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1
bq
max
(4)
There must be a straight line with slope of (1/q
max
) and an intercept
of (1/b q
max
) when a plot of (C
e
/q
e
) versus C
e
is drawn. Langmuir
model can be further used to calculate the specic surface area
S
L
(m
2
/g) for the monolayer coverage of certain metal ion on a
Table 4
Use of bran from Triticum aestivum for the removal of metal ions.
Metal ion Optimum time (min) pH Removal (%) Amount of metal sorbed (mg/g) References
Cd(II) 110 8.6 87.15 (20 C) Singh et al. (2006)
b
60 5 51.58 Nouri and Hamdaoui (2007)
25 5 15.71 (20 C) Nouri et al. (2007)
20 5 21.0 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004)
Pb(II) 60 47 87.0 (60 C) Bulut and Baysal (2006)
20 5 62.0 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004)
Cr(VI)
c
24 h
a
>4 35 Dupont and Guillon (2003)
12 h
a
1 40.8 Wang et al. (2008)
110 2 310.58 Singh et al. (2009)
60 2 87.8 0.942 Nameni et al. (2008)
Cr(III) 20 5 93.0 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004)
Cu(II)
c
24 h
a
4.5 12.7 Dupont et al. (2005)
3 h
a
6 17.42 (60 C) Aydn et al. (2008)
120 5 8.34 Basci et al. (2004)
60 5 6.85 Wang et al. (2009)
d
30 5 51.5 (60 C) Ozer et al. (2004)
20 5 15.0 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004)
Zn(II)
c
24 h
a
6.5 16.4 Dupont et al. (2005)
Ni(II) 20 5 12.0 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004)
Hg(II) 20 5 70 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004)
a
Time in hours.
b
Using ultrasounds and stirring simultaneously.
c
Using lignocellulosic substrate from wheat bran.
d
Using dehydrated wheat bran.
5046 U. Farooq et al. / Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 50435053
specic biosorbent (Ho et al. 2002). For q
max
being the biosorption
capacity (mg/g), N the Avogadro number (6.022 10
23
), A the
cross sectional area of metal ion ( A
/
2
) and M the molecular mass
of metal ion, it can be calculated as follows
S =
q
max
NA
M
(5)
Freundlich isotherm model considers the non-ideal sorption on
heterogeneous surfaces in a multilayer way. It is shown as
q
e
= K
f
C
1=n
e
(6)
where K
f
and 1/n are Freundlich constants. The linear form is as
under
lnq
e
= lnK
f
1
n
lnC
e
(7)
A plot of ln q
e
versus ln C
e
should yield a straight line with 1/n as
slope and ln K
f
as intercept.
Equilibrium models followed by metal-WS and metal-WB sys-
tems are listed in Tables 5 and 6. It can be observed that in most
of the cases, Langmuir model was successfully applied pointing
to the most metal ions sorbed in monolayer fashion and that
adsorption played an important role in the mechanism of biosorp-
tion. The feasibility of Langmuir isotherm can be expressed by a
dimensionless constant separation factor or the equilibrium
parameter R
L
dened as
R
L
=
1
1 bC
0
(8)
b being the Langmuir constant and C
0
the initial concentration of
metal (mg/L). It indicates the shape as well as the feasibility of
the isotherm (McKay et al., 1982). The value of R
L
indicates the type
of isotherm to be unfavourable (R
L
> 1), linear (R
L
= 1), irreversible
(R
L
= 0) or favourable (0 > R
L
> 1) (Hall et al., 1966). A plot of R
L
vs.
C
0
will show the type of isotherm. R
L
values further indicate the or-
der of preference or selectivity for biosorption of certain metal ions
by some specic biosorbent (Ho et al. 2002). This may be helpful in
designing the study (experiments) for multi-metal ion systems.
