Geopolymer For Pavement

SECOND INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS CONFERENCE: PLANNING, INFRASTRUCTURE & ENVIRONMENT
SO PAULO SP BRAZIL - AUGUST 2- 4, 2006
HIGH-PERFORMANCE FIBER REINFORCED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE FOR PAVEMENT
Diegles Simes de Toledo Pereira Ph.D student of Materials Science Program at Instituto Militar de Engenharia - IME. Praa General Tibrcio, 80 SE/4 CEP: 22290270 Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil diegles@ime.eb.br Felipe Jos da Silva Ph.D-researcher of Materials Science Program at Instituto Militar de Engenharia - IME. Praa General Tibrcio, 80 SE/4 CEP: 22290270 Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil d4felipe@ime.eb.br Clelio Thaumaturgo Associated professor of Materials Science Program at Instituto Militar de Engenharia - IME. Praa General Tibrcio, 80 SE/4 CEP: 22290270 Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil clefetati@ig.com.br
Paper 02-049 Second International Airports Conference: Planning, Infrastructure & Environment SO PAULO SP - BRAZIL AUGUST 2- 4, 2006
ABSTRACT Nowadays, there is a big concern about the development of alternative materials to Portland cement. The geopolymer cements are an innovatory alternative to obtain high-performance concretes and not aggressive to the environment, for besides reducing substantially the emissions of CO2, because in its fabrication do not involves carbonate burns and they also can use waste materials. The steel fibers are commonly used to improve the mechanical properties of concretes such as tensile strength and fracture toughness. They can also work in the control of the internal microcracking and in the control of the crack openning, besides improving the post-cracking performance of concretes. An experimental program composed by three parts has been accomplished: 1. evaluation of mechanical properties; 2. evaluation of the important properties to the behaviour in service of concrete pavements as water absorption and wear resistance and 3. evaluation of the microstructure and fiber/matrix interface morphology of steel fiber reinforced concrete. The mix proportioning of the geopolymer concrete (GC) has been optimazed to guarantee the use of high fiber volume fractions through the use of high mortar volume fraction ( = 62%) and smaller maximum size aggregates (Dmx = 9.5 mm). The specifying of the flexural strength was 5.0 MPa at the age of seven days, following the tendence of high-performance concretes to rigid pavements. The steel fiber addition in the GC showed excellent efficiency in the improvement of the mechanical properties. The low porosity of matrix together with the excellent quality of the fiber/matrix interface were the main responsables for the best performance of the geopolymer composites. There were not any significative modifications in the properties of compressive strength and wear resistance by superficial abrasion tests. The maximum strength-effectiveness of the GC composites was 68.9% in the analysis of flexural strength at 2.0% of fiber volume fraction. The water absorption and the voids content increased as function of the incorporated steel fiber volume fraction. The workability, measured by the Vebe consistometer, decreased with fibers addition. KEY WORDS Pavement, geopolymer, steel fiber, design and sustainability.
INTRODUCTION The high consumption of energy and the elevated emission of carbon dioxide are the biggest problems of the Portland cement industry related to the pollution of the environment. With the opportunity to minimize these problems, the geopolymer cements appear as a new class of high-performance and environment-friendly materials to use as mineral binder capable to substitute total or partially the Portland cement in mortars and concretes. Geopolymers or polysialates are inorganic polymers based on oxide-aluminossilicates obtained by a similar process that is employed in synthesis of crystalline zeolites. This process consists of hydrothermic polymerization of the oxide-aluminossilicate in a high alkaline environment, generating a three-dimensional arrangement with cross-linkage bonds formed by (Si-O-Al-O)n units (1). These cements are considered quasi-brittle due to their non-linear elastic mechanical behaviour, induced by relaxation and redistribution of tensions before the rupture. The presence of microcracks in the microstructure suggests the use of fibers as reinforcement and stabilization elements to minimize the fields of tensions produced during the geopolymerization stage. The fiber addition is an efficient method to provide control of cracking and to increase the fracture toughness of the brittle and quasi-brittle matrices through bridging action during both micro and macrocracking of the matrix. Debonding, sliding and pulling-out are the local mechanisms that control the bridging action. This mechanism increases the demand of energy for the crack propagation and can modify the post-cracking behaviour with increases of strength, toughness and durability of the material (2). In the last decades, the advances in the technology of the concrete were mainly deriving from the development of new materials and components that resulted in the increase of the mechanical strength and chemical resistance and improvement