4 "he 0ew Approach5B Transportation Research Record *2635 pp. *&(8&. Sheftick5 Daniel E. *&&* %G!ne-. Recycling and Rehabilitating -ow8=olume Roads: Performance Report9 SR B41:9 Bradford ,ounty. Research @ro9ect '+(*+. @enns#lvania Department of "ransportation5 B!rea! of Brid e and Roadwa# "echnolo #. Smith5 Gean. *&&.. AR!ral "ransit Raisin the Standards5B ,ommunity Transportation *3 %'-5 pp. *8(*+. Stommes5 Eileen S. *&'& %G!l#-. Reconnecting Rural America: Report on Rural 6ntercity Passenger Transportation. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. "ransportation Research Board. *&&6. A@!$lic "ransportation *&&64 B!s5 R!ral and )ntercit#5 and @aratransit5B Transportation Research Record *33.. U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. *&''. Reconnecting Rural America: %ational Strategy for Reconnecting Rural America. 1al>er5 0orman5 David L. ,hicoine5 and R!th ". Mc1illiams. *&'.. ARe$!ildin R!ral Roads and Brid es5B Rural &evelopment Perspectives 2 %8-5 pp. *3(8:. 1eissman5 G.5 and R. ;arrison. *&&*. A)mpact of "!rnpike Do!$le and "riple 8'Es on the R!ral )nterstate Brid e 0etwork5B Transportation Research Record *2*&5 pp. 28(+8. 1el$#5 Ellen M.5 and Brian M. Mc7re or. *&&2 %Fe$r!ar#-. Agricultural E;port Transportation (or boo . 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service. 1ilson5 E! ene M.5 Fhaled Fsai$ati5 Donald 1arder5 and 7ene Br#an. *&&+ %March-. Evaluating ,riteria for Scenic -oop Tours. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &+( 8&. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#.

B. Transportation and Rural evelop!ent Andersen5 S. G.5 ;. S. Mahmassani5 R. ;elaakoski5 M. A. E!ritt5 ,. M. 1alton5 and R. ;arrison. *&&2. AEconomic )mpact of ;i hwa# B#passes5B Transportation Research Record *2&35 pp. *++(*38. Ba$cock5 Michael 1. *&&*. A"ransportation and 7reat @lains A ric!lt!re5B in Proceedings of )reat Plains Agricultural ,ouncil %1ichita5 G!ne +(6-5 pp. *.'(*'&.

Ba$cock5 Michael 1.5 Marvin @rater5 Gohn Morrill5 and E! ene R. R!ssell. *&&3. A,ompetitiveness of Short Line Railroads5B "ournal of the Transportation Research #orum 2+ %8-5 pp. *2(83. Batson5 Gohn A. *&'&. 6mportance of Small Railroads to Agriculture and Rural America! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. ,alvo5 ,hristina M. *&&'. <ptions for Managing and #inancing Rural Transport 6nfrastructure! "echnical @aper +**. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 1orld Bank. ,rane5 La!rence M. *&'&. Economic Effects of Transportation E;penditures on Employment and 6ncome -evels (ithin *ighway &istricts. ,olle e Station4 "e?as "ransportation )nstit!te5 "e?as ALM Universit#. Dempse#5 Steven @. *&'&. The Social and Economic ,onse>uences of &eregulation: The Transportation 6ndustry in Transition! 1estport5 ,onn.4 7reenwood @ress. Fr!in5 Gerr# E.. *&&3. A"he )mportance of Bar e "ransportation for R!ral America.B Staff @aper 0o. &3(+5 Department of A ric!lt!ral and Applied Economics5 Universit# of Minnesota. ;art en5 D. ".5 G. E. O=,alla han5 1. A. 1alcott5 and G. Op enorth. *&&8. A7rowth at R!ral )nterchan es4 1hat5 1here5 1h#IB Transportation Research Record *23&5 pp. *+*(*3:. Gensen5 Ric. *&&3. A"e?as 1ater "ransportation S#stem4 @orts and 7)11 Are a Ma9or Economic Force5 B!t is "here an Environmental ,ostIB Te;as (ater Resources 8* %*-5 pp. *('. Fihl5 Mar# R.5 Mark Jont>5 and David McFarland. *&&+ %Septem$er-. 6ntercity Bus Study: #inal Report! Ames4 )owa State Universit#. Flaassen5 L. ;. *&'3. A"he Accessi$ilit# of R!ral Areas5B 6nternational "ournal of Transport Economics *8 %8-5 pp. *3.(*62. Mc,racken5 ,.5 F. ,asavant5 and D. Branch. Methodology for Estimating 6mpact of Transportation 6nfrastructure on Business -ocation in Rural %orthwest ,ommunities: A ,ase Study of the Pullman Transit System. Research @aper 0o. "01(&+(:8. Department of ,ivil En ineerin 5 Universit# of 1ashin ton. Mc7ranahan5 David A. *&&' %March-. -ocal Problems #acing Manufacturers: Results of the ERS Rural Manufacturing Survey. A ric!lt!re )nformation B!lletin 0o. .26(:2. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Economic Research Service. S!llivan5 Edward ,. *&&8. A"ransportation and Economic Development of ,oastal Areas in the @acific 0orthwest5B Transportation Research Record *23&5 pp. **.(*8+.

