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SECTION 15

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ASSESSMENT

Environmental Assessment Certificate Application for the RichmondAirportVancouver Rapid Transit Project

15
15.1

Electric and Magnetic Fields Assessment


Executive Summary

This section presents a state-of-the-art review of electric and magnetic fields (EMF) from electric transportation systems, undertaken by Paul Wong International, Inc. in October 2003. Magnetic fields from electric transportation systems are generally more complex than those produced by power lines, and fields in the frequency range from 0 to 3000 Hertz (Hz) are typically generated. Electric transportation systems also generate electric and magnetic fields above 3000 Hz. The review of high frequency emission levels and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) from various transportation systems is beyond the scope of this project. However, a general discussion on electromagnetic compatibility of the proposed electric transportation system is included in this section. (In addition, note that SECTION 19.2.3 discusses the potential health effects of EMF associated with electric rail transportation systems). Based on a review of available literature on EMF from electric transportation systems, the following conclusions are drawn:

15.1.1

Electric Field (0 to 3000 Hz)

Regardless of the type of transportation technology to be used in the RAV Project, the expected electric fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be similar to those measured and calculated for urban mass transit systems in the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) studies and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards. With this assumption, the expected static (Direct Current (DC), 0 Hz) and extreme low frequencies (ELF) (5 to 3000 Hz) electric field levels from the new rapid transit system will be below the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) 24-hour electric field exposure guidelines for the general public. The ELF electric fields will likely be insignificant when compared to those generated by common distribution lines found in residential areas, typically from a few volts per meter (V/m) to 100 or 200 V/m. The static electric field at a distance of 10 m from the track will be <10 V/m for a third rail DC supply system. Electric field levels decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks.

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Electric fields are easily attenuated by most common materials, especially conductive materials, and do not penetrate significantly into the passenger vehicles. Structures like buildings, platform overhangs, and vegetation provide varying degrees of shielding of electric field in station buildings, on station platforms, and at the wayside.

15.1.2

Magnetic Field (0 to 3000 Hz)

In addition to the power frequency, the RAV rapid transit system will produce magnetic fields of other frequencies, mostly from 0 to 3000 Hz. The magnetic fields will have complex frequency spectra, and will be highly variable in space and time. Regardless of the type of transportation technology to be used in the RAV Project, the expected magnetic fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be similar to those measured and calculated for urban mass transit systems in the SkyTrain and U.S. DOT studies (after excluding one type of vehicle due its unique design), and IEC standards. With this assumption, the expected average static and ELF magnetic field levels from the RAV line will be below the ICNIRP 24-hour magnetic field exposure guidelines for the general public. However, it must be noted that the maximum fields at some locations in the vehicles (e.g., near the traction control equipment), or on station platforms could exceed the ICNIRP guidelines. Average power frequency (60 Hz) magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles will likely be in the range of 10 milligauss (mG), a level comparable to those found directly under overhead power distribution lines. Exposure to magnetic fields is a common occurrence in daily life. Power frequency fields near common household appliances range from less than 1 to about 150 mG at a distance of one foot from the field source. It should be noted that the field characteristics associated with household appliances and the RAV rapid transit system are different (e.g., field levels drop off more rapidly with separation distance from household appliances than do those from the RAV line). Average ELF (i.e., 5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic fields in RAV vehicles and on station platforms will likely be about 50 and 10 mG, respectively.

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Average static magnetic fields in RAV vehicles and on station platforms will likely be about 1,000 and 600 mG, respectively. The earths field is about 500 mG, and can be perturbed easily by all common ferromagnetic objects. A study shows that the earth's field can be elevated above its natural level within a distance of eight feet from a subcompact car (e.g., from about 540 to 1100 mG beside the headlight and to 820 mG beside the drivers door), and a common steel folding chair can change the earth's field by up to 60 mG within a distance of one foot. The characteristics of the wayside magnetic field from the RAV rapid transit system will be similar to those on station platforms, except that the field levels will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Static magnetic fields at a distance of 10 m from the tracks will likely be <500 mG for a third rail DC supply system. At this distance, the static fields from the RAV Project will likely be indistinguishable from the earths field. Average wayside ELF magnetic fields from the RAV Project will likely be <10 mG at a distance of 10 m from the tracks. Magnetic field levels will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Like any substations of a power grid, the strength of EMF from equipment within the substations of the RAV Project will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the equipment. Beyond the substation fence or wall, the EMF produced by the substation equipment is typically indistinguishable from background levels, and the strongest EMF source outside the substation is the overhead and underground power lines entering or leaving the substation. The characteristics of these power lines will be similar to the main distribution lines found in residential or commercial areas.

15.1.3

Electromagnetic Compatibility

Based on a preliminary review of the EMC literature and assuming that the RAV rapid transit system will produce electromagnetic emission levels meeting the IEC1 emission requirements, and at the same time will be
1

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees) with the objective to promote international cooperation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic areas. To this end and in

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comparable to those described in the United Kingdom study by University of York (2002), it is unlikely that electromagnetic emissions from the RAV line will interfere with commercial (AM (amplitude-modulated) and FM (frequency modulated)) radio services in most installations. The probability of interference with cable services, such as cable TV, will be even more remote. Low frequency magnetic field interference with information technology equipment, such as computer monitors, will not be likely for distances greater than 10 m from the tracks. In the unlikely event that an interference complaint does occur, the procedure to resolve the complaint is similar to that for power lines. Industry Canada will be contacted for their assistance to determine the cause of the complaint. If the cause is indeed from the new rapid transit system, the Concessionaire will endeavour to resolve the complaint by finding a solution that is mutually acceptable to both the complainant and the Concessionaire. To minimize the potential interference impacts of electromagnetic fields associated with the new rapid transit system and to ensure electromagnetic compatibility within the proposed RAV system and the surrounding environment, the RAV system contract specifications will contain provisions to control and monitor stray currents and electromagnetic interference (EMI), specifically electromagnetic compatibility.

15.2

Introduction

Since the type of transportation technology to be utilized for the RAV Project has yet to be defined, the review addresses EMF from the existing SkyTrain system and other guided and non-guided electric transportation systems. Due to the concern of some members of the public about alleged health effects associated with exposure to power lines, the majority of the EMF literature covers power frequency fields2 (National Research Council (NRC) 1997, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) 1998 and 1999, Neutra et al.
addition to other activities, the IEC publishes International Standards and collaborates closely with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 2 The power frequency is 60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz in most other countries. Power frequency fields therefore refer to fields in the 50 to 60 Hz range only.

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2002). Due to the characteristics of the onboard electrical systems, magnetic fields from electric transportation systems are generally more complex than those produced by power lines, and fields in the frequency range from 0 to 3000 Hz (or 3 kHz, kilohertz) are typically generated (Feero and Dietrich 1995). Based on the literature review, typical EMF levels from electric transportation systems in the frequency range from 0 to 3000 Hz will be documented and an upper bound (i.e., worst-case) for EMF levels from the electric transportation systems will be derived. Upper bound EMF levels will be compared with the 24hour exposure guidelines for the general public established by the ICNIRP. Electric transportation systems also generate electric and magnetic fields above 3 kHz. These fields are lower in magnitude than those generated in the lower frequencies, and are generally governed by electromagnetic emission and electromagnetic compatibility requirements of the transportation system (e.g., see technical specifications for SkyTrain Mark II Vehicles for the Millennium Line (Bombardier 1998)). The review of high frequency emission levels and electromagnetic compatibility from various transportation systems is beyond the scope of this project. However, a general discussion on electromagnetic compatibility of the electric transportation system is included.

15.3

Characteristics of Electric and Magnetic Fields

Electricity is expressed in terms of voltage (measured in volts or kilovolts, V or kV), current (in amperes or kiloamperes, A or kA), and power (in watts or kilowatts, W or kW). Our homes are wired for 120 V and 240 V, while power lines that transport electricity operate at thousands of volts or kilovolts. The amount of electric power flowing in an electrical circuit is proportional to the voltage multiplied by the current. Electricity is used in two basic forms, AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current). AC is the form of electricity common to all homes. For AC, the voltage and current change polarity like a sinusoidal wave. In contrast, for DC, the voltage and current remain at the same polarity. Examples of DC electricity are the ordinary 1.5 V flashlight batteries, and the 12 V automotive batteries.

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Electric and magnetic fields are invisible lines of force surrounding any conductor or wire carrying electricity and they are found everywhere electricity is used. They are common to every residence, school, or workplace that receives electrical service. The term "field" refers to both the lines of force and the regions in which they occur. All electrical equipment, such as power tools, home appliances, televisions, hair dryers, household wiring, transportation equipment and power lines produce EMF. AC power lines produce mainly AC fields at the power frequency (60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz in most other countries); while DC power lines produce mainly DC or static fields (0 Hz). The earth itself produces a DC magnetic field. Most of the power lines are AC lines, and there is only one high voltage DC transmission line in BC. An electric field is produced by electric charges along a wire when a voltage is applied, regardless of whether or not a load current is flowing in the wire. When the power switch of an appliance is turned on, an electric current begins to flow and produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field increases in strength with an increase in current flowing in the wire, while the electric field level generally stays fairly constant with time since the voltage on the wires is closely regulated by the power utility. As the amount of electric power carried by a power line, electrical circuit, or electrical system (such as the electric transportation system) is proportional to the voltage multiplied by the current, any changes to power or load demand3 with time results in changes to the current levels, and hence magnetic fields. Electric field strength increases with an increase in the voltage on the conductor, while magnetic field strength increases with an increase in the current flowing in the conductor. Maximum EMF levels occur near live electrical conductors, such as a SkyTrain power rail, and decrease rapidly with increasing distance away from the power-carrying conductors. Electric field is usually measured in volts per metre (V/m) or kilovolts per metre (kV/m), where 1 kV/m = 1000 V/m; and magnetic field in milligauss (mG) or microteslas ( T), where 1 T = 10 mG. Not all electric and magnetic fields are the same. They depend on the characteristics of the power source which generates the fields. For example, a DC power source produces static electric and magnetic fields which do not vary
3

From a 120 V outlet, a 60 W light bulb requires 0.5 A, while a 600 W light bulb requires 5 A. That is, a higher power demand requires a higher current level when the voltage is the same.

