ABSTRACT Line following robot is a robo car that can follow a path.

The path can be visible like a white line on the black surface (or vice-verse). As a result of this line following property it has many applications in future and now itself. Line following robot with pick and placement capabilities are commonly used in manufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the component from specified location and place them on desired locations. Basically,a line-following robot is self operating robot that detects and follows a line drawn on the floor. The path to be taken is indicated by a white line on a black surface. The control system used must sense the line and manoeuvre the robot to stay on course while constantly correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism,thus forming a simple yet effective closed-loop system. As a programmer you get an opportunity to teach the robot how to follow the line thus giving it a human-like property of responding to stimuli. The robot has two sensors installed underneath the front part of the body, and two DC motors drive wheels moving forward. A circuit inside takes an input signal from two sensors and controls the speed of wheels rotation. The control is done in such a way that when a sensor senses a white line, the motor slows down or even stops. Then the difference of rotation speed makes it possible to make turns.

CONTENTS 1.INTRODUCTION................................................................................04 2.BLOCK DIAGRAM............................................................................05 3.BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION..............................................06 4.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM..........................................................................07 5.COMPONENT STUDY.......................................................................08 6.CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION...................................................................15 7.WORKING...........................................................................................17 8.SOFTWARE SECTION.......................................................................19 9.HARDWARE SECTION.....................................................................22 10.CONSTRUCTION.............................................................................26 11.PCB LAYOUT...................................................................................27 12.COMPONENT LAYOUT..................................................................28 13.LIST OF TOOLS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED............................29 14.COMPENENTS REQUIRED.............................................................30 15.PRECAUTIONS..................................................................................32 16.APPLICATIONS.................................................................................33 17.LIMITATIONS....................................................................................34 18.CONCLUSION....................................................................................35 19.REFERENCE........................................................................................36 20.APPENDIX...37

1.INTRODUCTION The line following robot, operates as the name specifies. It is programmed to follow a white line on a dark background and detect turns or deviations and modify the motors appropriately. It consist of sensors,comparators,microcontroller and motor drivers.We uses darlington phototransistor as the sensor. The core of the robot is the AT89C51 microcontroller.Here it act as a decision making device. It consist of two dc motors and driver ic to steer it. The differential steering system is used to turn the robot. In this system, each back wheel has a dedicated motor while the front wheels are free to rotate. To move in a straight line, both the motors are to be rotate at same speed.To manage a turn a motor is to stop at correct circumstances according to sensor output.

2.BLOCK DIAGRAM

Bread Board Circuit

3.BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION Fig.1 show the block diagram of automated line following robot. It consist of mainly four parts: two sensors,two comparators,one decision making device and two motor drivers. The robot is built using 555 timer, motor driver L293D, phototransistor and a few discrete components. In the circuit, the sensor are used to detect the white strip on a black background. The sensor output is fed to the microcontroller, which takes the decision and gives appropriate command to motor driver L293D so as to move the motor accordingly 1. Sensor: The sensor senses the light reflected from the surface and feeds the output to the comparator. When the sensor is above the white background the light falling on it from the source reflects to the sensor, and when the sensor is above the black background the light from the source doesnt reflect to it. The sensor senses the reflected light to give an output, which is fed to the comparator.

2. Comparator: The comparator compares the analogue inputs from sensors with a fixed reference voltage. If this voltage is greater than thereference voltage the comparator outputs a low voltage, and if it smaller the comparator generates a high voltage that acts as input for decision-making device.

3. Motor driver: The current supplied by the microcontroller to drive the motor is small. Therefore a motor driver ic is used. It provides sufficent current to drive the motor

4. 555 Timer IC: The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package.

5.COMPONENT STUDY 555 TIMER IC The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package.Introduced in 1971 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use due to its ease of use, low price, and stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in lowpower CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year.