"ransportation Research Board. *&&6. AEffects of ;i hwa# B#passes on R!ral ,omm!nities and Small Ur$an Areas5B %,*RP Research Results &igest 8*:. Hachal5 Fim$erl#5 Gohn D. Bit>an5 and Denver "olliver. *&&6 %Fe$r!ar#-. Transportation as an 6nput to the %orth &a ota Agricultural Mar eting Process. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te. 1ohl$r!ck5 Aliceann5 ed. *&&'a %Gan!ar#-. A"ransportation in R!ral America4 ;ow Are 1e Doin IB Economic &evelopment &igest & %2-5 pp. *('. C. .ederal and /ocal 'overn!ental Issues Ba!mel5 ,. @hillip. *&'6. The Economics of Reducing the ,ounty Road System: Three ,ase Studies in 6owa! Ames4 )owa Department of "ransportation. Berndt5 Ernst R.5 Ann F. Friedlaender5 G!d# Shaw(Er 1an ,hian 5 and ,hristopher A. Hellt!ro. *&&2 %G!ne-. AMer ers5 Dere !lation and ,ost Savin s in the U.S. Rail )nd!str#5B "ournal of Productivity Analysis +5 pp. *8.(*+3. Bit>an5 Gohn D. *&&. %A! !st-. The 6mpacts of &eregulation on Railroad -abor. Mo!ntain( @lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &.(.'. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#. Botha5 Gan L.5 Edward ,. S!llivan5 and Niaohon Den . *&&+. ALevel of Service of "wo(Lane R!ral ;i hwa#s with Low Desi n Speeds5B Transportation Research Record *+3.5 pp. *.(83. ,hicoine5 David L.5 and 0orman 1al>er5 eds. *&'6. #inancing -ocal 6nfrastructure in %onmetropolitan Areas! 0ew Jork4 7reenwood @ress. Felton5 Richard G.5 and Dale 7. Anderson5 eds. *&'&. Regulation and &eregulation of the Motor ,arrier 6ndustry. Ames4 )owa State Universit# @ress. Fit>simmons5 Edward L. *&&*. AFactors Associated with )ntramodal ,ompetition Reported $# Small Railroads5B -ogistics and Transportation Review 8. %*-5 pp. .2('.. 7aines5 David. *&&.. A"he "ri$!lation of "ri$al "ransit4 0ava9o "ransit S#stem in @rofile5B Bus (orld 8: %8-5 pp. **(*2. 7ittin s5 7. L.5 L. A. Dan will5 G. ,. Sp#chalski5 and G. F. Stover. *&&3. Strategic <ptions to Enhance Rail Transport Service in Rural Pennsylvania. State ,olle e4 @enns#lvania State Universit#5 @enns#lvania "ransportation )nstit!te.

