Section 11

SECTION 11
AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT
Environmental Assessment Certificate Application for the RichmondAirportVancouver Rapid Transit Project
11
Air Quality Assessment
This section presents the results of an assessment of air quality impacts associated with construction and operation of the RAV Project, completed by RWDI West Inc. in November 2003.
11.1 Executive Summary

Current air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley, potential impacts of the RAV Project on local and regional air quality, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are reviewed. In addition, measures for mitigating common air contaminant emissions during the project construction and operation are outlined.
11.1.1
Impacts on Local Air Quality
The principal air quality impacts of the RAV Project are expected to occur in the immediate vicinity of the transportation corridor through which the proposed rail rapid transit line will run. During the construction phase, the potential exists for short-term air quality impacts along this corridor. The two major sources of emissions possible from the RAV development are dust emissions from non-combustion sources and exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and stationary combustion sources. Although the potential for localized air quality impacts of these activities may be significant, it is important to note that they will be temporary and localized. Taking into account the emissions from electrical power generation, RAV operation is expected to reduce emissions overall by between 168 and 235 tonnes per year of common air contaminants in 2010, and between 33 and 40 tonnes per year in 2025. These reductions arise from the expected displacement of both diesel buses and private vehicles. Reductions in fine particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen are expected to be particularly significant on the local scale, especially along the Cambie Street corridor.
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11.1.2
Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Due to the displacement of diesel buses and automobiles, significant amounts of GHG emissions will be avoided during the operational phase of the RAV Project. These reductions are expected to far outweigh any shortterm, temporary increase of GHG emissions during the construction phase. During the construction phase, direct and indirect GHG emissions are expected to be consistent with those of other projects of this scale (e.g., Millennium Line, Sea-to-Sky Highway Upgrade Project). The direct major source of GHG emissions is expected to be fossil-fuelled construction equipment. During RAV line operation, reductions of between 16 and 21 kilotonnes of carbon dioxide- (CO2) equivalent GHG emissions per year by 2021 are expected. These numbers take into account the anticipated increase in GHG emissions from electrical power generation to supply the energy demand of the line.
11.1.3
Impacts on Regional Air Quality
The RAV line will help to reduce air pollutant emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley through the displacement of the diesel buses that are currently being operated in the corridor and by providing an alternative to the use of private vehicles. The only significant source of emissions attributable to RAV system operation will be the generation of electricity. The reduction in vehicle emissions that occurs as a result of RAV line operation will more than offset the emissions associated with generation of the systems electrical power supply. This reduction of air emissions will contribute to improvements in air quality, with corresponding reductions in health impacts throughout the region. Like other mass transit projects, the RAV Project will provide an alternative to the use of private motor vehicles.
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11.1.4
Mitigation of Air Quality Impacts and Greenhouse Gas Emissions during Construction
This assessment recommends best management practices to be adopted during construction to minimize dust and combustion exhaust emissions. Significant recommendations include the use of electrically-powered equipment rather than gas- or diesel-powered equipment, wherever possible, including the tunnel boring machines and equipment to be used during cutand-cover tunnel excavations. These best practice recommendations have been applied in similar projects (e.g., Millennium Line SkyTrain extension) and other recent large-scale infrastructure construction projects in BC as requirements for contractors, typically as defined in environmental specifications released with requests for proposals. This will be the approach taken with respect to the RAV Project.
11.2 Introduction
This section describes air quality impacts of the proposed RAV Project. quality issues addressed below include: Air
air pollutant emissions from activities associated with RAV line construction changes in air contaminant emissions from RAV line operation changes in GHG emissions attributable to RAV line operation
This section also provides brief background information on air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley, to put into perspective the potential air quality impacts of the RAV Project. Prior to submission of this air quality impact assessment, RWDI prepared two other air quality/GHG technical reports for the RAV Project. The first report, entitled Preliminary Air Quality of the Richmond/Airport/Vancouver Rapid Transit Project (April 2003) provided a preliminary assessment of the air quality and GHG reduction benefits for RAVCo. The second report, entitled Air Quality and Greenhouse Gas Emission Benefits of the RichmondAirportVancouver Rapid Transit Project was prepared in collaboration with Global Change Strategies
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International, GCSI, May 2003 as a background paper on the projects air quality and GHG reduction benefits for the information of potential funding agencies. Additional background for this assessment may be found in an earlier air quality report undertaken during the environmental assessment of the Millennium Line Skytrain extension by Cirrus Consultants Ltd. (1999). Among its findings, the Cirrus report concluded that the Millennium Line would act as an alternative to the use of private motor vehicles.
11.3 Air Quality in the Lower Fraser Valley

11.3.1 Definition of the Study Area and Airshed
The proposed RAV Project is located in the cities of Vancouver and Richmond, in the lower mainland region of BC. These cities are contained in the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed, defined as the area bounded by the Coast and Cascade mountain ranges and the Strait of Georgia (see Figure 11.1). Figure 11.1 Lower Fraser Valley Airshed
Source: GVRD and Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD). 2002.
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Transportation-related emissions in Vancouver and Richmond affect air quality adjacent to the street and highway systems and also contribute to overall regional air quality as the urban plume is transported throughout the Lower Fraser Valley. The effects of the RAV Project will be felt principally in the immediate urban areas serviced by the line (i.e., the project study area). The most significant improvements in air quality attributable to the RAV Project are expected to occur along the Cambie Street corridor, starting at the downtown Vancouver waterfront.
11.3.2
Climatology and Meteorology
The Lower Fraser Valley Airshed is a self-contained region that receives little pollution input from outside. The airshed is characterized by relatively cool, wet weather during much of the year. During summer and early fall, warmer, drier weather can lead to episodes of elevated pollution levels when stagnant air masses spread pollutants emitted in the urbanized western part of the airshed throughout the region. In recent years, a trend toward improved ventilation of the airshed has lowered the pollution potential in the airshed, as evidenced by the significant increase in the mean wind speed documented in the annual air quality reports from the GVRD. The most recent report is for data collected in 2001 (see SECTION 11.3.3). This trend has not been analyzed in detail, and it is not known whether it is one of long duration or whether regional ventilation will revert to its more normal pattern of the 1980s and 1990s, in which more frequent periods of stagnation produced conditions conducive to episodes of poor air quality.
11.3.3
Regional Air Quality
Significant gains have been made in improving air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley, and air quality management in the Lower Fraser Valley is further advanced than anywhere else in Canada. According to the 2001 Lower Fraser Valley Ambient Air Quality Report (GVRD 2002), regional air quality as defined in terms of ambient concentrations of common air pollutants has improved markedly over the past 20 years. This trend has, however, levelled off for all of the major pollutants, beginning in 1995.
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11.3.3.1 Pollutants of Concern