1.1 DESIGN The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which was later acquired by Philips (now NXP).Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dualin-line package (DIP-8).[2] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the two 558 & 559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive). The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 C to +70 C, and the SE555 part number designated the military temperature range, 55 C to +125 C. These were available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) packages. Thus the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T. It has been hypothesized that the 555 got its name from the three 5 k resistors used within, but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555. The 7555 is designed to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and the manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many cases does not require a decoupling capacitor on the power supply. Such a practice should nevertheless be avoided, because noise

produced by the timer or variation in power supply voltage might interfere with other parts of a circuit or influence its threshold voltages

1.2 PIN DIAGRAM

Figure 1.1: Pin diagram of IC NE/SE 555

1.3 PIN DISCRIPTION 1Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal. 2 Pin 2: Trigger Terminal: This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is responsible for transition offlip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin. 3 Pin 3: Output Terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in which a load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin (pin 1) or between pin 3 and supply pin (pin 8). The load connected between pin 3 and ground supply pin is called the normally on loadand that connected between pin 3 and ground pin is called the normally off load. 4 Pin 4: Reset Terminal: To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pin due to which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset purpose, it should be connected to + VCCto avoid any possibility of false triggering. 5 Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal: The function of this terminal is to control the threshold and trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines the pulse width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied tothis pin can also be

used to modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to ground through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem. Pin 6: Threshold Terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1, which compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 VCC. The amplitude of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop. Pin 7 : Discharge Terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor and mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called discharge terminal because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor. When the transistor is cut-off, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by the external resistor and capacitor. Pin 8: Supply Terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with respect to ground (pin 1).

1.4 MODES OF OPERATION The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on. Astable (free-running) mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

1.4.1 MONOSTABLE MODE In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a "one-shot" pulse generator. The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a third of the voltage supply. The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and aresistor (R). The output pulse ends when the voltage on the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R and C.

FIGURE 1.2 The relationships of the trigger signal, the voltage on C and the pulse width in monostable mode The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by

Where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is that the time span between any two triggering pulses must be greater than the RC time constant.

FIGURE1.3 Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

1.4.2 BISTABLE MODE In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via Pull-up resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors are required in a bistable configuration. Pin 5 (control) is connected to ground via a small-value capacitor (usually 0.01 to 0.1 uF); pin 7 (discharge) is left floating.

FIGURE 1.4 Schematic of a 555 in bistable mode

1.4.2 BISTABLE MODE In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCCand the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor. In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:
[7]

The high time from each pulse is given by:

and the low time from each pulse is given by:

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in farads.

The power capability of R1 must be greater than

FIGURE1.5 Standard 555 astable circuit Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of R1 must be avoided so that the output stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Otherwise the output low time will be greater than calculated above. It should be noted that the first cycle will take appreciably longer than the calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from 0V to 2/3 of VCC from power-up, but only from 1/3 of VCC to 2/3 of VCC on subsequent cycles. To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% is to use a small diode (that is fast enough for the application) in parallel with R2 (instead of placing it on pin 7), with the cathode on the capacitor side. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval depends approximately only on R1 and C. The presence of the diode is a voltage drop that slows charging on the capacitor so that the high time is longer than the expected and often-cited ln(2)*R1C = 0.693 R1C. The low time will be the same as without the diode as shown above. With a diode, the high time is

whereVdiode is when the diode has a current of 1/2 of Vcc/R1 which can be determined from its datasheet or by testing. As an extreme example, when Vcc= 5 and Vdiode= 0.7, high time = 1.00 R1C which is 45% longer than the "expected" 0.693 R1C. At the other extreme, when Vcc= 15 and Vdiode= 0.3, the high time = 0.725 R1C which is closer to the expected 0.693 R1C. The equation reduces to the expected 0.693 R1C if Vdiode= 0. The operation of RESET in this mode is not well defined, some manufacturers' parts will hold the output state to what it was when RESET is taken low, others will send the output either high or low.

5.2 Phototransistor We uses L14F1 phototransistor as the sensors in our circuit. The standard symbol of a phototransistor, which can be regarded as a conventional transistor housed in a case that enables its semiconductor junctions to be exposed to external light. The device is normally used with its base open circuit, in either of the configurations shown in fig. 5.9.2, and functions as follows.