7rimm5 ,!rtis M.5 and ;arr# G. Sapien>a. *&&2. ADeterminants of Shortline Railroad @erformance5B Transportation "ournal 28 %2-5 pp. 3(*2. ;elfrich5 Fathleen M. *&&6. The Economics of Road Maintenance by -ocal )overnments in %ew Cor State. Rensselaer @ol#technic )nstit!te5 @h.D. Dissertation. Gordan5 ,onstance 1. *&'. %Fe$r!ar#-. &eveloping -ocal Support and #unding for Transportation Service in Rural Alabama. Report 0o. AL(**(:::2. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 Ur$an Mass "ransportation Administration5 Universit# Research and "rainin @ro ram. MacDonald5 Games M. *&''. Effects of Railroad &eregulation on )rain Transportation. "echnical B!lletin 0o. *.3&. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Economic Research Service. Ma>!r5 7. D.5 1. Saras!a5 and G. Daniel. *&&6. AM!ltimodal "ransportation @lannin "ool for R!ral Areas in 7eor ia5B Transportation Research Record *3385 pp. +'(36. McDermott5 F. @.5 and E. 1. ;a!ser. *&&*. A,omm!nicatin ,han e to Local Roads Officials5B Transportation Research Record *8&*5 pp. *62(*.:. Morral5 G. F.5 and 1. M. A$delwaha$. *&&2. AEstimatin "raffic Dela#s and the Economic ,ost of Rec!rrent Road ,los!res on R!ral ;i hwa#s5B -ogistics and Transportation Review 8& %8-5 pp. *3&(*... 0orth5 D. *&&8. AR!ral "ransport4 "ime for a Ret!rn to the @olic# A endaIB -ocal Transport Today *:/:* %&*-5 pp. *:(**. 0!tle#5 Stephen D. *&&6. AR!ral "ransport @ro$lems and 0on(,ar @op!lations in the USA4 A UF @erspective5B "ournal of Transport )eography + %8-5 pp. &2(*:6. Sheftick5 Daniel E. *&&* %G!ne-. Recycling and Rehabilitating -ow8=olume Roads: Performance Report9 SR B41:9 Bradford ,ounty. Research @ro9ect '+(*+. ;arris$!r 4 @enns#lvania Department of "ransportation5 B!rea! of Brid e and Roadwa# "echnolo #. "#e5 1. B. *&&*. The Transition to &eregulation: &eveloping Economic Standards for Public Policies. 0ew Jork4 K!or!m Books. 1al>er5 0orman5 and David L. ,hicoine. *&'&. Rural Roads and Bridges: A &ilemma for -ocal <fficials! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re5 Office of "ransportation. 1an 5 G.5 and E! ene M. 1ilson. *&&.. AUsin "raffic ,o!nts in R!ral Statewide "ransportation @lannin 5B Transportation Research Record *3&25 pp. *.(88. 1ohl$r!ck5 Aliceann5 ed. *&&'$. A,on ress Approves )S"EA ,onference Report with Stren thened R!ral Role. %A&< %ews *& %8:-5 Ma# 8&5 p. *.

. Other Issues A ent5 Fenneth R. *&'6. Traffic ,ontrol and Accidents at Rural9 *igh8Speed 6ntersections. Report 0o. '.(6. Le?in ton4 Fent!ck# "ransportation Research @ro ram5 ,olle e of En ineerin 5 Universit# of Fent!ck#. Al(Masaeid5 ;. R.5 F. ,. Sinha5 and ". F!c>ek. *&&2. AEval!ation of Safet# )mpact of ;i hwa# @ro9ects5B Transportation Research Record *+:*5 pp. &(*6. Ale?ander5 M. David. *&&:. A@!$lic School @!pil "ransportation4 R!ral Schools5B "ournal of Education #inance *6 %Fall-5 pp. 886(8+6. Benekohal5 R. F.5 and A. M. ;ashmi. *&&: %G!ne-. Accident Savings from Roadside 6mprovements on Two8-ane Rural *ighways. )llinois Department of "ransportation5 Sprin field. Benekohal5 R. F.5 and M. ;. Lee. *&&*. A,omparison of Safet# Effects of Roadside Hers!s Road )mprovements on "wo(Lane R!ral ;i hwa#s5B Transportation Research Record *2:25 pp. &8(*:8. Bit>an5 Gohn D. *&&8. Rural Transit Research %eeds in the Mountain Plains Region! Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &8(*6. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#5 Upper 7reat @lains "ransportation )nstit!te.

