Science revision notes

Biology: Starvation (Unit 7.3) Without food, the body uses stored fat and breaks down protein in muscles as a source of energy muscle wasting and emaciated appearance Protein energy malnutrition: Lack of dietary energy and protein Can lead to kwashiorkor or marasmus in its worst forms Kwashiorkor: swelling of abdomen and legs, sparse dry hair Marasmus: low body mass, thin arms and legs

Anaerobic respiration for microorganisms (Unit 10.6) Glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy released But glucose is not completely broken down less energy than aerobic Breathing: function of goblet and ciliated epithelial cells (Unit 10.4) 1. Trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are lined with ciliated epithelial cells and mucus secreting cells 2. Dust particles and pathogens become trapped in the slimy mucus 3. Cilia beat to carry a stream of mucus up to your nose and throat remove the particles and pathogens which one swallows Broken down by stomach acid, or sneezed or coughed out Transpiration (Unit 8.2) Evaporation of water at surface of the mesophyll cells and loss of water vapor through stomata to the atmosphere Loss of water results in decrease in water potential for those cells Water is pulled up the xylem in the stem from the roots to the leaves by transpiration pull Mass flow of water: cohesion water molecules attract each other adhesion water molecules stick to the insides of xylem vessel

Translocation (Unit 8.5) The transport of food from regions of production to regions of storage/ regions of utilization in respiration or growth Sucrose is transported to other parts of the plant respiration, starch for storage in root cortex, cellulose for cell walls in root tip, sweetness for fruits Homeostasis (Unit 11.1) Maintenance of constant internal conditions in the body enzymes control metabolism efficiently Insulin (lower blood glucose content): stimulates liver cells to convert glucose glycogen Glucagon (raises blood glucose content): stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen glucose Neurones and reflex arcs (Unit 12.2) Reflex arc: stimulus receptor coordination effector response Central Nervous system: made up of brain and spinal cord SynapJunctions between neurones Sensory neurones transmit impulses from sense organs to brain and spinal cord

Motor neurones

Pupil reflex (Unit 12.4) Dim light o Circular muscles relax o Radial muscles contract o Dilates the pupil more light able to reach retina Bright light CCC

o Circular muscles contract o Radial muscles relax o Constricts pupil less light able to reach retina

Hormones (Unit 12.6) Adrenaline o Stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen glucose as a source of energy o Heart rate increases more glucose and oxygen delivered to muscles o Vasodilation of arterioles in brain and muscles more glucose and oxygen delivered

Feature Structures Forms of information Pathways Speed of information transfer Duration of effects Target area Response

Nervous system Nerves Electrical impulses Along neurones Fast Short-lived Localised Muscle contraction or secretion by glands

Endocrine system Glands containing secretory cells Hormones (chemicals) In blood Slow Usually slow and longer lasting Whole tissue/organ, or even the whole body Many responses

Differences between plant and animal cells (Unit 2.2)

Chloroplasts: plants need them to carry out photosynthesis in order to obtain energy Cell wall: plants need the tough wall for stability and protection Vacuoles: Fill up 90% of a plant cells volume

Chromosomes, genes and DNA (Unit 16.1) Chromosome: a thread of DNA made up of genes Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein Allele: different versions of a gene Nucleus> chromosome> DNA> gene>allele

Mutation (Unit 17.2) A change in gene or chromosome Caused by: mistakes in copying DNA before cell division Or damage to DNA Or uneven distribution of chromosomes in cell division Downs syndrome Where parents chromosomes are unevenly distributed in meiosis Causes mental retardation and heart defects

Pollination (Unit 14.2) Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma in two plants Insect pollinated flowers Filament Stigma Anther Bright colored petals

Insect pollinated flowers

Petals

Stamen (male)

Carpel (female)

Nectary

Anther makes pollen

Filament holds pollen

Stigma

Style

Ovary

Ovules

Wind pollinated flowers Feathery stigma

Long filament

Fertilization (Unit 14.4) Pollen grains that land on the stigma produce a pollen tube that grows down the style to an ovule in the ovary Occurs when the male gamete nucleus from the pollen tube fuses with egg cell nucleus inside an ovule Fertilized eggembryoseed