The physical or chemical nature of adsorption can be deter-
mined by calculating the mean free energy of adsorption E using
the following equation
E =
1
2 b
p (9)
The value of b can be determined from DubininRadushkevich (D
R) model as follows,
q
e
= q
max
exp(be
2
) (10)
where b is a coefcient related to the mean free energy of adsorp-
tion (mol
2
/J) and e is Polanyi potential (J/mol) that can be written
as
e = RT ln 1
1
C
e
(11)
Linear form of DR model can be written as
lnq
e
= lnq
max
be
2
(12A)
or
lnq
e
= lnq
max
b RT ln 1
1
C
e
2
(12B)
The slope of the plot of ln q
e
vs e
2
will give the value of b. The
value of E will decide the nature of adsorption. The adsorption pro-
cess will be a physical adsorption for E < 8 kJ/mol and it will be a
chemical adsorption or chemisorption for 8 < E < 16 kJ/mol. This
Table 5
Isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic data for the use of straw from Triticum aestivum for the removal of metal ions.
Metal ion Equilibrium model Kinetic model Thermodynamic parameters References
DH (kJ/mol) DS (J/mol K)
Cd(II) Langmuir Pseudo second order Tan and Xiao (2009)
Langmuir Pseudo second order Dang et al. (2009)
Pb(II) Freundlich Farooq et al. (2007)
Cu(II) Langmuir Pseudo second order Dang et al. (2009)
Cr(III) Freundlich Pseudo second order Chojnacka (2006)
Table 6
Isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic data for the use of bran from Triticum aestivum for the removal of metal ions.
Metal ion Equilibrium model Kinetic model Thermodynamic parameters References
DH (kJ/mol) DS (J/mol K)
Cd(II) Langmuir First order 38.535 115.585 Singh et al. (2006)
a
Lanmuir Pseudo second order Nouri and Hamdaoui (2007)
Langmuir Pseudo second order 22.17 141.3 Nouri et al. (2007)
Pb(II) Langmuir Pseudo second order 11.55 60 Bulut and Baysal (2006)
Cr(VI) Langmuir Pseudo second order 22.514 79.452 Singh et al. (2009)
Langmuir Pseudo second order Nameni et al. (2008)
Freundlich 143.105 451.395 Wang et al. (2008)
b
Langmuir Dupont and Guillon (2003)
Cr(III)
Cu(II) Langmuir Pseudo second order 10.60 108.02 Wang et al. (2009)
c
Langmuir Pseudo second order 2.85 95.44 Ozer et al. (2004)
Basci et al. (2004)
Langmuir Pseudo second order 18.791 105 Aydn et al. (2008)
b
Langmuir Dupont et al. (2005)
Zn(II)
b
Langmuir Dupont et al. (2005)
a
Using ultrasounds and stirring simultaneously.
b
Using lignocellulosic substrate from wheat bran.
c
Using dehydrated wheat bran.
U. Farooq et al. / Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 50435053 5047
will help understanding the mechanism of biosorption (Dang et al.,
2009).
An important key factor that helps in explaining the metal bio-
sorption is the available surface area of biosorbent. The surface
area is calculated by employing BrunauerEmettTeller (BET)
adsorption isotherm using nitrogen as the adsorbate (Brunauer
et al., 1938).
1
v[(P
0
=P) 1[
=
c 1
v
m
c
P
P
0
1
v
m
c
(13)
where P and P
0
are the equilibrium and saturation pressure of nitro-
gen at temperature of adsorption respectively, v is adsorbed gas
quantity, v
m
is monolayer adsorbed quantity and c is BET constant.
The values of v
m
=
1
AI
and c = 1
A
I
are determined from the
slope A and intercept I of BET plot. Total (S
BET Total
) and specic
surface areas (S
BET
) are calculated as
S
BET;Total
=
v
m
Ns
V
(14)
and
S
BET
=
S
BET;Total
a
(15)
where N is Avogadros number, s is adsorption cross section area
(0.16 nm
2
for nitrogen at 77 K), V is molar volume of nitrogen and
a is the molar mass of nitrogen.