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in magnitude and orientation with time, while an AC power source produces electric and magnetic fields which do vary in both magnitude and direction with time. Electric and magnetic fields at the power frequency and at other frequencies are produced by many devices that one encounters daily. For example, in addition to power frequency fields, a computer monitor also emits EMF into its surrounding area in the 20 to 70 kHz range, while a microwave oven also generates EMF within an enclosed metal cavity in the 2 GHz (gigahertz, where 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz) range. Frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped together into bands. For example, the MF (medium frequency, from 0.3 to 3 MHz or megahertz) band covers AM radio broadcast services, and the VHF (very high frequency, from 30 to 300 MHz or megahertz) band covers VHF television (channels 2 to 13) and FM radio broadcast services. This report covers EMF from transportation systems in the 0 to 3000 Hz range. While there is no uniform agreement on the frequency range denoted by the ELF band, this report will use the ELF band to cover frequencies from 3 to 3000 Hz, and the ULF (ultra low frequency) band to cover any frequencies below 3 Hz (i.e., from 0 to 3 Hz). In most situations, ULF and ELF electric fields from outdoor sources such as power lines do not penetrate into the interior of structures, such as homes. This is because most of the building materials can essentially block or shield the passage of the electric lines of force or electric fields. In contrast, the magnetic lines of force or magnetic fields cannot be blocked or shielded easily by most building materials. Magnetic fields from AC power lines in North America consist primarily of a 60 Hz component. In some cases, there are also harmonic components (i.e., multiples of 60 Hz), but these are typically small in number. Their spatial distributions can usually be described by a two-dimensional model. ELF magnetic fields produced by transportation vehicles are far more complex than those produced by power lines mainly due to: Multiple sources - Magnetic fields from a transportation vehicle arise from multiple sources both within and external to the vehicle. Spatial distributions

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cannot be expressed simply by attenuation curves which are temporally stable. Continuous frequency distribution - The time varying component of the magnetic field often does not exhibit a discrete and temporally stable frequency distribution. Consequently, field intensities in various frequency bands rather than fields at specific frequencies must be addressed.

15.3.1

EMF from Electric Power Systems

Power transmission lines bring power from a generating station to a substation. Power distribution lines bring power from the substation to our homes. Transmission and distribution lines can be either overhead or underground. Overhead lines produce both electric and magnetic fields. Underground lines do not produce electric fields above ground but do produce magnetic fields. Typical EMF levels for power transmission lines are shown in Figure 15.1 (NIEHS 2002).

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Environmental Assessment Certificate Application for the RichmondAirportVancouver Rapid Transit Project

Figure 15.1

Typical EMF Levels for Power Transmission Lines

Source: NIEHS 2002.

Electric fields directly beneath power lines may vary from a few volts per meter for some overhead distribution lines to thousands of volts per meter for high voltage transmission lines. The electric field strength can be reduced by the walls and roofs of most buildings, whereas magnetic fields are not

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reduced by most building materials. Both electric and magnetic field levels decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the line. The distance at which the magnetic field from a power line becomes indistinguishable from typical background levels differs for different types of lines. At a distance of 90 m and at times of average electricity demand, the magnetic fields from many transmission lines can be similar to typical background levels found in most homes. Typical voltage for power distribution lines ranges from 4 to 35 kV. Electric field levels directly beneath overhead distribution lines may vary from a few volts per meter to 100 or 200 V/m. Magnetic fields directly beneath overhead distribution lines typically range from 10 to 20 mG for main feeders and less than 10 mG for laterals. Such levels are also typical directly above underground lines. Peak EMF levels, however, can vary considerably depending on the amount of current carried by the line. Peak magnetic field levels as high as 70 mG have been measured directly below overhead distribution lines and as high as 40 mG above underground distribution lines (NIEHS 2002). The strongest EMF outside a substation comes generally from the power lines entering and leaving the substation. The strength of the EMF from equipment within the substations, such as transformers, reactors, and capacitor banks, decreases rapidly with increasing distance away from the equipment. Beyond the substation fence or wall, the EMF produced by the substation equipment is typically indistinguishable from background levels.

15.3.2

EMF in Homes

Electric fields in homes typically range from 0 to 10 V/m, whereas magnetic fields vary greatly (NIEHS 2002). Both electric and magnetic field levels decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the source. In a study by the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) in which spot measurements of magnetic field were made in the center of rooms in 992 homes throughout the US, half of the houses had magnetic field levels of 0.6 mG or less, when the average of measurements from all the rooms in the house was calculated; and the all-room mean magnetic field for all houses

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was 0.9 mG (NIEHS 2002). The measurements were made away from electrical appliances and primarily reflect the fields from household wiring and outside power lines. In general, the background level of magnetic field within a residence depends mainly on the proximity and loading of adjacent power lines, and the internal wiring in a house does not contribute significantly to the background level. However, the conditions in apartment blocks may be similar to those encountered in multi-storey commercial buildings where the building main supply wires may contribute significantly to the background level. Magnetic field levels near household electrical appliances can be higher than those from other sources, including power lines. However, appliance fields decrease in strength with distance more quickly than do power line fields. Table 15.1 lists median magnetic field levels generated by common household appliances using AC power (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) 1992). Magnetic field strength does not necessarily depend on how large, complex, or powerful the appliance is. Magnetic fields near larger appliances are often weaker than those near smaller ones. Appliances may have been redesigned since the data were collected, and the fields they produce today may differ considerably from those shown in Table 15.1 (NIEHS 2002). Table 15.1 Median Magnetic Appliances Field Levels Household Electrical

Room
Office

Source
Air cleaners Copy machines Fax machines Fluorescent lights Electric pencil sharpeners Video display terminals
2

Magnetic Field at Various Distances from Source (mG)1 6 1 2 4


180 90 6 40 200 14 300 100 30 35 20 6 70 5 1 20 3 5 7 2 20 2 1 1 2 -

Bathroom Workshop

Hair dryers Electric shavers Battery chargers

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Room
Drills

Source

Magnetic Field at Various Distances from Source (mG)1 6 1 2 4


150 200 70 600 7 20 30 80 200 100 9 30 2 10
2 2

30 40 3 3 7 10 150 10 6 10 4 10 4 8 2 3 1 15 1 2 7 1 20

4 5 1 2 2 20 4 2 2 10 1 2 1 2 1 4

2 2 -

Power saws Living Room Kitchen Ceiling Fans Window Air Conditioners Color Televisions Blenders Can Openers Coffee Makers Dishwashers Food Processors Garbage Disposals Microwave Ovens Mixers Electric Ovens Electric Ranges Refrigerators Toasters Bedroom Digital Clocks
3 3

6 3 20 8 100

Analog Clocks Baby Monitors Laundry/ Utility

Electric Clothes Dryers Washing Machines Irons Portable Heaters

1 300 60 10 Vacuum Cleaners Source: U.S. EPA 1992. Notes: 1. Dash (-) means that the magnetic field at this distance from the operating appliance could not be distinguished from background measurements taken before the appliance was turned on. 2. Some appliances produce both 60 Hz and higher frequency fields (e.g., televisions and computer screens produce fields at 10-30 kHz, as well as 60 Hz). Microwave ovens produce 60 Hz fields of several hundred mG, but they also generate microwave energy inside the appliance that is at a much higher frequency, about 2.45 GHz. We are shielded from the higher frequency fields but not from the 60 Hz fields. 3. Measurements were taken from clocks that were AC-powered. Most digital clocks have low magnetic fields. In some analog clocks, however, higher magnetic fields are produced by the motor that drives the hands.

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15.4

EMF Guided Electric Transportation Systems

Electric traction systems typically can be divided into two categories according to the power supply systems (IEC 1998): DC Systems Traction power is developed by DC motors operating in the voltage range from about 500 to 3000 V. Voltages lower than approximately1500 V are used mostly for urban transit systems, light rails, metros, subways or rapid transits; whereas voltages above approximately1500 V are used mostly for commuter (i.e., suburban or regional) rails. Current is supplied via a live feed rail (third rail system) or overhead wire (catenary), and returns partly through the normal running rails (sometimes a fourth rail), and partly through the earth. The traction power system is supplied from the local utilitys power network through three-phase rectifiers giving a ripple fundamental at six times the network power frequency (IEC 1998). Typical maximum traction currents appropriate to normal running conditions are: tram lines: underground lines: up to ~1 kA up to ~4 kA

AC Systems Operating voltages generally range from about 11 to 25 kV (sometimes up to 50 kV with autotransformers), and the supply frequency is generally 16 2/3, 25, 50 or 60 Hz. The lower operating frequencies (16 2/3 and 25 Hz) are used only for voltages below approximately 15 kV. The current is supplied via overhead wires with or without the use of auto or booster transformers to direct the return current from the rails to the overhead return wire. Typical maximum traction currents appropriate to normal running conditions are: on single track branch lines: on double track main lines: on suburban lines: up to ~0.5 kA up to ~2.0 kA up to ~2.5 kA (main line and suburban line running side by side)

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The traction power is generally supplied from the local electric utility to a substation where the AC power is converted to DC power, or appropriate AC voltage level and frequency, as required by the traction system. The power is then transmitted to the traction vehicle via a system of flexible suspension contact lines (the overhead catenary) with which a vehicle-mounted articulated device (the pantograph) is brought into contact. On low voltage lines, a trackside conductor rail may be provided from which power is collected by a sliding contact (the collector shoe). On the traction vehicle, the power is regulated and supplied to electric motors to control the movement of the vehicle. Auxiliary power is also regulated and although of lower power than that supplied to the traction motors, can still be a significant source of EMF and electromagnetic noise. The locomotive supplies power, generally at voltages "1500 V (sometimes at 3000 V) and at powers up to 800 kW, to the electrical systems of the train for lighting, heating, air-conditioning, battery charging, and converters. This auxiliary current may return to the locomotive via the rails. The most comprehensive studies on the characterization of the EMF environment of guided transportation systems were carried out by the U.S. DOT, Federal Railroad Administration, John A. Volpe National Transportation System Center (U.S. DOT 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1993d, 1993e, 1993f; Muc 2001). The results show that the frequency spectra of magnetic field from the transportation systems are complex and highly variable over time (see Figure 15.2 (U.S. DOT 1992)). In comparison, the fields from power lines are predominantly in the power frequency, and are more stable temporally. The major instrument used in these studies was a portable Multiwave system developed by Electric Research and Management Inc. of Pennsylvania (EPRI 1992). The five guided ground transportation systems studied were: Transrapid TR07 Maglev System Attractive electromagnetic suspension (EMS) maglev (magnetic levitation) technology. Active guideway. Linear synchronous motor (LMS), 55 to 215 Hz. Inductively coupling from guideway. Dynamic braking (resistors at inverter station). Test track in Emsland, Germany.