Bonneson5 Games A.5 and @atrick ". Mc,o#. *&&2. AEstimation of Safet# at "wo(1a# Stop( ,ontrolled )ntersections on R!ral ;i hwa#s5B Transportation Research Record *+:*5 pp. '2('&. Bo#ce5 D. E. *&'&. ,ost8Effective @R Roadside Safety Policy for Two8-ane Rural *ighways: #inal Report to 6llinois &epartment of Transportation! ,hica o4 )llinois Universities "ransportation Research ,onsorti!m. ,avinato5 Goseph L.5 and Martha L. ,!ckovich. *&&8. A"ransportation and "o!rism for the Disa$led4 An Assessment5B Transportation "ournal 2* %2-5 pp. +6(32. ,ook5 ,#nthia ,. *&&*. ASocial Anal#sis in R!ral Road @ro9ects5B in Putting People #irst: Sociological =ariables in Rural &evelopment. O?ford4 O?ford Universit# @ress. Flad5 ;. F.5 and S. 7. Lon . *&&.. A,o!nt# ,l!tter4 His!al @oll!tion and the R!ral Roadscape5B The Annals 3325 pp. **.(*8&. Fo?5 Michael. *&&3. AR!ral School "ransportation as a Dail# ,onstraint in St!dents= Lives5B The Rural Educator *. %8-5 p. 88.

;all5 G. 1. and O. G. @endleton. *&&:. AR!ral Accident Rate Hariations with "raffic Hol!me5B Transportation Research Record *8'*5 pp. 68(.:. ;a!ser5 E. 1.5 D. "err#5 and M. S. 7riffith. *&&+. AEffect of Res!rfacin on Safet# of "wo( Lane R!ral Roads in 0ew Jork State5B Transportation Research Record *+6.5 pp. 2:(2.. )ve#5 Don L.5 and Lindsa# ). 7riffen. *&&8 %Fe$r!ar#-. Safety 6mprovements for -ow8=olume Rural Roads. "e?as "ransportation )nstit!te5 "e?as ALM Universit#. Games5 G!ne. *&'3 %G!l#-. A Study of Elderly and *andicapped Perceptions of a Transit Rider Program in Rural to $rban ,ommunities in %orthern Mississippi! Report 0o. MS(**( :::8. 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 U.S. Department of "ransportation5 Ur$an Mass "ransportation Administration. Lein$ach5 "homas R.5 Gohn F. 1atkins5 and 0ikiforos Stamatiadis. *&&+. Transportation Services9 $tiliAation and %eeds of the Elderly in %on8$rban 7entuc y! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 Federal "ransit Administration5 Office of "echnical Assistance and Safet#. Miller5 Gennine. *&&.. A1elfare Reform in R!ral Areas5B ,ommunity Transportation *3 %.-5 pp. 26(++.

O=0eill5 1ende A.5 F. Ullah5 and M. 1an . *&&2 %Septem$er-. 6=*S and Rural Road Safety: A Prototype AT6S. Mo!ntain(@lains ,onsorti!m Report 0o. &2(82. Far o4 0orth Dakota State Universit#. Report on Speed -imits and Safety for 6owa *ighways. *&&6. Ames4 )owa Department of "ransportation5 Safet# Mana ement S#stem "ask Force on Speed Limits. St. Gohn5 A. D.5 and D. 1. ;arwood. *&&*. ASafet# ,onsiderations for "r!ck ,lim$in Lanes on R!ral ;i hwa#s5B Transportation Research Record *2:25 pp. .+('8. "ransportation Research Board. *&&2. -ow8=olume Roads: Environmental Planning and Assessment9 Modern Timber Bridges9 and <ther 6ssues! 1ashin ton5 D.,.4 0ational Academ# @ress. De eer5 ,. H.5 R. Stewart5 F. ,o!ncil5 and ". R. 0e!man. *&&+. AAccident Relationships of Roadwa# 1idth on Low(Hol!me Roads5B Transportation Research Record *++35 pp. *6:(*6'. ,. Additional Resources

Gones5 1arren5 ed. *&&:. Research in Rural 6ssues: An Annotated Bibliography. Macom$5 )llinois4 1estern )llinois Universit#5 )llinois )nstit!te for R!ral Affairs. Sie$er5 0iklas. *&&.. An Annotated Bibliography on Rural Transport. London4 "he )nternational For!m for R!ral "ransport and Development. U.S. Department of "ransportation5 B!rea! of "ransportation Statistics. *&&+. Transportation Statistics: Annual Report. U.S. Department of "ransportation5 Federal "ransit Administration. *&&2. AR!ral @!$lic and )ntercit# B!s "ransportation4 A Bi$lio raph# with A$stracts5B @repared for the **th 0ational ,onference on R!ral @!$lic and )ntercit# B!s "ransportation5 @ark ,it#5 Utah5 Septem$er 86(8&.