Fig. 5.9.1Phototransistor symbol.

In practice, the collector and emitter current of the transistor are virtually identical and, since the base is open circuit, the device is not subjected to significant negative feedback. The sensitivity of a phototransistor is typically one hundred times greater than that of a photodiode, but is useful maximum operating frequency (a few hundred kilohertz) is

proportionally lower than that of a photodiode by using only its base and collector terminals and ignoring the emitter, as shown in fig.5.10.2. Phototransistors are solid-state light detectors with internal gain that are used to provide analog or digital signals. They detect visible, ultraviolet and near-infrared light from a variety of sources and are more sensitive than photodiodes, semiconductor devices that require a pre-amplifier. Phototransistors feed a photocurrent output into the base of a small signal transistor. For each illumination level, the area of the exposed collector-base junction and the DC current gain of the transistor define the output.

Fig. 5.9.2. Phototransistor used in circuit The base current from the incident photons is amplified by the gain of the transistor, resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to several thousands. Response time is a function of the capacitance of the collector-base junction and the value of the load resistance. Photodarlingtons, a common type of phototransistor, have two stages of gain and can provide net gains greater than 100,000. Because of their ease of use, low cost and compatibility with transistor-transistor logic (TTL), phototransistors are often used in applications where more than several hundred nano watts (nW) of optical power are available. Selecting

phototransistors requires an analysis of performance specifications. Collector current is the total amount of current that flows into the collector terminal. Collector dark current is the

amount of collector current for which there is no optical input. Typically, both collector current and collector dark current are measured in milliamps (mA). Peak wavelength, the wavelength at which phototransistors are most responsive, is measured in nanometers (nm). Rise time, the time that elapses when a pulse waveform increases from 10% to 90% of its maximum value, is expressed in nanoseconds (ns). Collector-emitter breakdown voltage is the voltage at which phototransistors conduct a specified (nondestructive) current when biased in the normal direction without optical or electrical inputs to the base.

3. CAPACITOR A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts ofelectrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one coulomb per volt.

FIGURE 3.1 SOME COMMON CAPACITORS

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often calledplates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.

3.1 THEORY OF OPERATION A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them.

FIGURE 3.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITOR An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance. Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes.

ENERGY OF ELECTRIC FIELD Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is

Here Q is the charge stored in the capacitor, V is the voltage across the capacitor, and C is the capacitance. In the case of a fluctuating voltage V(t), the stored energy also fluctuates and hence power must flow into or out of the capacitor. This power can be found by taking the time derivative of the stored energy:

CURRENT VOLTAGE RELATION The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it, but actual chargeselectronscannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the

voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial voltage V(t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:

Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields the derivative form:

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L. 4. RESISTOR A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.

FIGURE 4.1 SOME COMMON RESISTORS The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nineorders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to themanufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In alow-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

4.1 RESISTOR CODING Carbon-composition and carbon film resistors are too small to have the resistance value printed on their housings. Therefore, bands of color are used to represent the resistance value.

The first and second band represents the numerical value of the resistor, and the color of the third band specify the power-of-ten multiplier. The color bands are always read from left to right starting with the side that has a band closer to the edge. For carbon-composition and carbon film resistors, the common tolerances are 5%, 10%, and 20%, indicating that the actual value of the resistor can vary from the nominal value by 5%, 10% and 20%. If the band is gold, it specifies a 5% tolerance; silver specifies a 10% tolerance; if no band is present, the tolerance is 20%. Note that the color-code system for capacitors is very similar to that of resistors except there is a fifth band representing the temperature coefficient. This band is the first one closest to one end of the capacitor. The other four fall into the same order as mentioned for resistors. In this case, the second, third, and fourth bands are used to determine the capacitance. The fifth band represents the tolerance of the capacitor.

6. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[7] LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used forgeneral lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[8] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

FIGURE 6.1 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of

many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.

Electronic symbol

Pin configuration

anode and cathode

6.1 WORKING The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In siliconor germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. .