Products of photosynthesis (Unit 6.3)

Glucose

Absorb nitrate ions from soil

Glucose+nitrate-> amino acids -> proteins

Proteins for growth and cell repair

Sucrose

Cellulose for cell walls

Glucose (for food in leaves)

Respiration

Starch for storage

Leaf structure (Unit 6.6)

Cuticle: waxy layer prevents water loss Upper epidermis protects the cells below Palisade mesophyll: column shaped, full of chloroplasts, close to top Spongy mesophyll: chloroplasts, irregularly shaped create air spaces for gases to diffuse Stomata in the bottom of leaf: prevent water loss by receiving least sunlight Stomata o Open during day: water passes into guard cells by osmosisbend o Carbon dioxide in, oxygen out o Close during night: water passes out straighten and close

Mineral requirements (Unit 6.7) Nitrate ions: Make amino acids proteins growth of leaves and stems Deficiency: poor growth Phosphate ions: Make DNA and respiration healthy roots Deficiency: poor root growth Potassium ions: Make chlorophyll healthy leaves Deficiency: yellow leaves chlorosis

Proteins (Unit 5.1) Comprised of smaller molecules (amino acids) Haemoglobin carry oxygen in red blood cells Enzymes accelerate reactions Antibodies fight against diseases in white blood cells Hormones produced at endocrine gland, travels through the bloodstream to a designated destination to have an effect e.g. insulin turns glucose to glycogen Chemical tests for nutrients (Unit 5.2) Starch: iodine solution light brown to blue-black Protein: biuret solution blue to purple Reducing sugars: benedicts solution bright blue to orange Fats: ethanol cloudy white emulsion

Digestion (Unit 7.4) Ingestion: taking food into the body through the mouth Digestion: breaking down large insoluble food molecules into small soluble food molecules absorbed into the blood stream Chemical digestion (alimentary canal) Molecule Comprised of Protein Starch Fat Amino acids Glucose Fatty acids and glycerol Enzyme Protease Carbohydrase Lipase Products Amino acids Glucose Fatty acids and glycerol

Absorption: movement of digested food molecules through the wall of intestine into the blood Small intestine makes ideal surface o Large surface area o Thin lining Assimilation: making use of absorbed food substances (liver) o Storing glucose as glycogen o Make proteins from amino acids

 Region of gut Mouth Stomach

o Breaks down excess amino acids o Converts fatty acids and glycerol into fat o Produce cholesterol from fats Egestion: passing out of food that has not been digested through the anus Enzymes salivary amylase pepsin Substrate starch proteins Product(s) maltose peptides Other substances in juice hydrogencarbonate hydrochloric acid Function of other substance alkaline environment for amylase acidic environment for pepsin, kills bacteria neutralise chyme, alkaline environment for enzymes emulsifies fats, neutralises chyme NA

Digestive juice saliva gastric juice from stomach glands pancreatic juice

Small intestine (duodenum)

-amylase -trypsin -lipase

-starch -peptides -fats

-maltose -amino acids -fatty acids + glycerol

hydrogencarbonate

bile

bile salts and hydrogencarbonate

Small intestine (ileum)

intestinal juice

maltase

maltose

glucose

NA

Circulatory system (Unit 9.2) A system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood Double circulatory system o Low pressure circulation to the lungs less distance as heart and lungs are very close o High pressure circulation to the body tissues has to travel a further distance

Structure o Muscular wall: thicker on left ventricle as blood has to be pumped further and at higher pressure o Septum: separates left and right ventricle o Valves: stop the back flow of blood o Blood vessels Veins Vena cava (deoxygenated blood from body) Pulmonary vein (oxygenated blood from lungs) Low pressure Arteries Pulmonary artery (deoxygenated blood to lungs) Aorta (oxygenated blood to body) High pressure elastic fibres help maintain Capillaries Huge surface area Narrow Slow blood flow Thin cells Heart action o Muscles contract chamber gets smaller pumps blood out relaxes filled with blood again o Diastole: (low pressure) when the heart muscles are relaxed, blood flows into atria filling

o Systole: (high pressure) atria contract force blood into ventricles ventricles contract to force blood out into the arteries valves are closed to prevent back flowing into atria Left ventricle: to rest of the body through aorta Right ventricle: to the lungs through pulmonary artery