The study addresses the principal common air contaminants: Particulate matter (PM) and its inhalable (PM10) and respirable (PM2.5) fractions Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) Sulphur oxides (primarily SO2) Carbon monoxide (CO) Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Ozone (O3)
Other toxic air pollutants, many of which are included in the generic category VOC, as well as the toxic metallic compounds in PM, also might have been considered to be of concern. The major effect on emissions of a rail-based rapid transit line is the displacement of motor vehicles (i.e., cars and buses). Such displacement would reduce emissions of both the common air contaminants listed above and a number of toxic air pollutants, such as benzene, 1,3-butadiene and diesel particulate matter. Since the emission reductions of these pollutants were expected to make a small contribution to estimated benefits, based on a number of earlier studies, they are not addressed explicitly in this section in terms of the air quality benefits of the RAV Project. Similarly, since the overall effect of RAV Project implementation would be to reduce emissions from the transportation system, it was not deemed to be necessary to model the air quality impacts of the transportation corridor emission changes. The benefits are expressed in terms of emission reductions and implied effects on air quality, as well as a very approximate monetized valuation (see SECTION 11.4.3). Ozone and PM2.5 are especially important as priority contaminants in BC, in part because of the implementation of the Canada-Wide Standards1 (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) 2000).
1
Canada-Wide Standards are intended to be achievable targets that will reduce health and environmental risks within a specific timeframe. They are considered Environmental Quality Objectives under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) (Health Canada 2001).
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In terms of health impact levels, both ozone and fine particulate levels in the Lower Mainland region often approach or exceed levels at which respiratory and cardiovascular effects are known to occur. The relationships between air quality and health impacts have been assessed in a recent report from the BC Lung Association (2003). Fine particles (i.e., a combination of directlyemitted primary particles and indirectly-formed secondary particles) are generally evenly spread across the airshed, but primary emissions, hence ambient concentrations of directly emitted fine particles, are believed to be elevated along transportation corridors, based on studies conducted elsewhere. If an episode lasts for several days, pollutants become mixed throughout the airshed by re-circulating aloft westward at night and reentering the prevailing daytime eastward movement the next day, leading to a general build-up of pollutants in the form of smog. The atmospheric conditions that produce extended periods of smog have been relatively rare in recent years.
11.3.3.2 Fine Particulate Matter

The origins of fine particulate matter, consisting of airborne particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers (m) also known as PM2.5, includes both primary and secondary formation sources. A related parameter, PM10, is called the inhalable fraction and comprises somewhat larger particles than PM2.5 up to 10 m in diameter. The smaller particles PM2.5 are generally thought at present to be of greater concern regarding health effects than the larger particles, but the environmental health community is still debating this issue. Primary particulate matter includes direct emission sources such as resuspended road dust, particulate emissions from internal combustion engines, space heating, industrial processes and other combustion sources. Combustion sources emit particles in the fine size range (PM2.5) and within this category, vehicle emissions are a major contributor. Environmental health scientists have suggested that transportation-related emissions appear to be a significant factor in urban air quality effects, and among these, diesel particulate matter (DPM) may be of greater concern than other types of fine particles.
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The latter point is important in considering the effect of RAV, which, as shown in SECTION 11.4.1.2, would lead to a reduction in DPM and other vehiclerelated fine particle emissions. Secondary formation of particulate matter occurs through chemical reactions of air pollutants in the atmosphere. An example of secondary particulate matter is the formation of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate particles. Acids formed from the gaseous sulphur and nitrogen oxides emitted primarily from vehicles and industry in the western part of the airshed drift into the Fraser Valley and react with ammonia from agriculture (e.g., animal manure) to form very fine solid particles of ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate. Both of these kinds of particles are effective at scattering light, thus reducing the clarity of the air (i.e., visibility), especially in the eastern part of the Valley producing the white haze that often obscures views of nearby mountains. Figure 11.2 shows the trend for inhalable particles (PM10) from 1985 to the present and as forecast to 2020, based on trends in the regional emission inventory.
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Figure 11.2
Monitored and Forecast PM10 Levels in the Lower Fraser Valley
PM10 Monitored and Forecast: Annual average Lower Fraser Valey (LFV) network concentrations
35.0
Western LFV Actual + Forecast
30.0 25.0
Forecast
Eastern LFV Actual Trend (Actual & Forecast)
PM10 (g/m )
20.0 15.0
AQMP begins: 1995
10.0 5.0 0.0

85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19
Actual: 1985-2000 Forecast: 2001-2020 (Assumes 1998 dispersion conditions for forecast period)
Trendline series includes GVRD measures + new vehicle emission standards
Year
Source: Updated from a report prepared by Alchemy Consulting Inc. et al. 2000.
The downward trend in PM10 levels from 1985 to 2001, the most recent year for which final data have been published, has been quite significant. The particulate matter concentration shown (i.e., the inhalable or PM10 fraction) is the weight of particles (mass, in micrograms (g)) in a given volume of the atmosphere, measured in cubic meters (m3). For reference, an adult person breathes about 20 m3 of air each day. Mass concentration is not a good measure of the number of very fine particles that are implicated in visibility degradation. Thus, although the mass concentration of particulate matter in ambient air (i.e., the usual measure of impact) has decreased, the number of very fine particles, which have a greater relative effect on visibility impairment, is not believed to have changed appreciably. That is, the air now has a much smaller loading of larger particles but may also have an equal or larger number of very small particles than previously, so that visibility has not improved in the region in step with the marked decrease in PM10 levels.
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As shown in Figure 11.2, even with the improvements in on-road vehicle technology that are scheduled to be introduced over the next few years, PM10 levels are anticipated to begin to increase again after 2005 to 2010. PM2.5 levels are also expected to increase, although more detailed analysis would be necessary to demonstrate this.
11.3.3.3 Ozone
Elevated levels of ozone generally occur during hot spells in the summer, and generally peak in the eastern part of the Lower Fraser Valley. Peak ozone levels have declined by a factor of two to three across the region since the early 1980s, although average levels have increased slowly in recent years. Ozone is not emitted directly but is formed from secondary atmospheric reactions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (more specifically, VOCs), and its levels in the air are dependent on the relative emissions of these precursor gases, as well as atmospheric conditions. Nitrogen dioxide levels have shown more modest reductions and also have changed little in the past five years, which may explain why the peak ozone levels have not changed recently.
11.3.3.4 Other Pollutants