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Train Grande Vitesse (TGV) A high speed rail system. Autotransformer fed catenary 25 kV, 50 Hz, or DC 1.5 kV catenary. Variable frequency inverter control with AC motors. Regenerative braking for high speed, dynamic braking for low speed. Traction power equipment in locomotives. Paris to Tours, France. Test train and revenue service. Amtrak Northeast Corridor (NEC) and New Jersey Transit (NJT) North Jersey Coast Line (60 Hz AC power segment, Long Beach section) Controlled rectifiers and DC motors for electrified sections. Dynamic braking (resistors above locomotive). Traction power equipment in locomotives. Revenue service. - NEC (Washington, DC - New York) Double fed catenary, 11 kV, 25 Hz. - NEC (New York - New Haven)-Autotransformer fed catenary, 12.5 kV, 60 Hz. - NEC (New Haven - Boston) Diesel-electric, 105 Hz alternators, rectifiers and DC motors. - NJT (Matawan - Long Branch) Single fed catenary, 12.5 kV, 60 Hz. Washington, DC Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Metrorail DC 750 V, third rail. Cam or 273 Hz chopper control with DC motors. Regenerative braking for high speed, dynamic braking for low speed (resistors under vehicles). Traction power equipment beneath each vehicle. Gaithersburg, Maryland to Washington, DC revenue service. Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority (MBTA) Subway DC 600 V, third rail or catenary. Cam or 218 Hz chopper control with DC motors. Dynamic braking (resistors under vehicles). Traction power equipment beneath each vehicle. Boston metropolitan area revenue service.

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Figure 15.2

Example of Magnetic Field Versus Frequency and Time

Source: U.S. DOT 1992. Figure 3-3. (112 cm above floor, Inside Transrapid TR07 maglev vehicle)

Magnetic Field Characteristics The characteristics of the magnetic field are controlled by the electric current flowing in the wires. In electrified rail systems using overhead catenaries, AC current from the nearby substation or autotransformer flows in the catenaries via a pantograph to the locomotive or powered passenger vehicle, and returns to the substation or autotransformer via the running rails. This current loop is a major magnetic field source near electrified railroads. The situation is also true for urban mass transit systems, which usually receive DC power from a third (supply) rail. In this case, the current loop formed by the supply rail and the return (running) rails is smaller and therefore a less effective magnetic field source than the catenary-track current loop.

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The loop current varies with time according to the traction power demand. This results in a corresponding change in the magnetic fields in the vehicle and along the guideway. Factors such as train length, onboard load, acceleration and deceleration rates, track incline and train speed affect the traction power requirement. For same system voltage, larger trains requiring higher power produce higher magnetic field levels than those produced by smaller, lighter and slower trains. For catenary-powered transportation systems, the magnetic field produced by the larger current loop is spatially rather uniform throughout the train. The spatial variability was more complicated for the TGV, where a high voltage cable ran across the roofs of the vehicles carrying power from the rear locomotive to the front locomotive, and caused magnetic fields to be higher near the ceilings than near the floor in the passenger compartments (U.S. DOT 1993b). For third rail systems, the magnetic field tends to be higher near the floor of the vehicle (due mainly to under-car traction control equipment) and lower near the ceiling (U.S. DOT 1993c). In general, the onboard traction equipment and other onboard electrical systems can also be significant magnetic field sources (Feero and Dietrich 1995). Currents in the catenary-track or third rail-track circuit produce magnetic fields along the wayside, on station platform, and in the train. The wayside and platform fields have the same frequency characteristics as those in the train, and generally the same temporal variability as long as the train is within the same power block between substations or autotransformers. The field levels along the wayside drop significantly once the train passes to the next substation or autotransformer beyond the wayside point of interest, and attenuate rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. In the Transrapid TR07 maglev system, the traction power is produced by a moving magnetic field in the long stator of the guideway (linear synchronous motor propulsion). The frequency of the magnetic field produced by the guideway varies linearly with the speed of the vehicle. Hence, unlike conventional transportation systems, the active guideway represents a major magnetic field source. The guideway of any transportation system using linear synchronous motor or linear induction motor technology is likely to produce magnetic fields of characteristics similar to those produced by the TR07 system (U.S. DOT 1993e).

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Unlike other transportation systems, the TR07 system uses magnetic fields for vehicle levitation and guidance; they are nominally static fields but require dynamic control to maintain gap equilibrium, thus resulting in a significant time varying component. Magnetic fields from the levitation and guidance magnets, and from currents in the under-car cables providing power to these magnets, were detected in the vehicle, and briefly along the guideway or at the station when the vehicle was present. Magnetic fields from electrical equipment in rectifier stations, transformer yards and other power supply and conditioning stations fall off rapidly with distance away from the equipment, and their influence generally are confined within the station property line. Significant magnetic fields were not measured beyond station property lines where the general public may be found (U.S. DOT 1993e). Electric Field Characteristics According to the U.S. DOT studies, the two major electric field sources for electrified railroads are the high voltage (11 to 25 kV) overhead catenaries (including the catenary feeder conductors in the autotransformer fed systems), and the overhead transmission lines that supply power to the substations. Third rail and catenary circuits of the urban mass transit systems are not significant electric field sources in areas routinely accessible to workers or the general public. The voltage on these systems is relatively low (600 to 750 V), and power delivery to traction power substations is typically at distribution voltage level. Hence, electric fields associated with urban mass transit systems are similar to those near common distribution lines along residential streets (U.S. DOT 1993e). Electric fields were not measured near the power supply facilities associated with the TR07 system. The field levels from the 110 kV transmission line supplying power to the facilities were likely to be similar to those produced by other high voltage transmission lines. Since the electric field is related to the voltage of the power supply line or catenary, the frequency of the electric field is the same as the frequency of the power supply line or catenary. The AC power grid frequency is 60 Hz for

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North America, or 50 Hz for most other parts of the world. Power frequencies of 16 to 25 Hz, which were commonly used prior to the standardization of the power frequency, are still being used in some railway systems, such as a portion of the Amtrak Northeast Corridor. As the voltage of the supply line or catenary is closely regulated, the electric field shows little temporal variability. AC electric field levels exceeding 100 V/m generally occur within ~30 m of the tracks (U.S. DOT 1993a, 1993b) or within ~40 m of high voltage transmission lines (U.S. DOT 1993b). Some urban transit systems use an overhead catenary to supply power to the vehicles. For example, in the MBTA system, the catenary voltage is 600 V DC, which produces an estimated DC field of 50 V/m or less on station platforms, or at road crossings directly under the catenary (U.S. DOT 1993e). Electric fields are easily attenuated by most common materials, especially conductive materials, and do not penetrate significantly into the passenger compartments of the trains. Structures like station buildings, platform overhangs, and vegetation provide varying degrees of shielding of electric field in station buildings, on station platforms, and at the wayside.

15.4.1

Magnetic Field - Guided Transportation Systems

As the initial tests for the U.S. DOT studies (U.S. DOT 1992, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1993d, 1993e, 1993f) indicated that there were no significant components of magnetic field in frequencies from 2565 to 3000 Hz, magnetic field data were collected in the frequency band from 0 to 2560 Hz, instead of the entire ULF and ELF bands from 0 to 3000 Hz, in order to achieve a twofold increase in the amount of recordings that could be saved in the waveform recorder (Feero and Dietrich 1995). The following frequency partitions were used in the data analyses: Static or DC (0 Hz) The magnetic field component which did not vary in intensity or orientation over the time of the waveform snapshot. The total time varying magnetic field measured by the field sensor. Measured signals were processed

ELF frequencies (5 to 2560 Hz)

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digitally using FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) from 2.5 to 2562.5 Hz. Since the bandwidth of each FFT component was 5 Hz, the centre frequencies of the components were from 5 to 2,560 Hz. Sub-power frequencies (5 to 45 Hz) The total field measured with components below the power frequencies of common electric power systems (i.e., 50 and 60 Hz). The center frequencies of the FFT components ranged from 5 to 45 Hz with the actual bandwidth from 2.5 to 47.5 Hz. The total field measured with frequency range of the common center frequencies of the FFT from 50 to 60 Hz with the actual to 62.5 Hz. components in the power systems. The components ranged bandwidth from 47.5

Power frequencies (50 to 60 Hz)

Power frequency harmonics (65 to 300 Hz)

The total field measured with the centre frequencies of the FFT components from 65 to 300 Hz, and the actual bandwidth from 62.5 to 302.5 Hz. This band includes the first few harmonics above the power frequency, and many of the components generated by various sources in the vehicles. The total field measured with the centre frequencies of the FFT components from 305 to 2560 Hz, and the actual bandwidth from 302.5 to 2562.5 Hz. The common power systems typically do not produce significant fields in this frequency band.

High ELF frequencies (305 Hz to 2560 Hz)

15.4.1.1 Passenger Compartments


Measurements were conducted at many locations in the passenger compartments of the transportation vehicles. The Amtrak Northeast Corridor, New Jersey Transit, North Jersey Coast Line (Long Beach), and French TGV-Atlantique (TGV-A) are intercity rail systems that use high voltage AC catenaries. They carry large passenger loads over relatively long distances and at high speeds. The dominant field source is current in the catenary-track

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loop. Although the Transrapid TR07 maglev vehicle is different from other intercity rail vehicles in its propulsion, guidance, and suspension technology, the measurements show similarities in field characteristics such as spatial uniformity over the length of the vehicle, temporal variability with traction power needs, and time varying magnetic fields in the same range of frequencies. Table 15.2 is a summary of average and maximum magnetic field levels in the passenger compartments of the intercity rail vehicles (U.S. DOT 1993e). With the exception of the TR07 maglev vehicles, the field levels were relatively uniform in the passenger compartments and the maximums and averages of all measurements (at various measurement heights) in the passenger compartments were tabulated. For TR07, only data measured at 47 cm above the floor were tabulated. Including average and maximum values of all the data in the TR07 passenger compartments without regard to height above the floor is misleading because of the high field levels near the floor (see Figure 15.3) (U.S. DOT 1993e). From Table 15.2, the highest time varying field was found on the NEC-25 Hz section because of higher speed, hilly terrain and a lower catenary voltage (11 kV, hence higher current for the same power requirement), and occurred in the frequency band containing the catenary power frequency. Lower fields were found on the NEC-60 Hz section due to flatter terrain, lower speed, and higher voltage (12.5 kV versus 11 kV). Even lower fields were found on the TGV-A system due to its higher catenary voltage (25 kV versus 12.5 kV for NEC) and lower catenary current (for the same power requirement). Magnetic field levels measured in the vehicles on the NEC non-electrified section were mainly due to hotel services unrelated to electric traction power. In terms of magnitude and frequency contents, magnetic fields from all transportation systems were not significantly different from each other (see Figure 15.4) (U.S. DOT 1993e). However, the frequency characteristics were different from those reported for other common magnetic field sources (e.g., Figure 15.5 shows a comparison of magnetic fields in a maglev vehicle with those near transmission lines, distribution lines, and household appliances). With the increasing use of solid state devices, distribution lines and household appliances may generate more than just power frequency fields