of the performance of the Portland cement concrete to satisfy the news requirements of durability of concrete structures. In this context, the high-performance concrete (HPC) appeared (3). Many researchers showed that the geopolymer concrete (GC) present similar physical and mechanical properties to those presented by the HPC, such as: high mechanical strength (4,5,6), high steel-concrete adherence (5), high resistance to the aggressive agents (5) and excellent workability (4,6). The main purpose of this work was to determine the mechanical properties of the steel fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete to application in pavements. The evaluation of the microstructure and fiber/matrix interface properties of the composites has been accomplished. The analyzed properties include workability, compressive strength, flexural strength, fracture toughness, voids content, water absorption and wear resistance by superficial abrasion. The steel fibers were added at 0.0%, 0.5%, 1.0% and 2.0% of volume fractions.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM Materials The geopolymer cement used was of type M-PSS (where M = Na+, K+ and Ca++) with SiO2/Al2O3 = 3, obtained by combination of metakaolinite (as main source of aluminum and silicon), Portland cement - CPIII-40RS (as calcium source) and an alkaline solution composed by potassium hydroxide and water glass (Na2SiO3) with pH = 14. The fine aggregate used was a quartzous river sand with fineness modulus of 2.51, specific gravity of 2.62 g/cm3 and maximum size aggregate of 4.8 mm. The coarse aggregate used was granite with a round irregular shape, maximum size aggregate of 9.5 mm, specific gravity of 2.75 g/cm3 and Los Angeles abrasion of 21.5%. The hooked-end steel fibers used in this work were made with low-carbon steel. This Wirand steel fibers have length of 33 mm, nominal diameter of 0.75 mm, aspect ratio of 44, tensile strength of 1100 MPa, deformation in the rupture below of 4.0% and modulus of elasticity of 210 GPa. In the production of geopolymer concrete, first the alkaline solution and the coarse aggregate were initially mixed for 1 minute; after the fine aggregate was mixed for more 2 minutes and, finally, the metakaolinite together Portland cement were added, being mixed for at least 3 minutes until the complete homogenization of the mixture. The fibers were added in small amounts to avoid fiber balling and to produce the concrete with uniform material consistency and good workability during the mixture of the alkaline solution with the coarse aggregate. The mix proportioning of the reference geopolymer concrete (RGC) was established in way to satisfy the flexural strength (fct, f K = 5.0 MPa) and to allow the use of high volume fraction (Vf = 2%), without high modifications in the workability. Table 1 presents the main characteristics of the mixture of the RGC. Table 1: Mixture proportions. Mixture designation C (binder content) Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Total water a/a (water/binder) (mortar volume fraction) Binder paste content RGC 459 kg/m 849 kg/m 801 kg/m 195 L/m 0,42 62% 37%
The production of the specimens was realized in according to recommendations of NBR 5738 Brazilian Standard method (7). The fresh concrete was densified using a vibratory table.
Test methods The workability of freshly mixed concrete was measured by Vebe-time consistometer in according to the DNIT 064 ME Recommendation of Brazilian Roads Department (8). The compressive strength tests at seven days of age were performed on 4 cylinders standard specimens followed NBR 5739 (9). The flexural strength test at seven days of age was realized using 4 test beams under fourthpoint loading in accordance with NBR 12142 (10). The flexural toughness was calculated based on ASTM C1018 (11) using the load-deflection curve obtained. Indexes I5, I10 e I30 at deflections of 3.0, 5.5 and 15.5 times the first-crack deflection were obtained. The determination of voids content and water absorption followed NBR 9778 (12). The specimens were submitted to initial process of analysis at seventh day of age. The abrasion resistence test at twenty eight days of age was realized using 4 test specimens extracted on 150 x 150 x 450 mm prisms. The evaluation of the microstructure properties and fiber/matrix interface of steel fiber reinforced concrete was realized in a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM JEOL 5800 LV). How the samples are not good electron conductors, the gold deposition was realized. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vebe test The evaluation of the workability of steel fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete is very important in the quality control of the concrete mixtures. The adequate workability of the concrete is necessary for a perfect placing, densification and finishing of the concrete structures. Figure 1 presents the results of Vebe-time Test to the geopolymer concretes at volume fractions of fiber from 0.0% until 2.0%. The increase of the Vebe-time in function of the volume fraction of fibres indicates reduction of the workability of the concrete.
20
Vebe time (s)
18 16 14 12 10 0.0
GC y = 10,285e
0,285x
R =0,936
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figura 1: Effect of Vf on Vebe-time.