Ambient concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2) have also declined to about one-third of the values of the early 1980s, although they have changed little in the past five years. Fine sulphate particles that are formed in the atmosphere by reactions of SO2, however, apparently have increased in recent years (based on sparse monitoring data). Declines in ambient levels of carbon monoxide have shown similar reductions since the early 1980s and have continued to drop slowly in the past 10 years, changing relatively little in the past five years. In summary, regional air quality, as measured by the concentrations of common air pollutants, has improved markedly over the past 20 years. The current levels are characterized generally as good a very high percentage of the time (i.e., more than 98% of total hours annually in recent years). The impacts of the remaining levels of contamination, however, are still of concern because it is not known whether effects on human health persist at these low
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concentrations. The health risk has been reduced significantly, but not to zero. As well, the problem of impaired visibility, especially in the eastern Lower Fraser Valley, continues with little change over many years2. The relevance of the current and forecast air quality for the region (see SECTION 11.3.4 for more detail about the inventory forecast) to the RAV Project is that the anticipated deterioration of air quality over the next 20 years requires that new emission reduction measures be implemented to offset the growth in emissions from some sectors.
11.3.4
2000 Lower Fraser Valley Emissions Inventory
An emission inventory is a summary of all sources of air pollution within a defined area. The GVRD develops and publishes an emission inventory every five years, with annual updates; the most recently released inventory was for the year 2000. This inventory is for the Lower Fraser Valley and includes Whatcom County in Washington State. Both common air contaminants and greenhouse gases were inventoried.
11.3.4.1 Common Air Contaminants

Common air contaminants inventoried in the 2000 Lower Fraser Valley Emissions Inventory are: Total particulate matter (PM) Sulphur oxides (SOX) Carbon monoxide (CO) Nitrogen oxides (NOX) Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Ammonia (NH3)
In addition, the inventory breaks down total particulate matter into two size fraction categories: PM10 particles smaller than 10 m; and PM2.5 particles smaller than 2.5 m.
Two visibility field studies, know as REVEAL were conducted between 1993 and 1995. The results suggest that the white haze and reduced visibility episodes in the centraleastern Fraser Valley appear to occur after a period of elevated ozone concentrations, are influenced by meteorology, and are attributable in large part to elevated levels of secondary particulates.
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PM2.5 is of interest for the RAV Project because it is generally associated with combustion (such as from mobile sources or space heating), can be breathed deep into the lungs, and is particularly harmful to human health. Table 11.1 provides a summary of the 2000 emission inventory for common air contaminants for mobile sources in the GVRD. Table 11.1 2000 Common Air Contaminant Emission Inventory for GVRD (excluding road dust) Pollutants (tonnes per year) Volatile Nitrogen Sulphur Organic Oxides Oxides Compounds
17,364 9,730 1,018 2,963 18,049 12,312 19,668 526 817 72 1,524 5,934 587 219 50 34 5,139 546
Pollutant Source
Light-duty vehicles Heavy-duty vehicles Aircraft Rail Marine Non-road Mobile sub-total Lower Fraser Valley Total % Mobile
Carbon Monoxide
Fine PM
228,517 4,397 6,112 478 4,447 72,466
200 217 138 56 897 940
316,417 326,340 97%
61,436 70,857 87%
28,541 54,112 53%
6,575 8,382 78%
2,449 5,383 45%
Source: GVRD, 2002
The current regional emission inventory in the Lower Fraser Valley is dominated by vehicle and other mobile source emissions. Mobile source emissions are the majority source for four out of five common air contaminants. Furthermore, light-duty vehicles (i.e., passenger cars) contribute significantly in most categories.
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11.3.4.2 Greenhouse Gases

In addition to common air contaminants, the following greenhouse gases were addressed by the 2000 emissions inventory (GVRD and FVRD 2002): carbon dioxide methane nitrous oxide.
In the inventory, these pollutants are aggregated into a CO2 equivalent value, which represents an equivalent quantity of CO2 that would have an equal global warming potential as the combined gases. Table 11.2 summarizes the 2000 greenhouse gas emissions inventory for mobile sources in the GVRD. Table 11.2 2000 GVRD Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory Greenhouse Gas Emissions (tonnes per year, CO2 equivalent)
4,530,663 859,829 231,597 154,781 601,448 1,130,614 7,508,932 17,434,127 43%
Pollutant Source
Light-duty vehicles Heavy-duty vehicles Aircraft Rail Marine Non-road Mobile sub-total Lower Fraser Valley Total % Mobile
Source: GVRD and FVRD. 2002.
Mobile sources contributed 43% of GHG emissions, with light-duty vehicles contributing to over 60% of the mobile emissions total. Compared to other large urban centres across Canada, the Lower Fraser Valley has relatively little heavy industrial activity. This is the main reason that mobile sources are one of the major emission sources for both common air contaminants and greenhouse gases in the airshed.
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11.3.5
Forecast of Emissions in Lower Fraser Valley
GVRD recently released a forecast/backcast of the 2000 emission inventory for the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed (GVRD 2003). The forecast/backcast predicts that smog-forming pollutants, which include SOX, NOX, VOC, NH3 and PM, have been steadily declining since 1985. It also indicates that the trend is currently levelling off, and is expected to increase after 2015. The preliminary results of the forecast/backcast indicate that, over the next 20 years, the relative pollutant contributions from different sources to the total regional emission inventory are projected to change materially. Significant changes are expected in the overall contribution of the on-road light- and heavy-duty vehicle fleet. It is expected that these vehicles will contribute as little as 5% to15% of total emissions in 2025, as a result of fuel and vehicle regulations and technology improvements leading primarily to reductions in NOx, SO2, and PM emissions. This is mainly due to new regulations scheduled to be implemented in the US and Canada. Marine sources are projected to increase in relative contribution to the regional total, up to approximately 39% for NOx by 2025, for example. With this change in balance of contribution, mobile sources, including the off-road portion - marine, rail, aircraft and off-road equipment - can still be expected to contribute on the order of 77% of regional emissions by 2025.
11.3.6
Ambient Air Quality Criteria and Monitoring Results
The common air pollutants that are regulated in the Lower Fraser Valley and that are relevant to this study are NO X, SOX, CO, PM10 and ozone. Except for ozone, each of these pollutants is directly released by mobile sources. Ozone is formed through secondary photochemical reactions, mainly the combination of NOX and VOCs, during times of high ambient temperatures (i.e., above 25 C), and stagnant air conditions. The applicable air quality objectives that are used to assess air quality in the region are the current national and provincial (Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection (MWLAP)) ambient air quality guidelines and objectives, as well as the CCME Canada-Wide Standards, and ambient air quality guidelines
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recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). These are outlined in Table 11.3. Table 11.3 Ambient Air Quality Objectives Nitrogen Dioxide (g/m3)
National
Level
Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable Proposed Guideline
(b)
1-Hour
400 1100 400 1100 200
24Hour
200 300 200 300 -
Annual
60 100 60 100 -
Provincial BC (a) MWLAP/GVRD
World Health Organization
Carbon Monoxide (mg/m3)