CHD: Reasons: inheritance, fatty diet, smoking, stress and lack of exercise Prevention: not smoke, avoid fatty foods, exercise Atherosclerosis Coronary artery is originally smooth and lets blood flow through easily

But due to consumption of fatty foods, cholesterol form and stick to walls of the artery This can narrow the artery and slow down flow of blood Thrombosis When artery walls become rough blood clot and blocks vessel Total blockage/thrombosis can cause heart attack supply of oxygen cut off Cardiac arrest heart stops beating

Stomach and the small intestine (Unit 7.6) Pancreatic juice: produced in pancreas, used in small intestine Amylase: breaks down starch to maltose Trypsin: breaks down proteins and polypeptides to peptides Lipase: breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol White blood cells (Unit 9.6) Defend against disease Phagocytes: ingest pathogens Lymphocytes: produce antibodies which attack the pathogens Seeds (Unit 14.6) Formed after fertilization Micropyle: weak section in the seed allows water to pass through: dissolve and activate amylase and maltose into glucose Glucose provides energy for use in respiration Testa: tough seed coat protect seeds from destruction in egestion

Conditions for germination Warm optimum temperature for enzymes Moist water used to activate enzymes and transport Oxygen respiration Light photosynthesis Changes in dry mass of the germinating seed Decrease as it uses up starch stores Increase as the seedling can photosynthesize so the plant grows

Sexual reproduction in humans Men Testes: produce sperm and testosterone Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid Sperm duct: storage and transport Urethra: carries seminal fluid and urine out the body Penis: deliver seminal fluid to vagina Women Ovary: Produces the female gamete- egg every month, oestrogen and progesterone Oviduct: Carries the egg to the uterus, and where fertilization takes place Uterus: where the fetus develops (technically in uterus lining) Cervix: neck of uterus, entrance of vagina Vagina: birth canal, receives the penis

Pregnancy (Unit 15.4) Umbilical cord o Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood and waste products urea from the fetus to placenta o Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood and soluble food such as iron, glucose and amino acids placenta to fetus Placenta o Organ for exchange of soluble materials, such as foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus o Physical attachment between uterus and fetus

Amniotic fluid: protects fetus against mechanical shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations

Ante-natal care and birth (Unit 15.5) Zygote embryo foetus baby During birth: Placenta: comes away from uterus wall as afterbirth Umbilical cord: cut and tied just above the point where it attaches the baby Uterus: Muscles in the uterus are stimulated to contract and dilate, and start to push the baby towards the cervix Amniotic fluid: Escape when contractions stretch the opening of cervix and the amnion breaks Cervix: widens as the baby is pushed through the vagina Menstrual cycle (Unit 15.6) Role of progesterone Maintains lining of the uterus Prepares endometrium for implantation Prevents menstruation Role of oestrogen Causes lining of the uterus to thicken receive a fertilized egg Prevent other eggs from developing Methods of birth control (Unit 15.8) Condom: inserted upon a mans erect penis, acts as a barrier between the womans vagina and the mans penis, such that seminal fluid cannot flow from the penis to the vagina during intercourse, effectively preventing implantation. Contraceptive pill: taken regularly by the woman to prevent ovary from releasing eggs Diaphragm: a rubber dome inserted inside a womans vagina, acts as a physical barrier between the womans vagina and the mans penis, must also be used along with sperm cream Vasectomy: where the mans sperm tubes are cut and tied up, such that it cannot produce/ deliver seminal fluid, the surgery is however, irreversible. HIV (Unit 15.9) The virus attacks and destroys T lymphocyte in immune system Originally stimulates other lymphocytes to produce antibodies in case of diseases Number of T lymphocytes decrease amount of antibodies produced decrease