The specic surface areas of activated carbons and some biosor-
bents are given in Table 7 in comparison with that of WS. Gener-
ally, the greater the surface area of a specic biosorbent, the
greater the metal biosorption is, provided that all other parameters
inuencing the process are kept constant. Activated carbon has
much higher specic surface area than any biosorbent (Table 7)
but the cost-effectiveness and re-usability of biosorbents make it
possible for them to compete activate carbons in remediation of
metal-contaminated waters.
7. Biosorption kinetics
Kinetic data are often used for the scale-up of biosorption sys-
tems. Elovich model is the simplest model, initially applied to de-
scribe the biosorption kinetics. It is shown as
q
t
=
ln(a b)
b
ln(t t
0
)
b
(16)
where a, b and t
0
are constant and q
t
represents the quantity of ad-
sorbed species at a given time t. a gives an idea of reaction rate con-
stant whereas b represents the rate of adsorption at zero coverage.
Pseudo rst and pseudo second order kinetic models originally
appeared as an alternative to the Elovich model to describe adsorp-
tion kinetics of gas on solids. Pseudo rst order model can be ex-
pressed as
dq
t
dt
= k
1
(q
e
q
t
) (17)
where q
e
and q
t
are the amounts of metal sorbed at equilibrium and
a given time t respectively, k
1
is the rst order rate constant. The
linear form is
ln(q
e
q
t
) = lnq
e
k
1
t (18)
A plot of ln (q
e
q
t
) vs. t should generate a straight line with
intercept of ln q
e
and slope of k
1
. Value of q
e
can be calculated
and compared with that experimental.
Pseudo second order model can be shown as
dq
t
dt
= k
2
(q
e
q
t
)
2
(19)
where k
2
is second order rate constant. The linear form is
t
q
t
=
1
k
2
(q
2
e
)
t
q
e
(20)
A plot of (t/q
t
) vs. t should generate a straight line with intercept of
1/k
2
q
2
e
and slope of 1/q
e
. Value of q
e
can be calculated and compared
with that obtained via experiment.
The shape of graph and comparison of experimental and calcu-
lated q
e
values can help deciding which kinetic model is followed
by biosorption. Another, very important, factor that inuences
such a decision is coefcient of determination R
2
. Its value indi-
cates the correlation of the two quantities and a value of
R
2
> 0.98 shows that the model is suitable for describing the kinet-
ics (Al-Garni, 2005).
Most of the literature available for wheat-metal biosorption to-
day shows the use of pseudo rst- and second order models. Tables
5 and 6 show the kinetic models followed by wheat-metal biosorp-
tion systems and it is clear that mostly pseudo second order model
is followed. The great advantage of this model is its great accuracy
in describing the whole kinetic experimental data.
According to Dang et al. (2009), the required amount of biomass
m
D
to treat a nite volume of metal-contaminated solution v
D
in
batch studies can be estimated as follows,
m
D
=
(C
0
C
e
)v
D
q
(21)
8. Effect of temperature thermodynamic control
Temperature is found to be an important parameter for the
sorption of metal ions dealing with the thermodynamics of the bio-
sorption process. It is directly related to the kinetic energy of the
Table 7
Specic surface area values of some commonly used materials in comparison with WS.
Material Particle size (10
6
m) Average pore diameter (10
10
m) Specic surface area (m
2
/g) References
Granular activated carbon (Filtrasorb 400) 1100 Ozacar and Sengil (2002)
Activated carbon from pine wood 120200 33.2 902 Tseng et al. (2003)
Yellow passion-fruit shell (Brazil) <500 40 Jacques et al. (2007)
Wheat straw 100200 127.8 8.17 Unpublished data
Sargassum sp. 34.76 8.13 Sheng et al. (2008)
Wood 3.86.4 Poots et al. (1976)
Moringa oleifera 105 4.01 Kumari et al. (2006)
Lamarck seeds
Spirogyra sp. 6090 1.31 Gupta and Rastogia (2008)
Waste pomace of olive oil factory 150250 1.24 Nuhoglu and Malkoc (2009)
Soy meal shell <125 0.76 Arami et al. (2006)
Rubber tree leaves <500 154.6 0.48 Ngah and Hanaah (2008)
Rice bran 150425 320 10
4
0.46 Montanher et al. (2005)
5048 U. Farooq et al. / Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 50435053
metal ions. Thus, it can account for the diffusion process. An in-
crease or decrease in temperature should cause a change in the
amount of metal removed or sorbed by the biomass. As the bio-
mass is porous in nature, possibilities of diffusion along with
adsorption cannot be ruled out as a mechanism for metal removal.