National
Level
Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable Proposed Guideline
(b)
1-Hour
15 35 15 35 30
8-Hour
6 15 20 6 15 20 10
Provincial BC (a) MWLAP/GVRD World Health Organization
Particulate Matter (g/m3)

National (total suspended particulate) GVRD Objectives (PM10) Provincial BC MWLAP (a) (PM10) Canada-Wide Standards (PM2.5)
Level
Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable Acceptable Objective Target
(c)
24-Hour
Annual
120 400 50 50 30 30
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Ozone (ppb)
National
Level
Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Target
(d)
1-hour
100 160
8-hour
127
24-hour
30 50
Annual
30
Canada-Wide Standard
Sources & Notes: a. MWLAP. 1995 b. WHO. 2000. th c. 98 percentile annual ambient measurement, averaged over three consecutive years th d. 4 highest annual measurement, averaged over three consecutive years
In 2001, the GVRD operated 20 continuous monitoring stations throughout the Fraser Valley that monitored ozone levels, and 12 that continuously monitored fine particulate matter (PM10) levels throughout the year. 2001 is the latest year for which monitoring data is publicly available. In 2001, the federal 1-hour Maximum Desirable Objective for ozone was met 99.6% of the time at all stations. The exceedences (0.4% of the time) primarily occurred in the eastern region of the Lower Fraser Valley. The Canada-Wide Standard for ozone was not exceeded for any of the monitoring sites over the most recent three-year averaging period (as specified in the Standard) (CCME 2000). For PM10, the GVRDs 24-hour Acceptable Objective was exceeded for a 19hour period at one eastern station. These were the only exceedences of the objective observed in 2001. The region is also in compliance with the Canada-Wide Standard for PM2.5 over the most recent three-year averaging period. The regional monitoring network does not necessarily reflect air quality in areas that are affected by transportation-related emissions. When site locations for network monitoring stations are chosen, attempts are made to avoid the influence of specific emission sources, so as to better reflect overall community air quality. Consequently, air quality is very likely worse than indicated by the network results at locations near streets and highways. This
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has been shown in a number of recent studies in the US and Europe (see BC Lung Association 2003). As described below, the RAV line will lead to a reduction in overall emissions of several common air contaminants along its corridor and connecting transportation routes, resulting in improvements in local and regional air quality. Thus, detailed analysis with respect to the air quality objectives is not warranted.
11.3.7
Health and Visibility Impacts of Air Pollution
In addition to the health risk posed by continued exposure to ambient levels of air pollution, especially particulate matter, the impact on visibility that arises due to the release of common air pollutants is an issue of growing importance in the Lower Mainland region. Reduced visibility in the form of haze arises due to the number of fine particles in the lower atmosphere, many of which form through secondary chemical reactions from gaseous substances that are emitted to the air, in addition to the fine particles emitted directly (mainly from combustion of fossil fuels). The fine particles that contribute most to visibility impairment also appear to be of greatest concern with respect to health effects. The evidence for associations between exposure to particulate pollution is strong for particles that can be inhaled (PM10) and even stronger for fine particles (PM2.5) that can be respired deep into the lung. Some recent evidence suggests that even smaller particles (PM1) may have the greatest effect in producing a variety of health effects. Such evidence focuses the need to reduce particulate levels in the smallest particle size range to address both health effects and visibility mitigation. Figure 11.3 illustrates the hierarchy of health effects both illness (morbidity) and death (mortality) that are associated with air pollution based on evidence from the literature. There is no known lower exposure threshold below which health effects do not occur. Reducing exposure to air pollutants will reduce all of the effects shown in Figure 11.3.
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Figure 11.3
Hierarchy of Air Pollution Health Effects
Life shortening hospital admissions emergency room visits chronic bronchitis bronchitis in children restricted activity days asthma symptom days acute respiratory symptoms
increased severity of effect
increased number of cases
As indicated in Figure 11.3, a relatively small number of severe health effects are accompanied by a larger number of less severe health effects. This fact is often overlooked in public discussions of health impacts of air pollution. A study of the public health impacts associated with ambient air pollution in the Lower Mainland using 1994 -1998 data (Brauer et al. 2000) concluded the following: In comparison with Western US cities of comparable population, average concentrations of major air pollutants measured in the Vancouver region were quite low, although occasionally short-term peak concentrations are reached that are as high as or higher than peak concentrations reached in other cities and above health guideline values. Mortality estimates indicating the potential for air pollution to be associated with numbers of deaths was comparable to that attributable to causes of death such as motor vehicle traffic accidents, suicides and HIV/AIDS, but much lower than the numbers of deaths attributable to smoking.
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11.4 Evaluation of Air Quality Impacts of Proposed Project

The air quality and greenhouse gas emissions report prepared by RWDI in collaboration with GCSI (2003) estimated the reduction in air pollutants and GHG emissions that would result due to RAV line operation. This report provided the basis for the following analysis of the air quality impacts during the operation phase of the RAV Project. In addition, the following sections address the air quality impacts of the projects construction phase. The impact of construction activities on air quality was not addressed in the GCSI/RWDI report.
11.4.1
Effects on Local Air Quality
The impacts on air quality of the proposed RAV line are assessed in two separate phases: impacts from construction and impacts from operation. The construction phase is characterized by short-term air emissions from construction equipment, and activities associated with large-scale construction projects. Emissions from the operational phase are minimal, with anticipated net improvements in local air quality due to the displacement of other types of vehicles by the transit line. Emissions from the operational phase will come primarily from the electrical power generation that will be necessary to power the trains.
11.4.1.1 Air Quality Impacts from Construction