Paper 02-049 Second International Airports Conference: Planning, Infrastructure & Environment SO PAULO SP - BRAZIL AUGUST 2- 4, 2006 5
Vf (%)
The friction between fibers and between fibers and aggregates tends to reduce the workability of the concrete. The high specific surface of the fibers tends to reduce the mobility and fluidity mainly because the formation of a film of water at the surface of the fibers that reduces the free amount of water into the mixture (13). Compressive strength Figure 2 presents the results of compressive strength of the geopolymer concretes at volume fractions of fiber from 0.0% until 2.0%. The fiber addition in the geopolymer concretes presented increment of the compressive strength in all volume fractions, however the strength-effectiveness (SE) did not reach significant levels (SEmx = 4.01%). The strength-effectiveness was measured by the relation between (fiber reinforced concrete strength - plain concrete strength) and (plain concrete strength) multiplied by 100%. Fibers usually have only a small effect on compressive strength, slightly increasing or decreasing the test results. The increase of the compressive strength of the concrete very rarely exceeds 25% (14).
62.5 60.0 57.5
GC
fcm (MPa)
55.0 52.5 50.0 47.5 45.0 42.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Vf (%)
Figura 2: Effect of Vf on compressive strength. Flexural strength Fibers generally have a big effect in the flexural strength of that compressive strength or splitting tensile strength. The increase of flexural strength is sensible, not only to the volume fraction, but also to the aspect ratio, the orientation and the bond strength between fiber and matrix. Figure 3 presents the results of flexural strength to the geopolymer concretes at volume fractions of fiber from 0.0% until 2.0%. The fiber addition to the geopolymer concretes presented increment of the flexural strength in all volume fractions. The volume fraction of 2.0% presented a maximum value of SE = 68.86%. The flexural strength value (fctm,f) of the fiber reinforced concrete was related to the compressive strength ( f cm ) of plain concrete (PC) and the volume fraction (Vf) and was given as:
f ctm , f = A f cm + BV f + CV f
(A)
Again, substituing fcm = 51.15 MPa in (A) and applying the regression analysis gave:
f ctm , f = 5.46 + 2.69V f 0.35V f
(B)
To the PC, (B) give an fcm value of 5.46 MPa equal to 0.76 f cm = 0.76 51 .15 . The coefficient of 0.76 is situated slightly below that of 0.9 f cm and 1.0 f cm obtained by Nilson (15) and Wafa and Ashour (16), respectively, and slightly above that of 0.68 f cm by Khaloo and Kim (17). The polynomial adjustment of the curve Vf versus fctm, f presented good compatibility with the experimental results obtained from flexural strength of the composites (R = 0.947).
10 9
fctm,f (MPa)
8 7 6 5 4 0.0
R = 0,947
GC y = 5,46 + 2,69x - 0,35x