HIV+ patients are more prone to diseases immune system does not recognize and destroy them

Mitosis and meiosis (Unit 16.2) Mitosis Nuclear division genetically identical cells where chromosome number is maintained by the exact duplication of chromosomes Takes place in o Growth o Repair of wounds o Replacement of cells that wear out and die o Asexual reproduction: usually fungi and plants Meiosis Reduction division chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid Takes place in o Gamete production o Anthers and ovules in flowering plants Genetic variation genetically different Carbon cycle (Unit 18.4) Carbon dioxide gets into the air by: Plants and animals use some of their food for respiration carbon dioxide Decomposers use some of the decaying material for respiration carbon dioxide When fossil fuels are burned carbon dioxide

Deforestation (Unit 19.3) To provide for: o Timber for building materials o Paper o Land for farms, cattle ranches, plantations o Land for infrastructure o Firewood and charcoal as fuels Environmental problems o Soil erosion o Local weather patterns change: more frequent and severe storms o More frequent flooding o Loss of habitats and extinction of species o Carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere

Greenhouse effect (Unit 19.5) Greenhouse gases enhanced green house effect Carbon dioxide power stations, factories, domestic heating, transport use fossil fuels Water vapor Methane expansion of rice cultivation and cattle rearing CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) fridges and coolers Enhanced greenhouse effect Radiation from the sun warms the earth Earth cools down and radiates some heat back into Earth Water and carbon dioxide radiate part of the absorbed energy into space Water and carbon dioxide absorb radiation and radiate some of the energy back to Earth Possible consequences of global warming Rise in sea-level Flooding in low-lying areas Changes in world climate Reduction in crop production

Acid rain (Unit 19.6) Causes Burning fossil fuels nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide released into atmosphere React with water, oxygen and other substances sulfuric and nitric acid Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release chemicals Effects Turn plant nutrients soluble wash out of soils leaving plants infertile Makes water acidic and causes the release of aluminum ions Fish and invertebrates die Leave plants and animals weak less able to withstand cold/diseases Destroys infrastructure made from hard acidic rocks Solutions Low sulfur fuels Catalytic converters Use less electricity Water pollution (Unit 19.7) Water pollutants: Sewage Fertilizers Pesticides Toxic metals Eutrophication Leaching: fertilizers drain from the land into rivers and lakes Stimulates exponential growth of algae Animals that eat the algae do not eat as fast to control growth Algae cover surface layers of water reducing the light reaching plants at the bottom of lakes These plants eventually die and rot on the river bed Algae also die from competition for resources and many are shaded by algae on surface Decomposers, such as bacteria, feed on dead plants and algae Bacteria respire aerobically, multiplying rapidly and use up lots of dissolved oxygen Concentration of oxygen decreases kills fish and invertebrates

Sewage Encourages the growth of algae and bacteria use up lots of oxygen, killing fish and small invertebrates Encourages growth of bacteria (feed on organic matter) anoxic waters

Chemistry: Ionic compound: Metals and non-metals Positive/negative attraction strong ionic bond Properties of ionic compound: High melting and boiling points Soluble in water Conduct electricity when melted/dissolved Covalent compound: Sharing electrons full outer shell Non-metals only gain electrons Properties of covalent bonding: Low melting and boiling point Do not conduct electricity Alkane and alkene Alkane: saturated hydrocarbons does not react with aqueous bromine Alkene: unsaturated hydrocarbons turns aqueous bromine from brown to colorless Polymerization Macromolecules: large molecules built from small units (monomers) e.g. glucose molecules link to form starch molecule

H C H

H C H

H C H

H C H n

ethene

poly(ethene)

In nylon C-N-O-H links together amide linkage

Proteins contain the same linkages (amide links) as nylon, but with different units

Chemical compounds can be broken down by hydrolysis, can be quickened by acid/base condensation polymerization o Starch glucose o Proteins amino acids 570C, 60-70atm and concentrated phosphoric acid Ethene + steam ethanol