The change in temperature causes a change in thermodynamic
parameters like DG, DH and DS. These parameters contribute to
help understand the sorption mechanism. Temperature data are
used to determine these parameters (Horsfall and Spiff, 2005; Saw-
alha et al., 2006).
DG
= RT lnK
D
(22)
where DG is standard free energy change, R is universal gas con-
stant, T temperature in Kelvin and K
D
is the equilibrium constant
and it is calculated from
K
D
=
q
e
C
e
(23)
Values of DH and DS can be determined from the following
equation;
lnK
D
=
DS
R
DH
RT
(24)
A plot of ln K
D
versus 1/T gives the straight line and DS and DH
can be determined. On rearranging the equation
RT lnK
D
= DH
TDS
(25)
DG
= DH
TDS
(26)
A plot of DG versus T also yields a straight line and the values of
DS and DH can be easily determined.
Parameters like DG, DS and DH provide valuable information
about the sorption process. DG addresses the possibility and fea-
sibility of a certain reaction. The negative value of DG shows the
process is feasible and spontaneous. The increase in DG value,
on a negative scale, with temperature shows the increased proba-
bility of the sorption process. DH shows the route of energy in the
system. A positive value shows an endothermic process and a neg-
ative value indicates an exothermic process. This also contributes
to deciding whether a certain biomass can be used for the removal
of metal ions at elevated temperature or not. Tables 5 and 6 show
the thermodynamic parameters of certain wheat-metal biosorp-
tion systems.
The studies performed using WS have not accounted for the val-
ues of thermodynamic parameters, yet they describe the role of
temperature as causing an increase in the metal biosorption. The
process was found to be endothermic. On the other hand, these
parameters were determined in WB studies. Almost all the studies
showed the endothermic nature of the sorption process. DG val-
ues were negative and showed the spontaneity of the process. Neg-
ative values of DS showed a decreased randomness or increased
orderness at the metalbiomass interface. The positive value
showed a change in biomass structure during the sorption process,
causing an increase in the disorderness of the system (Ajmal et al.,
2003).
Singh et al. (2009) determined that in the process of Cd(II)-WB
sorption, all above-mentioned three thermodynamic parameters
were negative. On one hand, this indicated the feasibility and spon-
taniety of the process, and on the other, the process was exother-
mic and increase in temperature caused a decrease in the
sorption capacity. They further calculated the heat of adsorption
(DH) for the process as;
lnb = lnb
/
DH=RT (27)
where b is Langmuir constant related to energy of adsorption, b
/
is
a constant and R and T are the gas constant and temperature (in Kel-
vin). The value of DH was calculated from ln b versus 1/T plot and
was found to be 8.267 k cal/mol. This conrmed that Cd(II) bio-
sorption by WB, under studied conditions, was exothermic.
9. Effect of pH
Among all other parameters, pH of solution has been found to
be the most important one. It not only inuences the speciation
of metal ions but also the charges on the sorption sites of biomass
type (Gao and Wang, 2007; Lee et al., 1998; Marques et al., 2000).
So, it is very important to consider the ionic states of the functional
groups of the biosorbent as well as the metal solution chemistry at
different pH values.