The potential exists for air quality impacts during the construction phase, although these will be relatively short-term in duration. The two major types of emissions possible from this development are: dust emissions from non-combustion sources; and exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and stationary combustion sources
Dust emissions generally consist of large particles that settle out relatively close to the source, whereas exhaust emissions generally consist of fine particles that can drift further away from the source. The design of the final transit project had not been finalized at the time this assessment was
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prepared. It is expected, however, that the final design may include above-, below- and at-grade components. In addition, construction of the belowgrade components is expected to include both tunnel boring and cut-andcover tunnelling techniques. This assessment has been structured to address the types of emissions that could reasonably be expected from the RAV Project, taking into account the types of construction techniques used for similar projects. Dust Emission Sources For large transportation construction projects, dust tends to be the emission with the greatest potential impact. Sources of dust emissions for the RAV Project include: open blasting (expected to be absent or minimal); earth excavating activities; vehicle travel on gravel and dusty roads; fugitive dust from dump trucks and ocean-going barges; and transfer of spoils from dump trucks to ocean-going barges.
The potential for dust emissions will occur wherever any of these activities are taking place; in the RAV Project, the most likely points of impact include: at openings to tunnel boring sections; along lengths of the route where major excavation will occur, including sections where cut-and-cover tunnelling techniques will be used; areas where blasting may be required; and locations where excavation spoils are transferred from dump trucks to ocean-going barges.
Combustion Exhaust Emissions Combustion emission sources typically associated with this type of project include: diesel exhaust emissions from mobile sources, including earth-moving equipment, dump trucks and barging operations;
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exhaust from stationary combustion sources, including generators, heaters, and possibly off-site construction and fabrication (including concrete-casting facilities); and exhaust from tunnel boring machines, either directly, in the case of dieselpowered tunnel boring machines, or indirectly, in the case of electric tunnel boring machines powered by diesel generators at the surface.
It is anticipated that electrically-driven tunnel boring machinery powered from an electricity grid substation will be used, thus mitigating local exhaust emissions. Without having details on the level of activity for each of these types of combustion emission sources, it is not possible to provide a quantitative estimate of the total emissions that will occur. Although the potential air quality impacts from these activities can be significant, it is important to note that they will be temporary and localized. Also, since the construction equipment to be used on the RAV Project will likely be sourced from other parts of the Lower Mainland and because much of it is operated on a daily basis, there should be no net increase in regional air quality impacts. SECTION 11.5 of this assessment presents best practices to be employed during the construction phase of the RAV Project to mitigate localized impacts due to combustion exhaust emissions.
11.4.1.2 Air Quality Impacts from Operation

As described in the previous report prepared by RWDI on behalf of RAVCo (2003) and the report prepared in association with GSCI (2003), the RAV Project will result in a net reduction of air pollutant emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley, and will improve local air quality in the vicinity of the project. The RAV line will displace diesel buses currently used by TransLink and is also expected to displace passenger vehicles, in addition to those already displaced by bus service. The project will also provide a long-term alternative to private passenger vehicle use, in the same way the existing Expo and Millennium lines have provided this alternative.
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To assess the air quality impacts of the proposed RAV line, the following forecasts of modal shift and number of passengers from previous studies were used: Richmond/Airport - Vancouver Rapid Transit Multiple Account Evaluation. (IBI Group et al. 2001) (document and technical appendices available at: http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp) RAV Richmond/Airport/Vancouver Rapid Transit Project Definition Phase, Final Report on Ridership & Revenues. (Halcrow Group Ltd. with TSi Consultants 2003). Available at: http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp)
The IBI Group report (2001) is a preliminary study, and the second report (Halcrow Group Ltd. and TSi Consultants 2003) is an investment grade study which is much more thorough and detailed in its analysis. The latter report used a more sophisticated system model and produced the system parameters that were used in the current analysis. Estimate of Train Travel Table 11.4 shows the route and vehicle volume parameters used in the analysis. The different types of trains considered are partial-grade separation (articulated two-car trains, similar to the Calgary C-trains) and full-grade separation (SkyTrain-style trains). Based on assumptions provided by TransLink, the full-grade separation option offers significantly greater ridership and other advantages that affect the overall system operation, hence greater emission displacement from the replaced services. Table 11.4 Route and Vehicle Volume Parameters - RAV Equipment Partial Grade Separation 2010
Vehicle type Route length A (km) Route length B (km) Mean return route length (km) Fleet requirement (daily peak) 15.1 14.8 29.9 32
Full Grade Separation 2010

15.1 14.8 29.9 40
2021
15.1 14.8 29.9 38.4
2021
15.1 14.8 29.9 48
Articulated 2-car train
SkyTrain
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Partial Grade Separation 2010 2021

AM expansion factor Daily # of cars Daily vkmt
1
Full Grade Separation 2010 2021

10 400 11,960 10 480 14,352
10 320 9,568
10 384 11,482
Annual vkmt 2,966,080 3,559,296 3,707,600 4,449,120 1. vkmt = vehicle kilometers traveled a statistic that indicates total activity based on number of vehicles and total length of travel for each vehicle
Estimate of Reductions in Bus and Passenger Vehicle Travel To estimate the effect of the project on bus and trolley use, the Halcrow/TSi study (2003) simulated the entire TransLink system without and with the RAV line. Table 11.5 describes the estimated change in service requirements with the RAV line in place in 2010 and 2021. Table 11.5 Change in Bus and Trolley Fleet Requirements with RAV (either partial-grade or full-grade separation) Year
Fleet Requirement Change 40-foot diesel 60-foot diesel 40-foot trolley Express coach Annual Km Change 40-foot diesel (includes express coach) 60-foot diesel 40-foot trolley Total (Net Change)
Based on GVTA. 2003.
2010 -9 -11 -14 -21 2010 -754,200 -2,745,079 205,533 -3,293,745
2021 0 -36 -20 -22 2021 -1,461,148 -4,110,941 -101,343 -5,673,432
The RAV line will displace road vehicle traffic from the transit corridor along both the main route and the airport roadways. Emission reduction estimates were made for private car and taxicab trips that would be avoided with RAV.
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Table 11.6 summarizes the annual reductions in kilometres traveled by road vehicles due to displacement by RAV. Table 11.6 Annual Reduction in Distance Traveled by Road and Airport Traffic with RAV Project Partial Grade Separation 2010 2021
Cambie Street Corridor Cars Cars Taxis Total Car Traffic 16,872,984 2,333,636 8,922,727 28,129,347 20,519,008 3,152,727 12,054,545 35,726,280 28,137,440 2,565,455 9,809,091 40,511,986 32,792,616 3,461,818 13,236,364 49,490,798 Vancouver International Airport
Based on Halcrow/Tsi. 2003.
The reduction in distance traveled by road vehicles (i.e., cars and buses) shown in Tables 11.5 and 11.6 ranges from 43 to 55 million km for the full grade separation version of the RAV line and from 31 to 42 million km for the partial-grade separation version. These reductions translate directly into emission reductions for both common air pollutants and greenhouse gases using conventional emission factors. The reduced distances traveled will reduce direct tailpipe emissions from the vehicles as well as re-suspended street dust a significant contributor to urban PM loadings. Each kilometre traveled by an on-road vehicle re-suspends about 1.5 grams of settled street dust (0.3 g/km PM10) by the force of friction between tires and dusty pavement and air advected by the movement of the vehicle. There is also a reduction in PM emissions from less brake and tire wear (assumed to be included in the emission factor for street dust for the purposes of the emission reduction estimates below). Estimate of Changes in Emissions The above analysis assessed the air quality impacts of the proposed RAV Project in the years 2010 and 2021. Longer term effects were extrapolated from these points in time, assuming that the system would change as defined in the Halcrow/TSi report (2003) and that the electricity supply for RAV would consist, on average over the entire time period, of 50% emission-free green
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power and 50% combined-cycle gas turbine-generated power. The latter is generally considered to be the least cost marginal source of future supply, although many alternatives are now price-competitive with it. The core analysis included only the direct effects of the RAV Project on air emissions within the transit corridor: Cambie Street from Waterfront Station to Richmond Centre and an extension to Vancouver International Airport. Implications of potential ripple effects outward into the wider region are discussed below. Emissions attributable to the RAV line are associated with the generation of the electricity used to power the system. Table 11.7 compares the estimated electrical energy usage by the partial grade separation vs. full grade separation project versions in 2010 and 2021. Table 11.7 Electrical Energy Usage by RAV System Partial Grade Separation 2010 2021
Energy Use Factors (kWh/km)
1
Full Grade Separation 2010