Index A$delwaha$5 1. M.5 3' A ent5 Fenneth R.5 3& Al(Masaeid5 ;. R.5 3& Ale?ander5 M. David5 3& Ale?ander5 S!san H.5 3: Allen5 Ben9amin G.5 *6 American Societ# of ,ivil En ineers5 32 Anderson5 Dale 7.5 3' Andersen5 S. G.5 36 Andin 5 "homas L.5 ++ Astrop5 An ela5 +2 Atlas of Public Transportation in Rural America5 3* Attal!ri5 @.5 32 A>i>5 Ria>5 8+ Ba$cock5 Michael 1.5 **5 885 825 36 Baldwin5 Fred D.5 *' Batson5 Gohn A.5 **5 825 3*5 36 Ba!mel5 ,. @hillip5 '5 *65 285 +:5 3. Ba!mhover5 Stephen B.5 28 Ba#er5 ,!rtis F.5 *2 Beach#5 Fevin ".5 3: Beadle5 ,harles R.5 32 Bearer5 Martha A.5 **5 *35 38 Benekohal5 R. F.5 3& Benhart5 Gohn E.5 2' Benson5 Do! 5 8+ Berndt5 Ernst R.5 3. Bit>an5 Gohn D.5 235 2'5 3.5 3& Black5 1. R.5 32 Bo ren5 Scott5 *35 865 225 ++ Bonneson5 Games A.5 +&5 6: Botha5 Gan L.5 325 3. Bo#ce5 D. E.5 6: Branch5 D.5 3. Brennan5 Sherr#5 ' Broder5 Gosef M.5 *' Brown5 Dennis M.5 *35 885 865 225 32 Br#an5 7ene5 8*5 33 B!ll5 ,. 0eil5 +3 B!rkhardt5 Gon E.5 86 Flad5 ;. F.5 6: Ford5 Gack G.5 2& Forken$rock5 David G.5 *&5 8& B!rns5 Ro$ert E.5 88 B!rton5 Mark L.5 32 B!tler5 Darlene @.5 8. ,aldwell5 R. ,rai 5 +' ,alvo5 ,hristina M.5 36 ,asavant5 F.5 3. ,asto5 Games5 32 ,avinato5 Goseph L.5 6: ,hatter9ee5 Ar!n5 +' ,hian 5 G!d# Shaw(Er 1an 5 3. ,hicoine5 David L.5 &5 2'5 2&5 335 3.5 3& ,larke5 David B.5 +' ,lo!ser5 Rodne# L.5 22 ,omp5 @atricia5 3+ ,onnin5 Larr#5 *2 ,ook5 ,#nthia ,.5 6: ,ooper5 Ronald5 8+ ,o!ncil5 F.5 6* ,rane5 La!rence M.5 .5 8'5 36 ,r!m5 Michael R.5 *6 ,!ckovich5 Martha L.5 6: Damiano5 @eter ,.5 +3 Daniel5 G.5 3' Daniels5 Bo$5 . Deaton5 Brad# G.5 23 Deller5 Steven ,.5 *:5 225 2+5 265 2'5 2&5 +85 3+ Dempse#5 Steven @.5 36 Doole#5 Frank5 2: D!e5 Gohn F.5 *6 E$erts5 Randall 1.5 8' Eck5 Ronald 1.5 3: Edner5 Sheldon M.5 32 Emmett5 Fim5 +. E!ritt5 M. A.5 36 E!se$io5 Hictor E.5 3+ Felton5 Richard G.5 3' Fendle#5 Fim5 8' Finne an5 David G.5 8& Fit>patrick5 Fa#5 2+ Fit>simmons5 Edward L.5 3' Foster5 0orman S. G.5 *&5 8&5 +3 Fo?5 Michael5 6: Fravel5 Frederic D.5 3+