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(U.S. DOT 1993e). In a study comparing various types of ELF-EMF exposure environments, the authors concluded that maglev technology, as evidenced by the TR07 system, does not present substantially unique exposure to passengers or crew (U.S. DOT 1993f). The average static field at ~50 cm above the floor of the TR07 vehicle was about the same as that in other intercity rail systems where the only known static field source was the geomagnetic field. In general, the geomagnetic field can be affected easily by nearby ferromagnetic objects. Around the Emsland test site, the earths field is ~490 mG. The measured geomagnetic field was distorted by the TR07 guideway structure, producing enhanced field above or below the structure, and reduced field alongside the structure. Inside the vehicle, average static fields ranged from ~835 mG near the floor to ~500 mG at the standing head level. The static fields were more spatially variable, but slightly more stable over time than the time varying fields. Urban mass transit systems in the U.S. DOT studies consisted of individually powered vehicles connected to 600 V (MBTA) or 750 V (WMATA) DC power supply systems using a third rail, with the exception of one system. The MBTA Blue Line cars operated on third rail while in tunnels and on catenaries while above surface; the magnetic field environment did not change appreciably between the two arrangements. Most of the urban mass transit vehicles in the U.S. DOT studies used the older cam power control technology, where the power supplied to the traction motors was controlled by electromechanical contactors operated from a cam switch. The MBTA Green Line cars and the WMATA 3000 Series cars used more modern electronic chopper technology to control the power to the traction motors. The chopper frequencies were 218 and 273 Hz for the Green Line cars and 3000 Series cars respectively. Magnetic fields from the modern Green Line cars were similar to those from the older MBTA cam controlled cars (U.S. DOT 1993d). Likewise, the fields in the front and back sections of the WMATA 3000 Series cars were similar, but in the centre section, the field characteristics were unique in amplitude, frequency spectrum and spatial variability, and strongly dependent on height above the floor (see Figure 15.6) (U.S. DOT 1993c). For the same reason as given for TR07 maglev vehicles, only average and maximum field values measured at a height of 60 cm above the floor are shown in Table 15.3 (U.S. DOT 1993e).

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From Tables 15.2 and 15.3, the ELF field levels in the urban mass transit vehicles were lower than those in the intercity rail vehicles, with the exception of the WMATA 3000 Series cars. In the urban mass transit vehicles, the ELF fields were produced by the traction current in the under-car power control equipment. The current in the third rail or catenary and running rails circuit produced fields in the lower frequency bands. The static field was elevated above the geomagnetic field due to the DC current in the third rail-track or catenary-track circuit, and the under-car power control equipment. The static and ELF fields produced by the smoothing reactor (an inductor used for reducing ripples in the DC current) beneath the center of the WMATA 3000 Series cars were substantially greater than those in other urban mass transit vehicles. Since similar field characteristics were not observed in the MBTA Green Line cars employing similar chopper technology, the authors concluded that the high field levels were a result of the specific design of the smoothing reactors, and not inherent characteristics of the chopper controlled propulsion systems (U.S. DOT 1993e). In addition, an improvement in the design of the magnetic circuit could reduce the stray field generated by the smoothing reactor by orders of magnitude (Feero and Dietrich 1995). For both the MBTA high speed trolley and trolley buses, the highest field levels typically occurred closest to the floor in almost all frequency ranges. This again indicated the dominant field source was the traction and control equipment under the floor.

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Table 15.2

Magnetic Field - Intercity Rail Vehicles Passenger Areas (Average (and maximum) field levels in mG) Static DC 0 Hz
606 (1763) 630 (1039) 569 (1033) 734 (1016) 545 (962) 611.1

Transportation System
NEC 25 Hz NEC 60 Hz NEC Non-electric NJT Long Beach TGV AC Section TR07*

Sub-Power Freq. 545 Hz


132.0 (776.0) 1.4 (12.2) 1.4 (6.7) 1.6 (13.0) 23.3 (106.2) 47.6

Power Freq. 5060 Hz


6.0 (41.4) 52.0 (407.0) 4.8 (26.3) 18.2 (107.1) 30.5 (164.7) 7.7

Power Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz


16.2 (95.2) 5.7 (43.9) 0.7 (5.9) 2.5 (17.7) 2.7 (10.4) 18.5

High ELF Freq. 3052560 Hz


2.7 (14.7) 1.4 (12.8) 0.2 (1.9) 0.7 (3.6) 1.5 (5.4) 1.2

ELF Freq. 52560 Hz


133.8 (782.1) 52.5 (408.4) 5.2 (26.5) 18.6 (108.8) 43.2 (165.0) 52.4

Maglev (1110) (141.4) (29.4) (35.5) (2.5) (143.2) Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Table 3-1 and U.S. DOT 1992. Table 3-2. *Values for TR07 Maglev represent measurements at 47 cm above the floor, see Section 15.4.1.1 text. Average levels for other types of equipment were derived from several measurement heights.

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Figure 15.3

Magnetic Field Versus Height - TR07 Maglev Vehicle Passenger Areas

Source:

U.S. DOT 1993e. Figure 2-6.

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Figure 15.4

Magnetic Field Versus Frequency - Intercity Rail and Urban Mass Transit Vehicles Passenger Areas

Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Figure 1-3. Maximum (bar top) and average (horizontal line) field levels

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Figure 15.5

Magnetic Field Comparison - TR07 Vehicle and Other Sources

Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Figure 1-2. Maximum (bar top) and average (horizontal line) field levels

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Figure 15.6

Magnetic Field Versus Height WMATA 3000 Series Metrorail Car Passenger Areas

Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Figure 2-5.

Table 15.3

Magnetic Field Urban Mass Transit Vehicles Passenger Areas (Average (and maximum) field levels in mG)

SubStatic Power Power High ELF ELF Transportation DC Power Frequency Freq. Frequency Frequency 0 Hz Frequency 5060 Hz Harmonics 3052560 52560 Hz System 545 Hz 65300 Hz Hz
WMATA Subway (Cam) Cars WMATA* MBTA Subway Cars MBTA High Speed Trolley 2685 534 (1981) 719 (3074) 98.5 (423.9) 5.2 (66.0) 4.1 (25.6) 12.6 (50.8) 1.1 (14.7) 0.8 (4.8) 133.5 (248.6) 1.4 (18.3) 0.7 (3.7) 41.2 (61.6) 0.7 (4.7) 0.3 (1.8) 177.8 (443.6) 5.7 (68.4) 4.5 (26.0) 3000 Series Cars (23732) 1013 (4714) 9.9 (64.5) 1.0 (5.6) 1.6 (9.3) 0.9 (5.0) 9.4 (64.8)

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Power High ELF Static SubPower ELF Transportation DC Frequency Frequency Power Frequency Freq. System 0 Hz Frequency 5060 Hz Harmonics 3052560 52560 Hz 545 Hz 65300 Hz Hz
MTBA 273 1.7 1.6 0.8 1.3 3.2 Trolley Bus (467) (12.9) (6.5) (3.4) (9.3) (13.2) Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Table 3-2. *Values for WMATA 3000 Series Cars represent measurements at 60 cm above the floor, see Section 15.4.1.1 text. Average levels for other types of equipment were derived from several measurement heights.

15.4.1.2 Passenger Platforms


Magnetic field measurements were taken on both outdoor and underground station platforms, generally at the yellow safety line near the edge of the platform at both the arriving and departure ends, as well as at other points near the center of the platform. In addition, measurements were taken on escalators, on mezzanines, and in waiting lounges. As passengers were not permitted on the outdoor platform when TR07 maglev vehicles were passing, magnetic fields were measured at the station door leading to the platform. The major magnetic field source on station platforms was the AC or DC current in the catenary-track or third rail-track circuit, or active maglev guideway. The field characteristics were similar to those in the vehicles and were determined by the type of electrification. Secondary magnetic field sources on the platforms were currents in nearby electric circuits, or in structural members of the platform. Table 15.4 shows averages and maximums of all measurement data for station platforms and waiting areas. Magnetic field levels in waiting lounges were considerably lower than those on the platforms. Measured magnetic field levels in the TR07 passenger station were similar to those along the guideway. While a vehicle was passing the station, the time varying field level near the edge of the loading platform could approach 300 mG. However, passengers were not permitted in this area when there was a passing vehicle. Within the waiting area in the station, the time varying fields produced by the passing vehicle could approach approximately 20 mG. As at other locations along the guideway, the fields had a complex frequency

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spectrum, with the largest field components in the low frequencies, and they occurred briefly while the vehicle was passing the station. The static field for the intercity rail systems was mainly due to the geomagnetic field and was fairly constant with time. When a train was in the station, the geomagnetic field was perturbed, producing some of the maximum values in Table 15.4. The static field near the platform surface was spatially quite variable, probably due to perturbation from the structural steel in the platform. Time varying fields for the intercity rail systems were dominated by the characteristics of the catenary current. Temporal variability of the field on the platform was larger than that in the vehicles because there was little or no magnetic field from the catenary-track circuit when the train was beyond the first substation or autotransformer away from the station platform. Time varying field levels on platforms for urban mass transit systems were typically smaller than those for intercity rails because catenaries were not generally used to carry current in the former systems. Low frequency magnetic fields from fluctuating DC traction current were larger at stations with catenaries (MBTA outdoor-catenary) than those at stations with third rails. Higher frequency (>60 Hz) magnetic fields were most prevalent at urban mass transit stations that were served by chopper-controlled vehicles because of fields generated by the onboard chopper control equipment. Static fields were more variable with time due to fields produced by the DC current in the third rail-track or catenary-track circuit. The average static fields were not elevated in any consistent manner.