3.05 3,707,600 11.3
2021
3.05 4,449,120 13.6
4.2 2,966,080
4.2 3,559,296 15.0
Annual Km
2
Annual GWh 12.5 1. Kilowatt hours per kilometre 2. Gigawatt hours
Table 11.8 shows the estimated reduction in air pollutant emissions due to displaced traffic in tonnes per year using the current set of operating parameters and assumptions. Note that positive values and negative values (-) indicate increased and decreased emissions, respectively.
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Table 11.8 Summary of Air Pollutant Emissions Partial Grade Full Grade Separation Separation Emissions (tonnes per year) 2010
RAV line Emissions PM Street dust NOx CO Diesel Bus Emissions Exhaust PM Street dust (PM10) NOx CO Cars (including airport traffic) Exhaust PM Street dust (PM10) NOx CO Net Emissions Exhaust PM Street dust (PM10) NOx CO Total Net Emissions -0.5 -9 -25 -133 -168 -0.4 -12 -13 -7 -33 -0.5 -13 -30 -191 -235 -0.5 -17 -14 -9 -40 -0.2 -8 -10 -133 -0.3 -11 -1 -7 -0.2 -12 -14 -191 -0.4 -15 -2 -9 -0.3 -1 -15 n/a -0.2 -2 -12 n/a -0.3 -1 -15 n/a -0.2 -2 -12 n/a 0.07 0 0.14 0.10 0.08 0 0.17 0.12 0.06 0 0.13 0.09 0.07 0 0.16 0.11
2021
2010
2021
The analysis assumed that the scheduled improvements in light- and heavyduty vehicle emission standards over the period 2004 to 2007 will be implemented. Therefore, the future emission factors for light- and heavy-duty on-road vehicles were assumed to be lower emitters, so as to appropriately account for the displaced on-road vehicles. Although the reductions in emissions presented in Table 11.8 are not very significant on a regional scale, it is important to note that they will be disproportionately beneficial on a local scale. This is particularly true for the
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Cambie Street corridor, where there is currently substantial transit bus traffic. Reductions in emissions along traffic corridors are especially important in reducing exposure of people living near them. For example, exposures of people living within 100 m of a major roadway or heavily traveled street may be exposed to two to three times the levels of fine PM (PM2.5) than indicated by general regional air quality monitors. Depending on the location of the power generation source in the power grid, the small emission attributable to the RAV line would occur elsewhere in the region, remote from the Cambie Street corridor, or outside the region (i.e., airshed) altogether.
11.4.2
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
As documented in the report prepared by GCSI and RWDI (2003), significant amounts of GHG emissions will be avoided as a result of the RAV Project during the operational phase, due to the displacement of diesel buses and automobiles. These reductions are expected to far outweigh any short-term increase in GHG emissions that will be experienced during the construction phase.
11.4.2.1 Impacts of Construction on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions associated with the construction phase of the RAV Project are expected to be consistent with other projects of this scale. In large-scale construction projects, the major sources of GHG emissions are: Direct sources fossil-fuelled construction equipment (mobile and stationary); and Indirect sources production of cement for use in concrete.
The amount of GHG emissions produced by fossil-fuelled construction equipment is directly proportional to the quantity of fuel used. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with concrete production depend on the amount of cement used; for each tonne of cement produced, approximately one tonne of CO2 is released. The direct emissions attributable to the RAV Project in this phase are those associated with construction equipment only.
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A possible mitigating measure would be the use of Ecosmart concrete in place of conventional concrete. This product, which was used at one location during Millennium line construction, replaces some of the cement with alternate materials such as fly ash, thus avoiding up to 50% of the associated CO2 emission. The practicality of extensive use of Ecosmart concrete or other similar mixtures in the RAV line is not known at this time. The determination of which types of concrete products are used for project construction will be subject to the discretion of the Concessionaire.
11.4.2.2 Impacts of Operation on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

RAV line operation is expected to prevent the release of between 16 and 21 kilotonnes of greenhouse gases per year by the year 2021, depending on the type of rail technology used. The reductions will arise due to the replacement of diesel buses and the increased displacement of private automobiles by the train service, relative to bus-only transportation. These reductions will be partly offset by the anticipated GHG emissions associated with additional electrical generation required to power the RAV line. The future marginal greenhouse gas intensity of electricity generation in BC is presented in Table 11.9. The estimate of future new electrical generation GHG intensity assumes that 50% of new electrical generation will be met by combined cycle gas turbines, and 50% will be met by green (i.e., net-zero GHG emissions) electrical generation, such as biomass, small-scale hydroelectric and wind power. Table 11.9 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Factor Estimates Electrical Source Emission Factors
Current system average Current CCGT technology
2
CO2 Emission Factors (kg/MWh)1

26 328
Future new generation 164 1. kilograms per megawatt hour 2. Assumes 50% combined cycle gas turbine and 50% green (zero greenhouse gas emissions) electrical generation
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Table 11.10 presents the estimates for avoided GHG emissions for 2010 and 2025 for both the partial grade and full grade separation RAV line alternatives. Table 11.10 Summary of Net Avoided Greenhouse Gas Emissions Partial Grade Full Grade Separation Separation CO2 (tonnes per year) 2010
RAV line Emissions Diesel Bus Emissions traffic)
1.
2 1
2021
2,452 -8,167 -10,718
2010
1,854 -5,151 -12,154
2021
2,225 -8,167 -14,847
2,043 -5,151 -8,439
Cars (including airport
Total Net Emissions -11,547 -16,433 -15,450 -20,789 Bus average fuel efficiency of 50 L/100 km (1,365 g/km for 40 bus and 1,502 g/k for 60 bus) 2. Light-duty vehicle average urban fuel efficiency of 12.7 L/100 km (300 g/km)
11.4.3
Effects on Regional Air Quality in the Lower Fraser Valley
The RAV line will reduce air pollutant emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley through the displacement of diesel buses and personal vehicle travel. This reduction of air emissions will contribute to improvements in air quality and a corresponding reduction in health impacts in the region.
11.4.3.1 Valuation of Avoided Damage