Ethanol can be used for solvent (glues, printing inks, scented substances) and fuel

Reactivity series:

K - Potassium Na - Sodium Ca Calcium Mg Magnesium Al Aluminium C Carbon Zn Zinc Fe Iron Pb Lead H Hydrogen Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold

Everything above hydrogen can displace it from its acid, and hydrogen cannot reduce their oxides Metals above carbon, their oxides cannot be reduced by carbon

Extraction of metals: Iron from hematite in the blast furnace 1. Coke burns with air: carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide 2. Carbon dioxide reacts with coke: carbon dioxide + carbon carbon monoxide 3. Iron (III) oxide + carbon monoxide iron + carbon dioxide (Carbon can reduce iron because iron is less reactive) 4. Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + carbon dioxide 5. Reacts with impurities: calcium oxide (lime)+ silicon dioxide calcium silicate + carbon dioxide Iron to steel: Molten iron from the blast furnace is poured into an oxygen furnace. Basic calcium oxide is added, and a jet of oxygen is turned on. The calcium oxide neutralises the acidic impurities, forming slag that is skimmed off. The oxygen burns the other impurities away. The carbon content is checked continually until it is just right if there is too much it is brittle, too little and it is weak then the oxygen is turned off. Haber process: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)

2NH3 (g) Comes from 1) methane + steam carbon dioxide + hydrogen 2) Cracked with a catalyst C2H6 C2H4 + H2

Conditions: 450 C, 200atm, iron catalyst

Separation of nitrogen and oxygen in liquid air Air is comprised of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen Liquefying air until -200C 1. Filtered to remove dust 2. Water vapor condenses removed 3. Carbon dioxide freezes at -79C removed 4. Oxygen liquefies at -183 C 5. Nitrogen liquefies at -196C Passed into fractionating column, warmed up and collected when gases boil off Physics: Transformers (Unit 14.8) Consists of two coils of insulated wire, both wound around the same iron core

Alternating voltage in primary coil

Alternating magnetic field

Lines of alternating magnetic field pass through secondary coil

Alternating voltage in secondary coil

Induced current in secondary coil

No constant voltage would cause constant current in the primary coil cannot cause electromagnetic induction Alpha, beta, gamma radiation (Unit 15.2) Alpha Beta Made of Ionizing effect Penetration Effect from fields 2 protons and 2 neutrons (+) Strong Not penetrating, stopped by paper Deflected 1 electron (-) Weak Penetrating, stopped by aluminum Very deflected

Gamma Electromagnetic radiation (neutral) Very weak Very penetrating, only reduced by thick lead Not deflected

Half-life (Unit 15.5) Time taken for half the nuclei present in any given sample to decay Count= Initial count (1/2)^(time/half-life)

Sound Volume = amplitude Pitch = frequency Distance = vt Electricity (Unit 14) Charge (C) = current (A) x time (s) C = It Voltage (V) = energy (J)/ charge (C) V=EC Resistance (ohms) = potential difference (V)/ current (A) V=IR Power (W) = voltage (V) x current (A) P = VI Energy (J) = power (W) x time (s) E = Pt Energy (J) = voltage (V) x current (A) x time (s) E=IVt Induced charge (Unit 11.3) A charge that appears on an uncharged object because of a charged object nearby E.g. Hold a negatively charged rod near an insulated metal sphere Electrons flow to the opposite side The sphere is earthed briefly electrons flow into earth While positive charges remain on the closer side to the rod When the rod is removed, the sphere is left with a positive charge Motor effect (Unit 14.2) When a current passes through a coil induces magnetic field creates force Force depends on the angle between the wire and magnetic field lines greatest when the wire is perpendicular to the magnetic field as they cut directly through the wire Electromagnetic induction (Unit 14.6) Changing magnetic field through a conductor will induce a voltage in the conductor as wire cuts through magnetic field induce current Moment M (Nm) = force (N) x distance from pivot (m)