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Table 15.4

Magnetic Field Station Platforms and Waiting Lounges Passenger Areas (Average (and maximum) field levels in mG) Static DC 0 Hz
422 (970) 650 (1629) 525 (615) 511 (912) 573 (1372) 547 (549) 460 (485) 455 (2065) 424 (1090)

Transportation System
NEC 25 Hz Princeton Junction Platform NEC 60 Hz New Rochelle Platform NJT 60 Hz Red Bank Platform NEC Non Electric South Station Lounge NEC 25 Hz Penn Station Lounge Transrapid TR07 Passenger Lounge TGV A (AC Section) Vendome Platform WMATA-Outdoor-Chopper Grosvenor Platform WMATA-Outdoor Grosvenor Escalator

Sub-Power Freq. 545 Hz


38.1 (537.0) 0.9 (51.5) 0.6 (4.8) 0.2 (0.7) 6.0 (13.4) 0.1 (12.4) 0.3 (0.9) 0.9 (20.4) 0.5 (2.4)

Power Freq. 5060 Hz


1.1 (13.8) 59.8 (407.2) 28.0 (209.4) 0.4 (0.7) 0.5 (0.9) 0.1 (6.3) 7.0 (43.8) 1.7 (3.7) 1.2 (4.5)

High ELF Power Freq. Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz 3052560 Hz


8.8 (121.2) 15.6 (101.6) 8.0 (50.6) 0.1 (0.3) 1.0 (2.2) 0.1 (14.9) 0.6 (1.6) 1.5 (57.7) 0.4 (0.9) 1.6 (17.1) 4.9 (26.6) 2.6 (15.7) 0.0 (0.1) 0.1 (0.3) 0.0 (1.3) 0.7 (1.5) 0.8 (26.0) 0.3 (1.5)

ELF Freq. 52560Hz


39.6 (550.8) 62.2 (417.6) 28.8 (213.2) 0.5 (1.1) 6.1 (13.6) 0.2 (19.5) 9.0 (43.9) 3.1 (66.6) 1.5 (5.1)

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Transportation System
WMATA-Underground Gallery Place Platform WMATA-Underground Gallery Place Mezzanine MBTA-Underground Several Platforms MBTA-Outdoor-Catenary Wood Island Platform MBTA-Underground-Chopper Government Center Platform Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Table 3-3.

Static DC 0 Hz
385 (953) 455 (1004) 625 (2411) 612 (1718) 515 (912)

Sub-Power Freq. 545 Hz


1.0 (12.7) 0.3 (0.8) 2.0 (20.5) 6.5 (81.4) 2.1 (8.0)

Power Freq. 5060 Hz


0.3 (1.8) 0.3 (0.5) 2.6 (9.5) 2.9 (6.4) 0.9 (3.8)

High ELF Power Freq. Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz 3052560 Hz


0.6 (8.4) 0.2 (0.5) 1.4 (4.1) 1.4 (7.9) 2.7 (16.2) 0.9 (3.3) 0.2 (1.3) 0.8 (2.2) 1.4 (3.9) 1.1 (7.8)

ELF Freq. 52560Hz


1.5 (15.5) 0.5 (1.5) 4.0 (23.0) 8.6 (82.0) 4.0 (17.6)

Note: Average levels for different equipment types were derived from several measurement heights.

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15.4.1.3 Wayside Locations


Wayside measurements were carried out at the sides of the tracks with trains passing in either direction and at highway overpasses and underpasses. The characteristics of the field along the track rights-of-way were very similar to those on station platforms except that the field levels decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Measured maximum field data were combined with theoretical attenuation rates for fields from currents in the catenary and running rails to produce Figure 15.7 (U.S. DOT 1993e). Figure 15.7 Magnetic Field Versus Horizontal Distance from Tracks Intercity Rail and Urban Mass Transit Systems

Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Figure 3-5.

Measurements from the 25 and 60 Hz sections of the NEC Line, the 60 Hz section of the NJT North Jersey Coast Line, and the 50 Hz section of the TGV-A Line provided generally consistent time varying wayside field levels. The range of maximum wayside field levels is shown in Figure 15.7. The frequency spectrum of the wayside magnetic field of the intercity rail systems was dominated by the frequency of the catenary current and its harmonics, as it was at the station and in the vehicles. Average wayside magnetic fields

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were not very meaningful as they were highly dependent on factors such as rail traffic density, train speed and distance between substations. Elevated magnetic field levels were only encountered near the TR07 guideway for brief periods when the guideway was energized and a vehicle was passing by. At 10 m from the centreline of the TR07 guideway, the height of the guideway was not a significant factor in determining the field levels (U.S. DOT 1992). Although the TR07 maximum field levels were within the range of field levels for intercity rails (see Figure 15.7), the magnetic field characteristics (i.e., frequency and temporal variability) along the maglev guideway were different from those along other intercity rails. Like the fields inside the vehicle, the guideway fields had a complex frequency spectrum, with the largest fields in the low frequencies. The TR07 levitation fields were nominally static fields, and could be detected briefly along the guideway or at the station, while the vehicle was passing by or stopped. In the absence of the vehicle, the static magnetic field near the TR07 guideway was not significantly different form the earths field (U.S. DOT 1992). The principal magnetic field component produced by the DC current in the third rail-track circuit of an urban mass transit system was the static component, which at the wayside was small compared to the geomagnetic field and could not be reliably measured (U.S. DOT 1993c). However, the larger loop spacing of the catenary-track circuit of the above surface section of the MBTA Blue Line produced a measurable static field at the wayside (U.S. DOT 1993d). The maximum static field levels at the wayside of the catenary-powered urban mass transit system are shown in Figure 15.7. Since the maximum field component from the urban mass transit system was the static component, and was small compared to the geomagnetic field, the total static field environment at the wayside was not substantially changed. Theoretically calculated typical maximum magnetic field curves for DC and AC electric traction systems with overhead catenaries are given in an IEC document (see Figures 15.8 and 15.9) (IEC 1998). The calculations are for a current of 1000 A with 50% of the current returning through the normal rails, and the other 50% through earth. The DC system is supplied from the AC power grid through three phase rectifiers giving a ripple frequency six times

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the power grid frequency. Magnetic fields along the wayside vary considerably according to the position of the moving traction engine relative to the points of electricity supply. Linear conversion of magnetic field levels is allowed for other traction currents. Typical maximum traction currents appropriate to normal running conditions have been discussed in SECTION 15.4: DC SYSTEMS AND AC SYSTEMS. Figure 15.8 Calculated Typical Maximum Magnetic Field Versus Horizontal Distance from Tracks DC Railway Line with Overhead Contact Wire System

Source: IEC 1998. Figure 11. Notes: Calculations for 1 kA of traction current with 50% of the current returning through the rails, and the other 50% through earth. Contact wires above centre of track (x = 0). Calculations at 1 m above the surface of the rail. 1 T/kA = 10 mG/kA. Magnetic fields along the wayside vary considerably according to the position of the moving traction engine relative to the points of electricity supply. Linear conversion of magnetic field levels is allowed for other traction currents.

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Figure 15.9

Calculated Typical Maximum Magnetic Field Versus Horizontal Distance from Tracks AC Railway Line with Overhead Contact Wire System

Source: IEC 1998. Figure 12. Notes: Calculations for 1 kA of traction current with 50% of the current returning through the rails, and the other 50% through earth. Contact wires above centre of track (x = 0). Calculations at 1 m above the surface of the rail. 1 T/kA = 10 mG/kA. Magnetic fields along the wayside vary considerably according to the position of the moving traction engine relative to the points of electricity supply. Linear conversion of magnetic field levels is allowed for other traction currents.

Table 15.5 gives typical maximum EMF levels at the fundamental frequency (DC or AC), calculated for conductor arrangements regarded to be typical for the respective type of electrification (IEC 2003b). A study at a train station along the Milan - Malpensa Airport route in Italy shows that the measured maximum ELF magnetic field level from the DC overhead catenary was below approximately 2 mG at a distance of 10 m from the tracks, and the dominant frequency was 300 Hz (Imposimato 2000). The author commented that the measured value agreed well with the theoretical curve in the IEC document. As the current loading at the station was low (i.e., tens of amperes) at the time of the measurements, the author predicted that

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the field level could reach approximately 100 mG when the current loading could be much higher (i.e., hundreds of amperes) in the winter months. Table 15.5 Typical Calculated Maximum Electric and Magnetic Field Levels at Fundamental Frequency of Different Electrification Systems Frequency (Hz)
0

System
750 to 1200 V DC conductor rail 600 to 750 V DC catenary 1500 V DC catenary 3 kV DC

Electric field (V/m)


<10

Magnetic field (mG)


460

Reference condition
I = 4000 A 50% of return current in rails

35

150

I = 1000 A 50% of return current in rails

63

1110

I = 8000 A V = 1800 V No aerial wire

50

280

I = 3000 A V = 3600 V Aerial wire

15 kV AC

16.7

750

400

I = 2000 A V = 17.25 kV No aerial wire

25 kV AC

50

1000

160

I = 1500 A V = 27.5 kV No feeder wire and

autotransformer Source: IEC 2003b. Table C.1. Notes: Calculated levels at a distance of 10 m from the centerline of the nearest track and 1 m above rail level. Double track assumed for calculation. I = current in one conductor rail or catenary of each track. Electric fields at harmonic frequencies (mainly third and fifth harmonics of AC supply frequency or 300 and 600 Hz ripple of DC supply) may be in the order of 5 % of the fundamental. Magnetic fields at AC harmonic frequencies range up to 10 % of the fundamental or up to 2 % at 300 Hz and 600 Hz for DC systems. The lateral decrease of the electric and magnetic fields may be assumed to decrease linearly with distance. Magnetic field can be calculated linearly with the current.

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15.4.1.4 Outside Power Supply Facilities


Measurements were made outside power facilities associated with various transportation systems, at one or more locations outside the facility fence or wall where public access was likely and magnetic field levels were expected to be high (U.S. DOT 1993d). Power facilities associated with intercity rail systems consisted of transformer or autotransformer yards. Magnetic fields produced by these facilities were time varying fields at the network and catenary power frequency and its harmonics. Temporal variability of the fields was determined by the power needs of all the trains operating in the track sections served by the station. Power supply stations for urban mass transit systems were often smaller but more complicated than those for intercity rails. In addition to AC equipment, there were rectifier banks for converting AC power to DC power. The DC output current of the station, fluctuating according to the traction power needs on the tracks served by the station, produced static and low frequency time varying fields. In addition, the rectifiers produced magnetic fields at harmonics of the power frequency. Inverter stations, containing all components of an intercity rail power supply station and an urban mass transit power supply station, were used only by the TR07 maglev system. The DC output from the rectifier banks was converted into a variable frequency AC current used by the active guideway. The inverter station produced static and time varying fields with a wide range of frequencies. Magnetic fields measured outside power supply facilities associated with intercity rail systems, urban mass transit systems, and the TR07 maglev system are shown in Figure 15.10. Near intercity rail system power facilities, only time varying fields were produced. The only static field was the geomagnetic field. The principal component of the time varying field was the power frequency component. Near urban mass transit system power facilities, a static field produced by the DC current was found in addition to the geomagnetic field. The principal components of the time varying field consisted of low frequency and harmonic components.