Biosorbents, in general, and specically WS and WB, are consid-
ered to contain various functional groups like hydroxyl, carboxyl,
sulphydryl etc. (Lawther et al., 1995; Wang, 2002). With the
change in pH of solution, the behaviour of each of these functional
group changes. For example, the ionization constants of various
carboxyl groups have been reported to be around 34 (Eccles and
Hunt, 1986). In highly acidic pHs, these are protonated and act as
positively charged species (Gardea-Torresdey et al., 1990). Depro-
tonation of these functional groups occur on increasing pH and
these behave as negatively charged moieties. It starts attracting
the positively charged metal ions and there is a competition be-
tween hydrogen ions and positively charged metal ions and the
winner can be estimated through the amount of metal sorbed at
a certain pH value. As the pH is increased from highly acidic to
slightly acidic region, the positive character of biomass is con-
verted to negative one.
To assess the ideal pH for metal biosorption, it would be very
helpful to determine the point of zero charge pH of the biosorbent.
Point of zero charge pH (pH
pzc
) is a pH of the solution at which the
overall observed charge on the surface of the biomass type is zero.
When biomass is kept in a solution having pHless than pH
pzc
of bio-
mass, the protonation of certain functional groups occur and the
biomass behaves as a positively charged polymatrix (Ofomaja and
Ho, 2007; Suksabye et al., 2007). This attracts the negatively
charged ions, present in the solution. Usually metal ions are posi-
tively charged except the oxyanions of certain metals like chro-
mate, arsenate etc. which are negatively charged. At this stage,
the biomass type attracts these negative ions. This explains and jus-
ties the removal of chromate ions and less or no removal of posi-
tively charged ions in highly acidic conditions (Dupont and Guillon,
2003; Nameni et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2008). An
increase in pH above this point makes the functional groups on the
biomass type deprotonate and act as negative species and thus it
binds the positive metal ions. This can be shown as
BH B BH
2
below pH
pzc
above pH
pzc
where BH represents the biomass type bearing zero charge. More-
over it can be concluded that sorbed positive metal ions can be re-
moved by decreasing the pH of the system and the biosorbent can
be regenerated, re-used and thus, pH contributes directly to the
economics of the biosorption process. In most sorption processes,
pH
pzc
gives the lower pH limit.
Certain functional groups such as amino, contain lone pairs of
electrons and thus can contribute towards the formation of coordi-
nate bond with the metal ions. The complexation process is highly
pH dependent and occurs only at some specic pH. Thus, a change
in pH can affect the complex formation and can cause a change in
biosorption efciency of the biomass.
The solution chemistry is also inuenced by pH. In acidic pHs,
metal ions are generally positively charged and are attracted by
negatively charged biomass. When the pH is increased, the amount
U. Farooq et al. / Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 50435053 5049
of OH
-
ions is increased in the solution. Metal ions react with these
OH
14H
2Cr
3
7H
2
O E
0
= 1:33 V
Cr(III) is present as a positive ion whereas Cr(VI) is an oxyanion.
In the highly acidic pH studied, the biomass (WB) was considered
as positive species and offers forces of attraction to the oxyanion of
Cr(VI) whereas Cr(III) are being repelled by protonated functional
groups. Thus, only Cr(VI) should be removed under these condi-
tions. A greenish layer was observed to be present on the surface
of WB, indicating the simultaneous adsorption of Cr(III). Although,
it is possible that Cr(VI) ions are reduced into Cr(III) ions at low pH,
Gupta and Rastogia (2008) and Kumari et al. (2006) reported that
the amount of total Cr and Cr(VI) at low pH is approximately same.
This indicates that the presence of Cr(III) in the nal solution of
Cr(VI) is insignicant. This indicates that although pH is a very
important and inuencing factor, yet it is not solely responsible
for the biosorption mechanism. A number of mechanisms are being
currently considered and the actual mechanism is a mixture of all
such processes.
10. Mechanisms proposed
Metal biosorption is the removal of metal ions by inactive, non-
living biomass due to highly attractive forces present between the
two (Volesky and Holan, 1995). Particularly, it is due to the pres-
ence of certain functional groups, such as amine, carboxyl, hydro-
xyl, phosphate, sulfhydryl etc., on the cell wall of the biomass
(Wang, 2002). The process involves a solid phase (biomass) and a
liquid phase containing metal ions (solution of metal ions/waste-
Fig. 1. Lead species as a function of pH (Giraldo and Moreno-Pirajan, 2008).