2
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Vf (%)
Figure 3: Effect of Vf on fctm, f. Toughness Toughness is the measure of energy absorption capacity of the material. It is used to characterize the materials hability to resist the fracture when subject to static strains or to dynamic or impact loads. Figure 4 presents the results of fracture toughness of the geopolymer concretes at volume fractions of fiber from 0.0% until 2.0%. The values for the Toughness Indexes to the PC were equal 1, because of its elastic-brittle behaviour. All toughness indexes increase as function of the fiber volume fraction addded to the concrete. The I5, I10 and I30 values were 8.67, 15.81 and 42.54, respectively, at 2.0% of fiber volume fraction.
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Toughness Index
RGC GC05 GC10 GC15 GC20
I5 I5
I10
Toughness Parameter
I30
Figure 4: Effect of Vf on Fracture Toughness. Water absorption and voids The configuration of the porous net of the concrete has direct influence on the fluid transport. The permeability is directly related to the physical and chemical processes of deterioration of the concrete. The long-term performance in concrete pavement is associated with both mechanical resistance and durability properties like permeability and chlorides ions penetration resistance. Low permeability reduces the ingression and the movement of water, salts and other pollutants, increasing the durability of concrete (18). Figure 4 (A) and (B) present the results of water absorption and air-voids index, respectively, to the geopolymer concretes at volume fractions of fiber from 0.0% until 2.0%. The variation of water absorption of the fiber reinforced concretes in relation to the plain concrete was 2.0%, 6.3%, 11.9% and 10.9% at volume fractions of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0%, respectively. To the voids index, the variation was 2.9%, 8.3%, 15.5% e 15.3%, respectively. The increase of the water absorption and the voids index as function of the fiber volume fraction is related with the reduction of the workability caused by difficulty of welldensification of the composites. However, the fiber addition can not be considered harmful to the durability of the concrete, because the difference of water absorption and the voids index in relation to the plain concrete were small. Moreover, the addition of fibers to the concrete controls the cracking and restricts the openning of the cracks into the concrete structures.
6.2
Voids index (%)
14.5 14.0
Absorption (%)
5.9 5.6 5.3 5.0 4.7 0.0
GC
13.5 13.0 12.5 12.0 11.5 11.0
GC
0.5
1.0 Vf (%)
1.5
2.0
10.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Vf (%)
(A) (B) Figure 4: Effect of Vf on water absorption (A) and on voids index (B) of geopolymer concrete. Balaguru and Ramakrishnan (19) evaluated the water absorption of fiber reinforced concrete to special conditions of freeze-thaw and observed that the fiber addition reduced the water absorption of the composites. In this case, the reduction of the water absorption was obtained by the increase of energy and time of vibration of the fresh concrete mixtures. Wear resistance The wear resistance can be a critical factor in some circumstances to structures of concrete, such as: airport and highway pavements, zones of lockwire and acceleration, areas of approach of tunnels in urban express ways and some parts of hydraulic structures (20). The evaluation of the wear of the composites was realized by analysis of superficial abrasion tests by measurement of loss of thickness in prismatic specimens. Figure 5 presents the results of wear by superficial abrasion as loss of thickness of the geopolymer concretes at volume fractions of fiber from 0.0% until 2.0%. The results of wear of the composites did not present correlation with the increase of its porosity and did not present significant influence of the fiber addition. These results can be considered satisfactory, although do not exist standard test method that specifies the maximum limits of loss of thickness for concrete pavements. This analysis was realized by comparison with the limit recommended by NBR 11801 (21) related with high mechanical strength mortar floor, equal 1.6 mm, for traffic realized by vehicles of rigid rubber wheels that do not generate great impacts.
1.05
Thickness (mm)
1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.0 0.5
GC
1.0 1.5 2.0 Vf (%) Figure 5: Effect of Vf on variation of thickness determined by superficial abrasion.
Microstructural analysis Figure 6 (A) and (B) present secondary electron images of the fracture surface of the RGC. The microstructure of the geopolymer cement paste is massive, without defined morphology, presenting microcracks of the order of 1m. The microcracks are formed because of internal tensions generated during the geopolymerization stage. Its dense microstructure is formed by an only geopolymeric phase of calcium, sodium and potassium aluminossilicate (M-PSS). Figure 7 (A) and (B) present secondary electron images of the fiber/matrix interface of the composites. The detailing of the interface shows that there are not significant differences of porosity between the region next to the fiber and the bulk of matrix. This aspect is not observed in Portland cement composites, because the formation of relatively great crystals of Portlandita forms a more porous region in the interface than that in the bulk of matrix and how these crystals have low properties, the quality of the interface causes decreased in all properties of the Portland cement composites (22).
Figura 6: Micrograph (SEM) of the RGC. (A) Fracture Surface (500 X). (B) Detailing of the microstructure (5000 X).
10
FIBER
FIBER
MATRIX MATRIX