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Figure 15.10 Magnetic Field Outside Power Stations of Electrified Rail Systems

Source: U.S. DOT 1993e. Figure 3-6. Maximum (bar top) and average (horizontal line) field levels

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The highest time varying magnetic fields were found near the TR07 maglev inverter facilities where a wide range of frequencies was present. However, it was not known whether the public would be permitted as close to the equipment in a revenue service installation as the location where measurements were made. Although the time varying fields near major equipment had very complex frequency and time characteristics, the average field levels were generally below about 2 mG. Feeder cables were the only major field source outside the power stations. Measured time varying fields from cables were generally below 2 mG and they attenuated quickly with distance away from the cables. The cables and power supply equipment had no measurable effect on the earths field, other than passive perturbation of the earths field due to the ferromagnetic materials in the structures and equipment (U.S. DOT1992).

15.4.2

Magnetic Field - SkyTrain System

The SkyTrain, North Americas longest fully automated rapid transit system, uses advanced rapid transit technology, which employs linear induction motor (LIM) propulsion and unique steerable suspension. The primary power is 600 V DC (300 V DC), with propulsion power conversion and auxiliary power conversion equipment onboard each car. It is a five-rail system: two rails for 300 V DC, two running rails and one reaction rail for LIM propulsion. The chopper frequency of the propulsion control unit is approximately 470 Hz for Mark I vehicles and approximately 20 kHz for newer Mark II vehicles. The frequency of the AC current (generally below 100 Hz) in the linear induction motor is used for controlling the speed of the vehicle. The substation feed is typically supplied by the B.C. Hydro 3-phase, 12 kV distribution system. The onboard auxiliary power system is 36V DC for Mark I vehicles; 48V DC and 480 V AC 3-phase for Mark II vehicles. Magnetic field measurements were obtained from the existing SkyTrain system (Expo Line, Mark I vehicles): in moving vehicles, at typical substations, at station platforms and at a trackside location (Takahashi 1993). As field levels were found to vary continuously with time at all locations, field readings were recorded continuously for intervals of one to five minutes. From the recorded data, the minimum, maximum and average readings of each recorded interval were obtained. The recording instruments used in this

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study were EmdexC meters by Electric Field Measurement of Massachusetts, with 3-dB (decibels) bandwidth typically from about 35 to 400 Hz.4

15.4.2.1 SkyTrain Vehicles


Sixteen measurement locations spaced more or less uniformly from the front to the rear of the vehicle were selected. Besides readings at the standard measurement height of 1 m (IEEE 1994), some readings were also taken at the floor level, and at heights of 0.5 and 1.7 m (see Table 15.6). Magnetic field levels in the vehicles varied according to many factors, such as track grade, speed and acceleration rate. At a measurement height of 1 m, the highest average and maximum readings were 19 and 58 mG, respectively. Readings were generally higher at lower heights (0.5 m and floor level), and lower at higher heights (1.7 m). At the floor level, the highest average and maximum readings were 175 and 1017 mG respectively. At 1.7 m, the highest average and maximum readings were 6.7 and 20 mG respectively. For each sample, the peak value was typically three times the average value (see Figure 15.11). Table 15.6 Magnetic Field - SkyTrain Vehicles Passenger Areas (Frequencies: 35 to 400 Hz) No. of Samples
6 38 2 6 52

Height Above Floor


1.7 m 1.0 m 0.5 m Floor Level All Heights

Average Field (mG)


5.0 9.4 16 109 20.6

Highest Average Field (mG)


6.7 19 17 175 175

Maximum Field (mG)


20 58 84 1017 1017

Source: Takahashi 1993.

The EmdexC meter is normally used for measuring 60 Hz fields, however, it does respond to fields containing non 60 Hz components since its 3 dB cut-off points (i.e., those points where the meter response is ~0.7 times of its response at 60 Hz) are respectively about 35 and 400 Hz.

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Figure 15.11

Magnetic Field Versus Time SkyTrain Vehicle

Source: Takahashi 1993. Graph 3. (1 m above floor, 35-400 Hz)

15.4.2.2 Station Platforms


Measurements were made at a single island type platform (Scott Road), and a double island type platform (Edmonds). The ambient magnetic field levels were <0.5 mG at the Scott Road station, and ranged from 1.1 to 2.9 mG at the Edmonds station. An accelerating train increased the ambient level to a peak of 8.4 mG for the first station, and 11 mG for the second station (see Figure 15.12). The increase in field levels caused by decelerating trains was lower than that caused by accelerating trains. After the complete departure of a train, the fields returned to ambient levels.

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Figure 15.12

Magnetic Field Versus Time SkyTrain Platform

Source: Takahashi 1993. Graph 60. (1 m above floor, 35-400 Hz)

15.4.3

Near Guideway

On the John Molson walkway near Fairmont Street, the ambient level was below 1 mG. As a train was passing by this location, the level increased momentarily to 22 mG (see Figure 15.13).

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Figure 15.13

Magnetic Field Versus Time Near SkyTrain Guideway

Source: Takahashi 1993. Graph 62. (1 m above floor, 35-400 Hz)

15.4.4

Inside Power Substations

For substations, measurements were made at a double unit substation (Broadway), and three single unit substations (Royal Oak, Joyce and Nanaimo). Readings were taken both inside and outside the substation buildings and fenced areas, with the measuring instrument typically at 30 cm from the closest equipment. For the double unit substation (Broadway), the highest average and maximum readings inside the substation buildings and fenced areas were 127 and 414 mG, respectively. For the single unit substations, the Nanaimo substation had the highest readings, with the highest average and maximum readings at 285 and 528 mG, respectively. Localized higher readings were found outside the substation buildings. Presumably these locations were near buried underground AC power cables

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feeding the substations. The general public is not allowed inside the substations or fenced areas.

15.4.4.1 Outside Power Substations


Outside the Broadway substation, the maximum field level dropped from 6.7 mG on the north side of the substation to 1.4 mG at the centreline of the sidewalk. Outside the Joyce substation, the maximum level dropped from 21 mG on the south side of the substation to 3.4 mG at the centreline of the sidewalk. Outside the Royal Oak substation, the maximum level dropped from 28 mG on the south side of the substation to 1.3 mG at the centreline of the lane. Outside the Nanaimo substation, the maximum level dropped from 33 mG on the south and north sides of the substation to 0.5 mG at a distance of 12 m away from the substation.

15.5

EMF Other Transportation Systems

A comprehensive study on the characterization of the EMF environment for various forms of transportation was carried out by Dietrich and Jacobs (U.S. DOT 1999) as an extension to broaden the previous EMF work discussed in SECTION 15.4.1. It provides extensive static and ELF electric and magnetic field data for: Four conventional cars and light trucks. One diesel transit bus. One commercial jetliner, while taxiing. The aircraft generators produce 400 Hz electric power, which is carried from the rear to the forward cockpit area via cables under the cabin floor. One double-deck diesel-powered ferry boat. One electricpowered airport shuttle tram. Vehicle obtains 60 Hz electric power from an energized third rail. Traction motors are on the drive wheels. Most of the power control equipment is beneath the floor, and some in cabinets at both ends of the vehicles. Five escalators. Drive motors are 60 Hz and usually located at one end of the escalator. Four moving walkways at an airport (essentially horizontal escalators). Five electric cars and light trucks. Two electric buses for shuttling around airport.

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Two self-powered commuter rail vehicles using variable frequency AC drive. This type of vehicle was not characterized in the previous work on electrified rail systems. Unlike conventional trains in which powered locomotives pull a string of non-powered cars, these self-powered cars have onboard electric motors and necessary electrical equipment to collect electric power from the overhead catenaries and propel themselves along the track. The speed of the AC motors, and hence the speed of the train, is controlled by the frequency of the electric power supplied to the motors. High power electronics beneath the car convert the single-phase 60 Hz power collected from the catenaries via a roof-mounted pantograph to DC power, and ultimately to three-phase AC power at the frequency appropriate for the speed of the train.

Based on the measurement protocol from previous work, the positions of the detectors were standardized to capture data at various body locations, various locations within a vehicle, and various locations on the platform. Complex (i.e., variable in time and space) ELF magnetic fields were present in every transportation system examined. The frequency content and magnitude of the magnetic field vary markedly between transportation systems, at different places within each vehicle, and at different times at the same location, thus making it difficult to provide concise comparisons between transportation systems. To comprehend fully the variation in magnetic field characteristics among transportation systems and to gauge the variability (spatially and temporally) within each class of vehicle, one should look beyond the summary descriptors (e.g., average field levels) and examine the complete summary data of each transportation system (U.S. DOT 1999). Time varying electric fields were essentially non-existent in all of the transportation systems examined except the commuter rail system. Onboard the vehicle, chest-level 60 Hz electric fields from the 27.5 kV overhead catenary supply system ranged from ~0 to 18 V/m, averaging 4.6 V/m. No fields were detectable at harmonics of 60 Hz, nor at any of the other frequencies generated by the onboard electric traction power equipment. The only time varying electric fields in other transportation systems were low frequency fields associated with the movement of passengers or test personnel near the measurement site. Static electric charge on synthetic clothing and other belongings produced a static electric field. When these objects moved in the vehicle, there was an associated

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time varying component consisting of very low frequency components. The detected fields were typically in the range of 3 to 30 V/m. Table 15.7 shows a summary of magnetic field levels in various frequency bands averaged across a wide range of locations and operating conditions for ten transportation systems, together with the maximum field levels recorded at any location and any instant of time. Since thousands of measurements were made in some transportation systems, the maximum levels represent rare events which may have no particular significance except to identify the wide range of variability possible in each system. The average magnetic field levels in Table 15.7 are shown in Figures 15.4 and 15.5 (U.S. DOT 1999). The following frequency bands, which were slightly different than those in the previous studies, were used in the data analyses: Static, DC (0 Hz). ELF frequencies (5 to 3000 Hz; 5 to 2560 Hz were used previously). Low sub-power frequencies (5 to 55 Hz; 5 to 45 Hz were used previously). Power frequency (60 Hz; 50 to 60 Hz were used previously). Power frequency harmonics (65 to 300 Hz; same as those used previously). High ELF frequencies (305 Hz to 3000 Hz; 305 to 2560 Hz were used previously).