Several cost-benefit studies of air quality improvement in the Lower Fraser Valley have been carried out over the past 10 years. These studies have produced the best estimates of the monetized value of avoided damage costs attributable to emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley region. The values are airshed-specific because of the unique relationship between a quantity of emitted pollutant, its relative impact on air quality and the distribution of the exposed population in the airshed that experiences the effects of the exposure. Table 11.11 shows the avoided damage cost values that have been used in recent applications in the region: the Multiple Account
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Evaluation of RAV (IBI Group et al. 2001) and a cost-benefit study of operating the BC Hydro Burrard Thermal Plant (Marvin Shaffer & Associates 2001). These values are also summarized in a report prepared for the GVRD by The Sheltair Group (2001). These values comprise estimates of damage to human health (morbidity and premature mortality), agricultural crop damage and visibility impairment attributable to the individual pollutants and their atmospheric chemical reaction products (e.g., ozone). The results are dominated by the value of a shortened human life associated with exposure to PM. A commonly used global damage value for CO2 is $25/tonne, as shown in Table 11.11. Table 11.11 Summary of Indicative Pollutant Damage Values for the Lower Fraser Valley Nominal Current $CDN/tonne PM (PM10)
$45,000
Value
Damage cost value, Lower Fraser Valley
NOx
$2,000
CO2e
$25
Marvin Shaffer and Associates. 2001.
Table 11.12 presents an estimate of avoided social damage cost of the emission reductions, using the values indicated in Table 11.11 and based on the net emission reductions shown in Table 11.8 and Table 11.10. Table 11.12 Estimated Avoided Annual Damage Costs of RAV Project Options Partial Grade Separation 2010 2021
$0.78 Million $1.01 Million
Value
Avoided Damage Cost

$1.06 Million $1.32 Million
A net present value (NPV) stream can be estimated using these values for 2010 and 2021. It has been argued in the literature that NPV should not be discounted for ecosystem and health damages, but it is more customary to use a discount rate as if the future avoided damage stream were equivalent to an investment. Using a common discount rate of 5% and assuming that the
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avoided damages (i.e., benefits) begin in 2010 and level off at the 2021 value thereafter, the NPV of the benefits out to 2050 for the full grade separation system are estimated to be $15 Million (nominal 2004 dollars). Undiscounted, the total absolute avoided damage value over the period 2010 to 2050 is $50 Million. The benefit stream carries on beyond 2050, for the life of the system.
11.4.3.2 Wider System Benefits