Fig. 2. Mechanism of biosorption (Sud et al., 2008).
5050 U. Farooq et al. / Bioresource Technology 101 (2010) 50435053
water). Metal ions are attracted and bound to the biomass by a
complex process that comprises of a number of mechanisms like
adsorption on the surface and pores, ion-exchange, surface precip-
itation, complexation and chelation and entrapment in capillaries
and spaces of polysaccharide network, due to the concentration
causing diffusion through the cell wall and membrane (Chojnacka
et al., 2005; Crist et al., 1981; Kuyucak and Volesky, 1989; Miretzky
et al., 2006; Muraleedharan and Venkobachar, 1990; Murphy et al.,
2009; Tsezos and Mattar, 1996; Veglio and Beolchini, 1997; Yang
and Volesky, 1999). The complex nature of the mechanism is
shown in Fig. 2.
To study the mechanism, it is necessary to have the exact infor-
mation about the cell wall structure of the biomass as well as the
solution chemistry. Biomass types from agricultural origin are
composed of lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, extractives, lipids,
proteins, sugars, water and many more compounds having a vari-
ety of functional groups. The cell walls of the different biomasses,
fungi, algae, plants, sea-weeds for instance, differ signicantly from
one another. Thus the groups present, type and size of pores,
chains of polysaccharides etc. are ever-varying naturally in the
dead material and the structure of cell walls of these materials is
quite a complex one.
An emerging area of research being developed is the investiga-
tion of the role of different functional groups. Volesky (2007) has
listed major functional groups that contribute towards biosorption
through ion-exchange, adsorption, complexation etc. He has classi-
ed them using hard and soft acid base concept, the pK
a
values and
the electron pair donor atom. A study by Tan and Xiao (2009)
shows the contribution of carboxyl groups in the sorption of cad-
mium. When carboxyl groups were esteried, there was a decrease
in the metal biosorption capacity. This was due to minimization of
the number of carboxyl groups. After the material was hydrolyzed
again, an increase in the biosorption was observed. The structural
changes were also studied using spectroscopic techniques like
FT-IR, XPS etc. The role of different groups can be illustrated using
conventional techniques such as titration (Fourest et al. 1996) or
more advanced instrumental analyses such as FT-IR, Raman
microscopy, EDS, XPS, XRD, EPR, etc. (Nakbanpote et al. 2007). Each
one can reveal certain information and thus can contribute to ex-
plain the actual mechanism of biosorption.
11. Comparison of capacities with other biosorbents
Direct comparison of WS and WB with other sorbent materials
is difcult, since experimental conditions applied are different.
Hence, WS and WB have been compared with other sorbents based
on their maximum sorption capacities (q
max
, mg g
1
). The sorption
capacities of WS and WB are relatively smaller than some other
biomaterials like fungi and algae (Table 8). Unlike fungi, algae
etc., one needs not to grow wheat especially to obtain WS and
WB for such a purpose. This cuts short the initial cost and hence
WS and WB nd their signicantly important place in the list of
cost-effective and economical materials used for metal
sequestering.
12. Conclusions
The use of inexpensive and efcient materials, wheat straw and
wheat bran, for metal biosorption has been reviewed. Relatively
shorter contact time, endothermic nature of biosorption process
(in most cases), acidic pH range and high afnity for metal ions
was found. The use of WS needs further investigation as more lit-
erature is available for the use of WB. Biosorption requires investi-
gation in structural studies of biosorbents, multi-metal studies,
mechanistic modeling, recovery of metal ions, enhancement of bio-
sorption capacity through modication of biosorbents and contin-
uous ow studies. At present, information on these materials is
inadequate for process scale-up and design-perfection.
Acknowledgement
One of the authors (U. Farooq) would like to thank Higher Edu-
cation Commission of Pakistan for awarding an indigenous Ph.D.
scholarship as well as assistance for travel and research under-
taken at the University of Saskatchewan.
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