(A) (B) Figure 7: Micrograph (SEM) of the fiber/matrix interface. (A) GC15 (75 X). (B) GC15 (1000 X). CONCLUSIONS The workability measured by the Vebe-time Test decreased as function of the fiber addition, causing the increase of water absorption and voids index. There were not any significative modifications in the properties of compressive strength and of wear resistance, but the steel fiber addition in the GC showed excellent efficiency in the improvement of the flexural strength and fracture toughness. The maximum strengtheffectiveness of the composites was 68.9%, obtained from the GC in the analysis of flexural strength at 2.0% volume fraction. The dense microstructure together with the excellent quality of bonds in the fiber/matrix interface of the fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete were the main responsables for the best performance of the geopolymer composites. The high performance of the steel fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete guarantees its use in special applications, such as: airport and highway pavement, overlay, industrial floor, bridge deck, shotcrete and hydraulic structures. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank Maccaferri do Brasil Ltda., Holcim Brasil S/A, Pedreira Santo Antnio de Minerao and to Instituto Militar de Engenharia for Wirand steel fibers, CPIII-40RS, coarse aggregates and infrastructure, respectively. The financial support of this work was provided by FAPERJ.
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REFERENCES (1) Davidovits, J. Geopolymer 88. Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Geopolymers. vol. 1-2. 1988. (2) Shah, S.P., Swartz, S.E., Ouyang, C. Fracture mechanics of concrete: applications of fracture mechanics to concrete, rock and other quasi-brittle materials. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1995. (3) Alves, M.F., Cremonini, RA, Dal Molin, DCC. A comparison of mix proportioning methods for high-strength concrete. Cement & Concrete Composites. vol. 26. p. 613-621. 2004. (4) Thomaz, E.C.S. Desempenho do concreto geopolimrico. 108 p. Thesis of Masters degree in Materials Science. Instituto Militar de Engenharia - IME, 2000. (5) Dias, D.P. Cimentos Geopolimricos: Estudo de agentes qumicos agressivos, aderncia e tenacidade fratura. 216 p. Thesis of Ph.Ds degree in Materials Science. Instituto Militar de Engenharia - IME, 2001. (6) Rangan, B.V., Hardjito, D., Wallah, S.E., Sumajouw, D.M.J. Brief review of development of geopolymer concrete. George Hoff Symposium, American Concrete Institute, Las Vegas, USA, 2004. (7) ABNT Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas. NBR 5738 (MB2) Concreto Procedimento para moldagem e cura de corpos-de-prova. Rio de Janeiro. Dezembro. 2003. (8) DNIT Departamento Nacional de Infra-Estrutura de Transportes. DNIT 064 ME Pavimento Rgido Determinao da consistncia do concreto pelo consistmetro Vebe. Rio de Janeiro. 2004. (9) ABNT Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas. NBR 5739 (MB3) - Concreto Ensaio de compresso de corpos-de-prova cilndricos. Rio de Janeiro. Julho. 1994. (10) ABNT Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas. NBR 12142 (MB3483) Concreto Determinao da resistncia trao na flexo em corpos-de-prova prismticos. Rio de Janeiro. Dezembro. 1991. (11) ASTM C1018 - Standard test method for flexural toughness and first crack strength of fiber reinforced concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials. Book of ASTM Standards, Parte 04.02. Philadelphia, 1994. (12) ABNT Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas. NBR 9778 Argamassa e concreto endurecidos Determinao da absoro de gua, ndice de vazios e massa especfica. Rio de Janeiro. Julho. 2005. (13) Bayasi, M. Z., Soroushian, P Effect of steel fiber reinforcement on fresh mix properties of concrete. ACI Materials Journal. vol. 89, p. 369-374, 1992. (14) Balaguru, P. N., Shah, S.P. Fiber-reinforced cement composites. New York. McGrawHill, p. 72-79, 1992. (15) Nilson, A. H. Design implications of current research on high-strength concrete. ACI SP-87, Detroit: American Concrete Institute. p. 85 -109, 1987. (16) Wafa, F. F., Ashour, S. A. Mechanical properties of high-strength fiber-reinforced concrete. ACI Materials Journal. vol. 89, n 5, p. 449 -455, 1992. (17) Khaloo, A. R., Kim, N. Mechanical properties of normal to high-strength steel fiber reinforced concrete. Cement Concrete Aggregates. vol. 18, n 2, p. 92 -97, 1996. (18) Mohr, P., Hansen, W., Jensen, E., Pane, I. Transport properties of concrete pavements with excellent long-term in-service performance. Cement and Concrete Research. vol. 30, p. 1903 -1910, 2000.
(19) BALAGURU, P. N., RAMAKRISHNAN, V. Freeze-thaw durability of fiber reinforced concrete. ACI Materials Journal, v. 83, n. 3, p. 374-382, 1986. (20) ATICIN, P. C. Concreto de Alto Desempenho. 662 p., 1 ed. So Paulo: Pini, 2000. (21) ABNT Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas. NBR 11801 Argamassa de alta resistncia mecnica para pisos. Rio de Janeiro. Abril. 1992. (22) Pereira, D. S. T. Concreto de cimento geopolimrico reforado com fibras de ao para pavimentao. 202 p. Thesis of Masters degree in Materials Science. Instituto Militar de Engenharia - IME, 2006.
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SECOND INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS CONFERENCE: PLANNING, INFRASTRUCTURE & ENVIRONMENT

SO PAULO SP BRAZIL - AUGUST 2- 4, 2006

HIGH-PERFORMANCE FIBER REINFORCED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE FOR PAVEMENT

Vebe time (s)

Figura 1: Effect of Vf on Vebe-time.

f ctm , f = 5.46 + 2.69V f 0.35V f

GC y = 5,46 + 2,69x - 0,35x

RGC GC05 GC10 GC15 GC20

5.9 5.6 5.3 5.0 4.7 0.0

13.5 13.0 12.5 12.0 11.5 11.0

1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.0 0.5

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