French5 Fevin A.5 +& Friedlaender5 Ann F.5 3. Fr!in5 Gerr# E.5 .5 *25 *+5 *65 *&5 885 36 F!ller5 Stephen 1.5 . F!lton5 R. Evan5 ++ 7aines5 David5 3' 7ildemeister5 Morris5 *6 7illis5 1illiam R.5 ' 7ittin s5 7. L.5 3' 7o$le5 Ro$ert ".5 +: 7olas>ewski5 Richard5 83 7on>ale>(A#ala5 Salvador5 3+ 7reenstein5 G.5 +: 7riffen5 Lindsa# ).5 6: 7riffin5 7ene5 '5 3+ 7riffith5 M. S.5 6: 7rimm5 ,!rtis M.5 3' ;al$ach5 Dan5 .5 *25 *+5 *& ;all5 G. 1.5 6: ;alstead5 Gohn M.5 2+5 2& ;amlett5 ,ath# A.5 '5 285 +: ;ansen5 ,hristian O.5 3+ ;arnik5 @eter5 82 ;arrison5 R.5 335 36 ;art en5 D. ".5 36 ;arwood5 D. 1.5 6* ;ashmi5 A. M.5 3& ;a!ser5 E. 1.5 3'5 6: ;a#nes5 Fin sle# E.5 8& ;edrick5 Games L.5 86 ;elaakoski5 R.5 36 ;elfrich5 Fathleen M.5 3' ;enr#5 Mark5 8& ;olden5 Ro$ert ).5 +6 ;one#man5 Goel S.5 88 ;o! h5 Gill A.5 '5 2:5 235 2'5 3+ ;oward5 David M.5 +3 ;!ddleston5 Gack R.5 2: )relan5 Eric5 +* )saacs5 Rand#5 8. McDermott5 F. @.5 3' McFadden5 ,la!dia5 *: McFarland5 David5 36 Mc7avock5 Adam ".5 86 Mc7ranahan5 David A.5 3. Mc7re or5 Brian M.5 33

)sserman5 Andrew M.5 *&5 8* )ve#5 Don L.5 6: Games5 G!ne5 6: Gavid5 M.5 32 Gensen5 Ric5 36 Gerni an5 G. D.5 +' Gohnson5 ,ind#5 +* Gohnson5 "homas 7.5 8&5 2:5 23 Gones5 1arren5 3+5 6* Gordan5 ,onstance 1.5 3' Famer!d5 Dana B.5 +' Fihl5 Mar# R.5 *65 +25 +65 36 Filpatrick5 Andrew F.5 +* Flaassen5 L. ;.5 36 Flindworth5 Feith A.5 82 Fsai$ati5 Fhaled5 8*5 33 F!c>ek5 ".5 3& F!en>er5 Faren5 2+ F!smin5 Lorin D.5 8: La ,aille5 Gohn5 3+ Lam$erton5 ,harles E.5 ' Leatham5 David G.5 8' Lee5 M. ;.5 3& Le ett5 Feith5 *2 Lein$ach5 "homas R.5 6: Leistrit>5 F. Larr#5 23 Lenski5 1illiam5 2. Liena!5 "orsten5 2+ Lipsman5 Michael5 28 Lon 5 S. 7.5 6: L#nn5 ,. 1.5 +' MacDonald5 ;eather ).5 +. MacDonald5 Games M.5 3' Mahmassani5 ;. S.5 36 Marathon5 0icholas5 265 3+ Mart>5 Eston5 +& Ma?well5 "rac#5 8. Ma>!r5 7. D.5 3' Mc,o#5 @atrick ".5 +&5 6: Mc,racken5 ,.5 3. Mc)nt#re5 Ro$ert G.5 3+ McLeran5 ;ermine ".5 +3 Mc0amara5 Fevin ".5 *' McHe#5 Mart# G.5 28 Mc1illiams5 R!th ".5 *35 33 Miller5 Gennine5 6:

Miller5 Sherr# B.5 28 Miller5 Steve5 +* Miller5 1ill5 8' Mitenko5 7raham R.5 *2 Moll5 Geffr# E.5 3: Moman#5 Eli>a$eth ".5 +3 Moon5 ;enr# E.5 Gr.5 8: Moorehead5 @a!l5 +6 Morral5 G. F.5 3' Morrill5 Gohn5 **5 36 M!nnell5 Alicia ;.5 2* M!rdock5 Steve ;.5 23 0elson5 ,arl ;.5 2& 0e!man5 ". R.5 6* 0evel5 Bonnie5 82 0ice5 David ,.5 & 0orris5 Bahar B.5 83 0orth5 D.5 3' 0orton5 Gerr# D.5 **5 3*5 3+ 0o#es5 "homas A.5 +* 0!tle#5 Stephen D.5 3' O=,alla han5 G. E.5 36 O=;ara5 Michael5 *2 O=0eill5 1ende A.5 6* Op enorth5 G.5 36 Oster5 ,linton H.5 Gr.5 +2 Otto5 7ar#5 2: @an otra5 @rem @.5 2: @a!tsch 7re or#5 28 @endleton5 O. G.5 6: @eters5 Alan ;.5 +. @innoi5 0at5 . @o !e5 "homas F.5 8& @orterfield5 Shirle# L.5 8: @rater5 Marvin5 **5 36 Rams$ottom(L!cier5 Mar#5 +. Redman5 Gohn M.5 8: "a#lor5 "eresa D.5 *' "err#5 D.5 6: "olliver5 Denver5 3. "ransportation Research Board5 385 335 3.5 6* "#e5 1. B.5 3& U.S. Department of A ric!lt!re A ric!lt!ral Marketin Service5 & Office of "ransportation5 *.5 33

Reeder5 Richard G.5 83 Reid5 G. 0orman5 83 Rephann5 "erance G.5 *&5 8* Report on Speed -imits and Safety for 6owa *ighways5 6: Rich5 E! ene ,.5 +. Rosen$loom5 Sandra5 33 Ro>ic5 @.5 33 R!$el5 "om5 *. R!cker5 7eor e5 3* R!ssell5 E! ene R.5 **5 885 825 36 R!tner5 Stephen M.5 +' St. Gohn5 A. D.5 6* Sapien>a5 ;arr# G.5 3' Saras!a5 1.5 3' Schneider5 Feith R.5 +* Schwart>5 David G.5 +& Sears5 David 1.5 8:5 83 Se arra5 Ed!ardo5 23 Seneviratne5 @. 0.5 32 Shawn5 Fell#5 +. Sheftick5 Daniel E.5 335 3& Sie$er5 0iklas5 6* Sinha5 F. ,.5 3& Sink5 ;arr# L.5 +' Smadi5 A#man 7.5 '5 23 Smith5 Gean5 33 Sorenson5 David G.5 *& Sorensen5 @a!l ,.5 +* Sp#chalski5 G. ,.5 3' Stamatiadis5 0ikiforos5 6: Stewart5 R.5 6* Stommes5 Eileen S.5 *35 +*5 385 33 Stover5 G. F.5 3' St!nkel5 Edith5 +. S!llivan5 Edward ,.5 325 3. "an>er5 Fred @.5 *6 U.S. Department of "ransportation5 +* B!rea! of "ransportation Statistics5 6* Federal "ransit Administration5 6* Ullah5 F.5 6* Ur$anik5 "om5 ))5 2+ Hachal5 Fim$erl#5 3. Hellt!ro5 ,hristopher A.5 3. Hoccia5 Goseph5 2.

1alcott5 1. A.5 36 1allace5 ,harles E.5 +* 1alther5 Erskine S.5 +8 1alton5 ,. M.5 36 1al>er5 0orman5 &5 *:5 2+5 265 2'5 2&5 +85 3+5 335 3.5 3& 1anek5 ,or#5 83 1an 5 G.5 3& 1an 5 M.5 6* 1arder5 Donald5 8*5 33 1atkins5 Gohn F.5 6: 1eis$rod5 7len5 83 1eissman5 G.5 33 1el$#5 Ellen M.5 33 1elsh5 1illiam5 2' 1elton5 Richard D.5 2. 1heeler5 Linda M.5 2. 1ilson5 E! ene M.5 8*5 +'5 +&5 335 3& 1ilson5 Gohn F.5 +. 1innin ham5 Brian5 +* 1ohl$r!ck5 Aliceann5 3.5 3& 1olfe5 F. Eric5 *8 Jont>5 Mark5 36 Jork5 Lori5 26 Dan will5 L. A.5 3' De eer5 ,. H.5 6* Deilin er5 ,hris5 22 Den 5 Niaohon 5 325 3.