The above estimated benefits refer to those for the emissions that will be directly displaced from the Cambie Street corridor operations by the RAV Project. The ripple effects of facilitation of urban form modification (i.e., densification) in the longer term can be considerably greater. It is reasonable to assume that these enhanced benefits to 2050 would be at least twice the values cited above, or about $30 Million in nominal 2003 dollars, discounted at 5%, or $100 Million undiscounted.
11.5 Mitigation of Air Quality Impacts and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Long-term air quality benefits will be realized from the RAV line. During line operation, the only significant source of emissions will be from electricity generation. The construction phase will produce short-term air quality impacts from a variety of sources. Mitigation options to reduce the impact of the project on air quality and GHG emissions are described below
11.5.1
During Operation
The only significant emissions, including air pollutants and greenhouse gases, that will be generated by the operation of the RAV line are emissions from electrical power generation. The project will more than offset the electrical power supply emissions by the displaced on-road vehicle emission reductions, as explained in SECTION 11.4.
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11.5.2
During Construction
Best practices for minimizing the impacts of combustion source exhaust and dust should be practiced during the construction phase of the RAV line. Best practices to minimize combustion source emissions and impacts include: positioning any necessary stationary emission sources (e.g., portable diesel generators, compressors, etc.) as far as is practical from sensitive receptors; specifying grid rather than generator set electrical power for equipment wherever possible, including the tunnel boring machine and equipment to be used during cut-and-cover tunnel excavations; specifying the use of clean fuels such as ultra-low sulphur diesel in dump trucks and other heavy-duty diesel vehicles and/or equipment, in conjunction with the use of particulate trap control devices, as well as catalytic converters, to avoid excessive diesel emissions; and proper maintenance and calibration of motors.
Best practices to minimize fugitive dust emissions include: construction of unpaved haul routes with an appropriate road base to support heavy truck traffic; on-site provision of a supply of water or other dust suppressant and appropriate equipment for applying the suppressant (e.g., a tank truck with spray bars) during construction periods, to be used as needed to maintain moist surfaces on all unpaved haul routes and traffic areas to suppress visible dust emissions from these surfaces; provision of truck-washing facilities to prevent track-out of mud and dust onto city streets; daily cleaning of paved routes adjoining unpaved traffic areas with roadcleaning equipment during construction periods; transportation of bulk materials in covered vehicles; covering or stabilizing any stockpiles of soil or aggregates; daily visual inspections to identify and address potential areas of dust and odour emissions; and
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establishment of procedures for responding to complaints documenting visual inspections, complaints and response(s) taken.
and
Generally, these best practice recommendations have been applied as requirements, as appropriate, to contractors for recent projects (e.g., Millennium Line SkyTrain extension and other large-scale infrastructure projects in BC), as defined in the environmental specifications released with requests for proposals.
11.6 Conclusions
The air quality impacts of the proposed RAV line are expected to provide a net benefit to local air quality and prevent the release of significant amounts of GHG emissions by providing an alternative to private motor vehicle use. Total air pollutant emissions, especially particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide, will be reduced by the RAV line relative to the no build scenario. The emissions reductions are due to the displacement of diesel buses, as well as additional passenger vehicle trips that would not have been displaced by bus transit service alone. Although the reduction in air pollutant emissions is not significant on a regional scale, the impacts on local air quality will be significant, as the emissions reductions will occur primarily along specific transit corridors, such as Cambie Street. During the construction phase, the potential exists for air quality impacts, although these will be relatively short-term in duration. The two major sources of emissions possible from this development are dust emissions from noncombustion sources, and exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and stationary combustion sources. Although the potential for localized air quality impacts of these activities may be significant, it is important to note that they are temporary and localized. Taking into account the increased emissions from electrical power generation, RAV line operation is expected to reduce emissions overall by between 168 and 235 tonnes per year of common air contaminants in 2010, and between 33 and
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40 tonnes per year in 2021. These reductions arise from the expected displacement of both diesel buses and private vehicles. Reductions in fine particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen are expected to be particularly significant on the local scale, particularly along the Cambie Street corridor. Significant amounts of GHG emissions will be avoided by the RAV Project during the operational phase, due to the displacement of diesel buses and automobiles. These reductions are expected to far outweigh any short-term increase of greenhouse gas emissions that will be experienced during the construction phase. During the operation of the RAV line, reductions of between 16 and 21 kilotonnes of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emissions per year by 2021 are expected. These numbers take into account the anticipated increase in greenhouse gas emissions from increased electrical power generation. During construction, best practices for minimizing dust and exhaust emissions are proposed. Significant recommendations include the use of electricallypowered equipment rather than gas- or diesel-powered equipment, wherever possible, including the tunnel boring machines and equipment to be used during cut-and-cover tunnel excavations.
11.7 References
Alchemy Consulting Inc., Levelton Engineering Ltd., Constable Associates Consulting Inc. and S.C. Pryor. 2000. BC Clean Transportation Analysis Project. Prepared for Clean Transportation Analysis Project Steering Committee. Brauer, M., J. Brumm and S. Ebelt. 2000. Evaluation of Ambient Air Pollution in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia: Public Health Impacts, Spatial Variability, and Temporal Patterns. Prepared for Vancouver Richmond Regional Health Board. British Columbia Lung Association. 2003. Health and Air Quality 2002 Phase 1. Methods for Estimating and Applying Relationships between Air Pollution and Health Effects.
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Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 2000. Canada-Wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM) and Ozone. Ottawa, Ontario. Cirrus Consultants Ltd. 1999. Regional Air Quality Evaluation of the Proposed SkyTrain Extension Project. Prepared for Rapid Transit Project 2000 Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. Global Change Strategies International and RWDI West Inc. 2003. Air Quality and Greenhouse Gas Emission Benefits of the Richmond Airport Vancouver Rapid Transit Project. Prepared for Richmond Airport Vancouver Rapid Transit Project. Vancouver, B.C. Greater Vancouver Regional District. 2003. Forecast and Backcast of the 2000 Emission Inventory for the Lower Fraser Valley, 1985-2025. Policy and Planning Department. Burnaby, B.C. Greater Vancouver Regional District. 2002. Lower Fraser Valley Ambient Air Quality Report, 2001. Burnaby, B.C. October 2002. Greater Vancouver Regional District and Fraser Valley Regional District. 2002. 2000 Emission Inventory for the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed. Burnaby, B.C. Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority. 2003. RAV Bus Integration Strategy. Available online at: http://www.ravprapidtransit.com/en/reports.php#technical Halcrow Group Ltd. with TSi Consultants. 2003. RAV Richmond/Airport/Vancouver Rapid Transit Project Definition Phase, Final Report on Ridership & Revenues. Available online at: http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp Health Canada. 2001. Canada-Wide Standards (CWSS). Health and Air Quality Regulations. Available online at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecssesc/air_quality/cws.htm
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IBI Group, Eric Vance and Associates, Alchemy Consulting Inc., Collings Johnston Inc., Steadman Associates Inc., Delcan Corp., N.D. Lea Consultants Ltd., Baker McGarva Hart Inc., Urbanics Consultants Ltd., Golder Associates Ltd. and TSI Consultants. 2001. Richmond / Airport Vancouver Rapid Transit Multiple Account Evaluation. Final Report. April 16, 2001. Available online at http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp Marvin Shaffer and Associates. 2001. Multiple Account Benefit-Cost Evaluation of the Burrard Thermal Generating Plant. Prepared for Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations, Victoria, B.C. April 2001. Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection. 1995. Ambient air quality objectives for British Columbia and Canada. Available online at: http://wlapwww.govbc.ca/air/airquality/pdfs/airqual_1.pdf. RWDI West Inc. 2003. Preliminary Air Quality of the Richmond / Airport / Vancouver Rapid Transit Project. Prepared for Richmond Airport Vancouver Rapid Transportation Project. Vancouver, B.C. April 2003. The Sheltair Group. 2001. Greater Vancouver and Fraser Valley Air Quality Management Plan, Phase 2 Final Report: Harmonized Measures for Reducing Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollution in the Lower Fraser Valley. Prepared for Greater Vancouver Regional District, Fraser Valley Regional District, BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection and Environment Canada. September 2001. World Health Organization. 2000. Air Quality Guidelines. Geneva. online at: http://www.evro.who.int/air/Activities/20020620_1 Available
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AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Air Quality Assessment

11.1 Executive Summary

Impacts on Local Air Quality

Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Impacts on Regional Air Quality

11.3 Air Quality in the Lower Fraser Valley

Source: GVRD and Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD). 2002.

Climatology and Meteorology

Regional Air Quality

11.3.3.1 Pollutants of Concern

11.3.3.2 Fine Particulate Matter

Monitored and Forecast PM10 Levels in the Lower Fraser Valley

Eastern LFV Actual Trend (Actual & Forecast)

10.0 5.0 0.0

11.3.3.4 Other Pollutants

2000 Lower Fraser Valley Emissions Inventory

11.3.4.1 Common Air Contaminants

228,517 4,397 6,112 478 4,447 72,466

200 217 138 56 897 940

316,417 326,340 97%

61,436 70,857 87%

28,541 54,112 53%

6,575 8,382 78%

2,449 5,383 45%

Source: GVRD, 2002

11.3.4.2 Greenhouse Gases

Forecast of Emissions in Lower Fraser Valley

Ambient Air Quality Criteria and Monitoring Results

Provincial BC (a) MWLAP/GVRD

World Health Organization

Carbon Monoxide (mg/m3)

Provincial BC (a) MWLAP/GVRD World Health Organization

Particulate Matter (g/m3)

Health and Visibility Impacts of Air Pollution

Hierarchy of Air Pollution Health Effects

increased severity of effect

increased number of cases

11.4 Evaluation of Air Quality Impacts of Proposed Project

Effects on Local Air Quality

11.4.1.1 Air Quality Impacts from Construction

11.4.1.2 Air Quality Impacts from Operation

Full Grade Separation 2010

Articulated 2-car train

Partial Grade Separation 2010 2021

Full Grade Separation 2010 2021

2010 -9 -11 -14 -21 2010 -754,200 -2,745,079 205,533 -3,293,745

2021 0 -36 -20 -22 2021 -1,461,148 -4,110,941 -101,343 -5,673,432

Full Grade Separation 2010 2021

Based on Halcrow/Tsi. 2003.

Full Grade Separation 2010

4.2 3,559,296 15.0

Annual GWh 12.5 1. Kilowatt hours per kilometre 2. Gigawatt hours

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

11.4.2.1 Impacts of Construction on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

11.4.2.2 Impacts of Operation on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

CO2 Emission Factors (kg/MWh)1

2,043 -5,151 -8,439

Cars (including airport

Effects on Regional Air Quality in the Lower Fraser Valley

11.4.3.1 Valuation of Avoided Damage