5.5 DC MOTOR An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.

The DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary permanent magnets, and rotating electrical magnets. Like all electric motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz force, which states that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a torque or force known as Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.

6.CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION The fig.4.1 shows the circuit of automated line following robot. When light falls on the phototransistor(say,T1), it goes into saturation and starts conducting. When no light falls on the phototransistor it is cut-off. A white LED (LED2) has been used to illuminate the white path on a black background. Phototransistor T1 and T2 are used for detecting the white path on the black background. Collector of phototransistor T1 and T2 are connected to the inverting inputs of operational amplifier A2 and A1. The signal voltage at the inverting input of the operational amplifier is compared with the fixed reference voltage, which is formed by a potential divider circuit of 5.6-kilo-ohm resistor and 10-kilo-ohm preset. This reference voltage can be adjusted by changing the value of the 10-kilo-ohm preset. When sensor T2 is above the black surface, it remains cut-off as the black surface absorbs virtually all the light falling from LED2 and no light is reflected back. The voltage at the inverting input (pin2) of operational amplifier A1 is higher than the reference voltage at its non inverting input(pin3) and therefore the amplifier output at pin1 becomes zero. When sensor T2 ia above the white line, the light gets reflected from the white surface to fall on phototransistor T2. Phototransistor T2 goes into saturation and conducts. The inverting input (pin2) of operational amplifier A1 goes below the reference voltage at its non-inverting input (pin 3) of operational amplifier A1 and therefore output pin 1 goes high. This way, the comparator outputs logic 0 for black surface and logic1 for white surface. Similarly, comparator A2 compares the input voltage from phototransistor T1 with a fixed reference voltage. The outputs of operational amplifier A1 and A2 are fed to microcontroller AT89C51. The AT89C51 is an 8-bit microcontroller having 4kB of flash, 128 bytes of RAM,32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timers/counters,a five-vector two level interrupt architecture, onchip oscillator and clock circuitary. A 12 Mhz crystal is used for providing the basic clock frequency. All I/O pins are reset to 1 as soon as RST pin goes high. Holding RST pin for two machine cycles while oscillator is running resets the device. Power on reset is derived from

resistor R5 and capacitor C1. Switch S2 is used for manual reset. The microcontroller, based on the inputs from sensor T1 (say left) and sensor T2 (say right), controls the motor to make the robot turn left, turn right or move forward. Port pins P2.0, P2.1, P2.2 and P2.3 are connected to pins 15,10,7 and 2 of motor driver L293D. Port pins P2.0 and P2.1 are used for controlling the right motor, while port pins P2.2 and P2.3 are used for controlling the left motor. 7.WORKING

Fig 7.1 Fig 7.1 shows the path of line follower robot. Where L is the left sensor and R is the right sensor. At the start when the robot is at point A sensors T1 and T2 are above the black surface and port pins P3.0 and P3.1 of the microcontroller recieve logic0. As a result the robot moves forward in straight direction.

At point B, a left turn is encountered, and the left sensor comes above the white surface, whereas the right sensor remains above the black surface. Port pin P3.0 of the microcontroller recieves logic0 from the right sensor. As a result left motor stops and the right motor rotates, to make robot turn left. This process continues until left sensor comes above the black background. Similrly, at point C, where a right turn is encountered, the same procedure for right turn is excecuted. When both sensors are at white surface, the robot should stop. The output of the microcontroller depends on the input recieved at its port pins P3.0 and P3.1 as shown in table below

9.4 SOLDERING Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C (752 F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder. Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler metal. The filler metals are typically alloys that have melting temperatures below 350C. It is distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining process which may or may not include the addition of a filler metal.[2] In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many uses. 9.41 Solders: Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications. An eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering; chief among these is the coincidence of the liquidus and solidus temperatures, i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This allows for quicker wetting as the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A noneutectic formulation must remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Any differential movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks, giving an unreliable joint. Additionally, a eutectic formulation has the lowest possible melting point, which minimizes heat stress on electronic components during soldering. Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which are

often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections, and high-temperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for high-temperature operation or for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered during subsequent operations.