Static magnetic fields were comparable in all 10 transportation systems because the fields were dominated by the geomagnetic field. The DC magnetic fields generated by the DC currents in the vehicles did not add appreciably to the average total static field environment. The variability of the static field in vehicles using DC current was not dramatically inconsistent with that of vehicles not using DC current. For the electric-powered airport shuttle tram, static field variations were due to changes in shielding of the geomagnetic field by the tram body and steel structures in the tunnel. For escalators and moving sidewalks, static field variations were due to magnetized iron components in or near the escalator, and due to changes in shielding of the geomagnetic field by nearby steel in the escalator and building. In the 10 transportation systems studied, the main ELF magnetic field components were primarily below the power frequency, except the jetliner and

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commuter train. The 60 Hz field was a major component in the magnetic field environment of the airport shuttle tram and commuter train. Unlike other transportation systems, the electric power for the onboard propulsion system was delivered to the vehicle in the form of 60 Hz current from a third rail or catenary system. The 60 Hz field was due to the power delivery system and onboard wiring and equipment. Magnetic fields in frequencies from 65 to 3000 Hz were elevated in vehicles with onboard electric propulsion systems, namely electric cars and light trucks, electric buses, airport shuttle tram and commuter train. These fields were due to power electronic equipment and associated wiring which convert DC electric power from vehicle batteries or 60 Hz electric power from supply circuits to other frequencies needed for propulsion and other onboard electrical systems. Average ELF magnetic field levels in electrically powered cars and light trucks using modern technology were similar to those in conventional cars and light trucks. Low frequency fields from similar sources were the dominant component in both types of vehicles, while field components at frequencies greater than 60 Hz were typically only a minor part of the total field environment. Nonetheless, higher frequency components were higher in electric vehicles. Low frequency ELF magnetic fields of the electric bus were similar to those of the diesel bus, but the power frequency harmonic fields were higher for the electric bus. As a result, the average ELF field level in the electric bus was higher than that in the conventional bus. Average ELF magnetic field levels in the self-powered AC drive commuter rail vehicles were higher than those in smaller and lighter electric-powered vehicles. While the propulsion equipment under these cars contributed to the field levels within the vehicles, the total average ELF field level (49.6 mG) was within the range of average field levels previously measured in non-powered cars of conventional rail systems (19 to 134 mG) where the traction power equipment was only in the locomotives. Due to the abundance of electrical equipment beneath the floor of the selfpowered rail cars, the average ELF field levels were strongest near the floor and weaker at increasing heights. The situation was different for non-powered rail cars where the predominant field source was current in the catenary-track circuit.

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For the electric-powered airport shuttle tram, measurements were also taken at the tram stations. Measurements at each location began before the tram arrived, and ended after the tram left the station. The 60 Hz field was elevated with the presence of the tram. As the tram was departing the station, the 60 Hz and harmonic fields rose abruptly as a result of power consumed by the onboard traction equipment and circuitry, and fell back to ambient levels as the tram moved away. Field levels measured at the station were lower than those onboard. Magnetic field characteristics of moving walkways at an airport (essentially horizontal escalators) were similar to those of the escalators.

15.5.1

Other Magnetic Field Sources

The authors also identified other principle sources of magnetic field and their characteristics (U.S. DOT 1999): Moving magnetized mechanical components Many of the ferromagnetic components in the transportation systems have residual magnetism, which produce time varying magnetic fields when they move. Two common sources are: the steel belts of radial tires on cars and light trucks, which produce fields with frequency (typically <100 Hz) that is proportional to either vehicle or engine speed; and the linearly moving magnetized components on escalators and moving sidewalks. Movement through non-uniform static fields The geomagnetic field which surrounds transportation equipment is highly perturbed by ferromagnetic objects such as steel bridges, tunnel reinforcing steel along underground tramways, or even parked or passing transportation vehicles. As a result, there are frequently large spatial gradients in the static field along the route of travel of a transportation vehicle. Time varying fields are generated when the vehicle passes through these gradients. Larger field components were typically <10 Hz, decreasing rapidly in intensity with higher frequencies. Magnetic fields from this source demonstrate large temporal variability, contributing significantly to maximum field levels but having lesser effect on average or median levels.

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Anisotropic shielding by vehicle body The ferromagnetic material of a vehicle body perturbs and generally attenuates the geomagnetic field as it enters the vehicle. The perturbation and shielding effect depends on the location in the vehicle and the orientation of the vehicle with respect to the geomagnetic field vector. When the vehicle makes a turn, the magnitude of the static field changes at most locations in the vehicle giving rise to time varying fields similar to those described for movement through nonuniform static fields. On board electric propulsion system All of the electric-powered transportation vehicles examined used newer power semiconductor technology to control electric power to the traction motors, with some using AC traction motors rather than DC motors as been done historically. Magnetic fields typically exhibit a fundamental frequency in the vicinity of 100 to 200 Hz from the electronic converters, and significant harmonics throughout the ELF range. For vehicles using AC traction motors, speed dependent magnetic fields, in frequencies from 0 to ~100 Hz, were observed at some locations. Power delivery circuits The airport shuttle tram and the commuter train (AC drive) receive 60 Hz electric power from a third rail system and a catenary system respectively. Both power delivery circuits are effective field sources which contribute to the magnetic field within the vehicle. The time varying field in the commuter train was principally 60 Hz, which averaged 34.2 mG. This was comparable to those measured from other 60 Hz railroads, 52.0 mG for Amtrak Northeast Corridor, and 18.2 mG for New Jersey Transit Long Beach Line (U.S. DOT 1993e). Onboard accessories Magnetic fields from onboard accessories, such as ventilating fans and passenger lighting, were seen on many vehicles. These fields were generally highly localized and often had very specific frequency signatures. External field sources External magnetic fields from sources unrelated to the transportation system contribute to the field environment within the system. The geomagnetic field was the principle source of static fields in all vehicles. The 60 Hz fields from power lines along the roadway were the major source of 60 Hz fields in conventional cars and light trucks.

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Table 15.7

Magnetic Field - Other Transportation Systems Passenger Areas (Average (and Maximum) Field levels in mG) Static DC 0 Hz
511 (760) 557 (958) 576 (1218) 321 (968)

Transportation System

Sub-Power Freq. 555 Hz


0.2 (1.0) 1.3 (60.1) 3.1 (195.4) 5.5 (124.2)

Power Freq. 60 Hz
0.4 (3.1) 0.4 (3.2) 1.2 (12.4) 0.9 (19.4)

Power Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz


0.2 (1.2) 0.2 (10.5) 0.7 (37.2) 0.8 (13.6)

High ELF Freq. 3053000 Hz


0.1 (0.3) 0.1 (0.3) 0.3 (19.0) 0.4 (7.8)

ELF Freq. 5-3000 Hz


0.6 (3.3) 1.5 (61.4) 3.7 (200.0) 5.7 (124.5)

Ferry Boat Escalators Moving Walkways Conventional Cars & Light Trucks Electric Cars & Light Trucks: Dynamometer Test Track Jetliner Shuttle Tram - AC Electric Conventional Transit Bus Electric Shuttle Bus Commuter Train - AC Drive Source: U.S. DOT 1999. Table 10-1.

408 (1286) 388 (1041) 552 (669) 470 (835) 401 (1124) 381 (808) 538 (1969)

3.4 (56.1) 4.8 (92.7) 0.6 (3.5) 10.7 (88.5) 16.4 (144.2) 14.7 (486.7) 18.5 (453.5)

0.9 (12.5) 0.8 (15.3) 0.0 (0.6) 5.5 (29.0) 0.9 (14.2) 0.8 (38.8) 34.2 (738.8)

3.6 (79.9) 1.9 (24.5) 0.2 (8.1) 3.0 (14.4) 1.9 (21.3) 8.9 (220.5) 14.6 (340.3)

1.0 (8.6) 0.7 (6.9) 13.5 (212.4) 1.2 (7.0) 2.1 (24.8) 1.6 (10.7) 5.9 (48.7)

5.7 (80.8) 5.7 (93.5) 13.6 (212.5) 13.7 (90.4) 16.8 (145.7) 20.4 (487.8) 49.6 (799.3)

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15.6

EMF Exposure Guidelines

There are no ELF electric and magnetic field exposure standards or guidelines in Canada or the Province of British Columbia. The Federal-Provincial-Territorial Radiation Protection Committee (FRTRPC) published an overview on health effects and exposure guidelines related to extremely low frequency (ELF) 50/60 Hz electric and magnetic fields, together with a position statement in 1998 (FRTRPC 1998).5 The contents of the position statement are as follows: 1. The production of electric and magnetic fields are associated with the generation, transmission and use of electricity. People are exposed to these fields not only when they are near high voltage lines, but also at their places of work and in their homes. Such fields are produced by distribution lines, transformers, building and house wiring and by all devices that use electric power. Studies to investigate the health effects of these fields have been taking place around the world for more than twenty-five years. Such research has included laboratory studies concerning the effects on cells, tissues and animals, as well as studies on human exposure and Epidemiology. Epidemiological studies suggest a weak association between increased risk of certain types of cancer, and exposure to magnetic and/or electric fields; however the findings are inconsistent and inconclusive. Experiments with animals and cells show that these fields can interact with biological systems and with cellular chemistry. These interactions, however, have not been shown to lead to adverse health effects. Extensive world-wide research programs are ongoing in order to clarify whether or not there are indeed health risks. Research to date(1) has not identified any biophysical mechanisms that link the initiation or promotion of cancer by power frequency field properties. Recommended exposure limits to prevent acute health effects have been put forward by an international committee of experts(2). It is extremely unlikely that members of the Canadian public would be exposed above these exposure limits. In the case of chronic exposure at ambient levels,

2.

3.

4. 5.

Prepared by a Working Group of the FPTRPC. The Committee was established to support Federal, Provincial and Territorial government radiation protection agencies with their respective mandates, in Canada. Messrs. Brian Phillips and Randy Ross of the Radiation Protection Services of the BC Centre for Disease Control are the representatives for B.C. Mr. Phillips was the Chair of the Working Group when the document was prepared.

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6.

currently available information on health and bio-effects does not provide a basis for establishing more restrictive exposure limits. The FPTRPC will continue to monitor the results of new studies and reassess this position as new information becomes available.
(1) Council of the American Physical Society - (95/04/22) (2) ICNIRP Guidelines Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (Up to 300 GHz), Health Physics, Vol. 74, No. 4, pp. 494-522, April 1998. The Guidelines recommend a limit of 4.16 kV/m and 83.3 T (833 mG) for 24-hour exposure of the general public.

In addition to the ICNIRP guidelines in the position statement, other international and national (i.e., from countries other than Canada) standards or guidelines for continuous general public and occupational exposure to power frequency EMF were discussed in the 1998 overview, but no exposure guidelines or standards for Canada were recommended by the Federal-Provincial Territorial Radiation Protection Committee. Of all the exposure standards and guidelines in the 1998 overview, the recommended 60 Hz values of 4.16 kV/m and 833 mG from the ICNIRP guidelines represent the lowest exposure limits for the general public. The Federal-Provincial Territorial Radiation Protection Committee has a Working Group tasked to update the 1998 position statement and overview document, and consider the need in Canada for an EMF exposure standard to cover the 0 to 3 kHz range. The Radiation Protection Services (RPS) of the BC Centre for Disease Control6 provides guidance on addressing exposure to electric and magnetic fields in British Columbia. In the absence of a national ELF guideline on electric and magnetic fields, the current position of the RPS is to follow the ICNIRP exposure guidelines for the general public in the 0 to 3 kHz range (see Table 15.8) (ICNIRP 1998, 1994).