9.42 Flux: In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder, for example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to copper oxides (which form quickly at soldering temperatures). Flux is nearly inert at room temperature, yet becomes strongly reductive when heated. This helps remove oxidation from the metals to be joined, and inhibits oxidation of the base and filler materials. Secondarily, flux acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined. 10.CONSTRUCTION Three wheels can be used fr this robot-one on the front and two at the rear. Front wheel can rotate in any direction as specified by the rear wheel. Construction also requires two side brackets for mounting motors,chasis etc. Castor wheel can be used for front wheel.

11.PCB LAYOUT

12.COMPONENT LAYOUT

13.LIST OF TOOLS AND INTRUMENTS REQUIRED

Following tools and instruments are used for preparing the project 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Soldering iron Desoldering pump Drill Machine Multimeter Filer Tweezers Screw driver Power supply Flux Desoldering wick Petrol Brush Soldering Wire

14.COMPONENTS REQUIRED SI.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. NAME OF THE COMPONENT AT89C51 IC L293D IC LM324 L14F1 PHOTOTRANSISTOR IN 4007 DIODE 5MM LED RESISTOR 10K RESISTOR 5.6K RESISTOR 330 RESISTOR 220 RESISTOR 10K-PRESET CAPACITORS 10 F/16V ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS 33 pF CERAMIC CAPACITORS 47 F/16V ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS .1F CERAMIC ON/OFF SWITCH PUSH TO ON SWITCH CRYTAL OSCILLATOR 12 MHz 6V DC GEARED MOTOR QUANTITY 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 PRICE 55 80 18 40 2 1.50 .25 .25 .25 .25 5 .5 .75 .5 .75 2 10 15 20

20. 21. 22. 23. TOTAL=260

BATTERY 1.5V 40 PIN IC BASE 16 PIN IC BASE 14 PIN IC BASE

4 1 1 1

9 1 1 1

PRECAUTION
As we were dealing with a phototransistor we need to control the natural light, since our sensor is even sensitive to sun light. So we need to place our sensor under the chasis. Position of LED is quite important to us since it is the source of light to be reflected back to sensors.

APPLICATIONS
Industrial automated equipment carriers Entertainment and small household applications. Automated cars. Tour guides in museums and other similar applications. Second wave robotic reconnaissance operations. Future application:-can replaces trolleys in indudtries,road trains....

LIMITATIONS
Choice of line is made in the hardware abstraction and cannot be changed by software. Calibration is difficult, and it is not easy to set a perfect value. The steering mechanism is not easily implemented in huge vehicles and impossible for non-electric vehicles (petrol powered). Few curves are not made efficiently, and must be avoided. Lack of a four wheel drive, makes it not suitable for a rough terrain. Use of IR even though solves a lot of problems pertaining to interference, makes it hard to debug a faulty sensor. Lack of speed control makes the robot unstable at times.

CONCLUSION

For a test, I held my robot in the air then two wheels rotated as expected and I approached a white paper to sensors. Then, corresponding wheels stopped as expected. Hence our product is working as per theory . Next, I put it down on the track, but unfortunately, it didnt move. I found the torque of motors not enough to drive my robot. Even though the chosen DC motor was slowest and gave highest torque among other DC motors in the lab, it wasnt enough. For solving this problem, I will have to find a suitable DC motor with large torque and it even moves through perfect plains. Overall, the robot project wasnt successful, but it was quite a fun to go through all the process. I also realized that there were many things to consider practically such as installation of motors, building up a circuit by soldering and putting all parts together. This experience hopefully would be helpful in the future work.

19.REFERENCE/BIBILOGRAPHY Efy magazine september 2009 1. 2. 3. 4. [Online] // Wikipedia. - www.wikipedia.com. [Online] // circuits today. - www.circuitstoday.com. [Online] // electronics schematics. - www.electroschematic.com. [Online] // electronics for you. - www.efy.com.