Prior to 1 April 2002, the Radiation Protection Services was part of the BC Ministry of Health.

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Table 15.8

ICNIRP Exposure Guidelines for the General Public - Static and ELF Electric and Magnetic Fields Electric Field7 (V/m)
10,000 10,000 250/f 250/f

Frequency Range
DC (0 Hz) Up to 1 Hz 1 to 8 Hz 8 to 25 Hz 0.025 to 0.8 kHz 0.8 to 3 kHz

Magnetic Field8 (mG)


4 x 10 4 x 10
5 5 5 2

4 x 10 /f
4

5 x 10 /f 50/f 62.5

Source: ICNIRP 1994. Table 3; ICNIRP 1998. Table 7. Notes: f as indicated in the frequency range column. Provided that basic restrictions are met and adverse effects can be excluded, field strength can be exceeded. No E-field value is provided for frequencies <1 Hz, which are effectively static electric fields. For most people the annoying perception of surface electric charges will not 9 occur at field strengths less than 25 kV/m. Spark discharges causing stress or annoyance should be avoided. For the general public, continuous exposure to DC magnetic field should not exceed 5 400 G (4 x 10 mG; 1 G = 1,000 mG). People with cardiac pacemakers, ferromagnetic implants, and implanted electronic devices may not be adequately protected by this limit. The majority of cardiac pacemakers are unlikely to be affected in fields <5 G; therefore, cardiac pacemaker and implantable defibrillator bearers should avoid locations where the field is >5 G.

Simultaneous Exposure to Multiple Frequency Fields The 1998 ICNIRP guidelines also provide formulas for evaluating simultaneous exposure to multiple frequency fields. In this situation, it is important to determine whether these exposures are additive in their effects. Whether the effects can be added together should be examined separately for the effects of thermal and electrical stimulation and the basic restrictions should be met. For practical application of the basic restrictions, the following criteria regarding reference levels of field strengths should be applied. For induced current density and electrical stimulation effects, relevant for ELF frequencies, the following two requirements should be applied to the field levels:
7 8

Electric field and electric field strength are used interchangeably in the report. Magnetic field and magnetic flux density are used interchangeably in the report. 9 Incidentally, the threshold limit value for occupational exposures to electric field of frequencies from 0 Hz (DC) to 100 Hz is 25 kV/m (ACGIH 2003).

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(E1/EL,1) + (E2/EL,2) + + (Ei/EL,i) + . " 1 and (H1/H L,1) + (H2/H L,2) + + (Hi/HL,i) + . " 1 where: Ei (Hi) EL,i (HL,i) = electric (magnetic) field strength at frequency i = electric (magnetic) field reference level at frequency i from Table 15.8.

15.6.1

Transportation Guidelines

System

EMF

Comparison

with

15.6.1.1 Electric Field Comparison


As discussed in SECTION 15.4, the two major electric field sources for electric transportation systems are the high voltage (11 to 25 kV) overhead catenaries, and the overhead transmission lines that supply power to the substations of the intercity rail systems. Third rail and catenary circuits of the urban mass transit systems are not significant electric field sources in areas routinely accessible to workers or the general public. The voltage on these systems is relatively low, 600 to 750 V, and power delivery to traction power substations is typically at distribution voltage level. Hence, ELF electric fields associated with urban mass transit systems are similar to those near common distribution lines along residential streets, from a few volts per meter to 100 or 200 V/m. The frequency of the electric field is the same as the power grid frequency or the catenary power frequency, typically 0 (DC), 16.7, 25, 50 or 60 Hz, with very little harmonics. AC electric field levels exceeding 100 V/m generally occur within ~30 m of the tracks, or within ~40 m of the high voltage transmission lines (U.S. DOT 1993b).

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Some urban mass transit systems use an overhead catenary to supply power to the vehicles. For example, in the MBTA system, the catenary voltage is 600 V DC, which produces an estimated DC field of 50 V/m or less on station platforms, or at road crossings directly under the catenary (U.S. DOT 1993e). From Table 15.5, the calculated electric field levels at 10 m from the track range from less than 10 to 63 V/m for DC systems (600 to 3000 V), and from 750 to 1000 V/m for AC systems (15 to 25 kV). As expected, the lowest electric field level, <10 V/m, is from third rail power supply systems and the highest, 1000 V/m, is from the 25 kV catenary power supply systems. From Figure 15.1, electric field levels for transmission lines of 115 and 230 kV are 500 and 1500 V/m at the edge of the right-of-way, and 1000 and 2000 V/m under the transmission line, respectively. For frequencies from 16.7 to 60 Hz, the ICNIRP 24-hour exposure guideline ranges from 10,000 V/m at 16.7 Hz to 4160 V/m at 60 Hz. No exposure guideline for DC is given, but it is expected to be at least 10,000 V/m.10 All electric field levels in the previous paragraphs are below the ICNIRP guideline at each frequency of interest.

15.6.1.2 Magnetic Field Comparison


As discussed in SECTION 15.3, ELF magnetic fields produced by transportation systems are far more complex than those produced by power lines, and field intensities in various frequency bands rather than fields at specific frequencies have been used to collect EMF data from various transportation systems. As shown in Table 15.8, the ICNIRP exposure guideline is a function of frequency, and a value is given for each specific frequency and not for a frequency band. In order to compare the transportation system magnetic fields with the ICNIRP guidelines, the measured field level at each specific frequency and not each specific frequency band must be known. As this

10

The threshold limit value for occupational exposures to electric field of frequencies from 0 Hz (DC) to 100 Hz is 25 kV/m (ACGIH 2003).

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information is not available, the comparison analyses can only be done conservatively by following the procedure described below. As the transportation system magnetic field environment has large variations in space and time, and the ICNIRP guideline is given for continuous exposure to a somewhat uniform field (i.e., a field that is more or less uniform in the space surrounding a human body), the procedure as how to compare the transportation system magnetic field with the ICNIRP guideline is not clearly defined. In radio frequency (RF) exposure measurements, a spatial averaging process is used for evaluating exposure in a non-uniform field situation (Health Canada 1999). This process involves averaging the field levels over the cross-sectional (projected) area of a human body (approximately 0.6 m2). One example method is to evaluate the field levels at a grid of points over a surface area with a width of 0.35 m and a height of 1.25 m, starting at a reasonable distance above the floor or ground (e.g., from a height of 0.5 m to 1.75 m). Applying this averaging principle used in RF exposure evaluations, it appears that it is more appropriate to use average fields (i.e., field levels that have been averaged over time and space in the transportation system environment) rather than maximum fields in the comparison analyses. The measured field levels in the transportation EMF studies in SECTIONS 15.4 AND 15.5 are broken down by frequency bands. Within each frequency band, there are different ICNIRP exposure guideline values. For example, in the sub-power frequency band (5 to 45 Hz), the ICNIRP exposure guideline ranges from 16,000 mG at 5 Hz to 1111 mG at 45 Hz. The lowest value of 1111 mG was used in the comparison calculations for this frequency band in Tables 15.9 and 15.10, with the exception of the NEC25 Hz transportation system, where the exposure guideline of 2000 mG at 25 Hz was used since this was the dominant frequency (same as the 25 Hz power frequency) measured for this transportation system in this frequency band. This evaluation process gives the most conservative estimate regarding whether the average measured field level was below or above the ICNIRP guideline. After making the comparison at each frequency band, the comparison of the total exposure in the entire ELF frequency band (5 to 2560 Hz or 5 to 3000 Hz) was carried out by summing the results of all the frequency bands as described by the process for evaluating simultaneous exposure to multiple frequency fields in SECTION 15.6. This arithmetic summing process is also a

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conservative approach since all field levels are assumed to add together, instead of a vector addition process which may produce a value lower than the arithmetic summing process. Because of the bandwidth (35 to 400 Hz) of the instruments used in the SkyTrain magnetic field measurement study (Takahashi 1993), the actual ELF (5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic field levels were likely to be higher than those recorded. A process for estimating conservatively the actual ELF field levels in the SkyTrain vehicles is discussed in the next paragraph. The U.S. DOT studies concluded that a transportation system using linear synchronous or linear induction motor technology is likely to generate magnetic fields of characteristics similar to those produced by the Transrapid TR07 maglev system (U.S. DOT 1993e). As the SkyTrain system uses similar propulsion technology as the TR07 system, magnetic fields from the SkyTrain system should have characteristics similar to those of the TR07 system. This similarity in characteristics can be roughly confirmed by noting that the total average field levels in the 50-60 Hz and 65-300 Hz bands measured inside the TR07 vehicles are comparable to those in the 35-400 Hz band measured inside the SkyTrain vehicles at the same measurement height of ~0.5 m above the floor (see Tables 15.2 and 15.6). For the purpose of conservatively estimating exposure to ELF fields in SkyTrain vehicles, the ELF field levels in all the frequency bands from the TR07 vehicles were used in the SkyTrain comparison calculations in Table 15.9, instead of using the lower field levels measured in SkyTrain vehicles given in Table 15.6. For the general public, the ICNIRP static magnetic field exposure guideline is 400 G, except for persons with cardiac pacemakers and other implanted electronic devices, where the guideline is lower, 5 G or 5000 mG. Again, the value of 5 G was used conservatively in the comparison analyses in Tables 15.9 and 15.10. Note that the earths magnetic field is about 500 mG or 10% of 5 G. Magnetic fields produced by the WMATA 3000 Series cars were unique for this particular vehicle design (a large smoothing reactor under the car-floor), and were not inherent characteristics of the chopper control technology (U.S. DOT 1993e). In addition, an improvement in the design of the magnetic circuit could reduce the stray field generated by the smoothing reactor by orders of

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magnitude (Feero and Dietrich 1995). For these reasons, measurements from the 3000 Series cars will be excluded in the summary evaluation of magnetic fields from urban mass transit systems. Excluding the WMATA 3000 Series cars, the average measured magnetic field levels from all electric transportation systems were below the ICNIRP guidelines (see Table 15.9). The highest average measured DC magnetic field levels were about 15, 20, and 13% of the ICNIRP guideline of 5 G for intercity rail vehicles, urban mass transit vehicles, and station platforms, respectively. Note that the earths field represents about 10% of the ICNIRP guideline of 5 G, and can be perturbed easily by all common ferromagnetic objects. Examples of the perturbation of the earths field by common ferromagnetic objects were published in a 1995 technical paper (Wong 1995). The magnitudes of the DC field measured in two homes varied from about 380 to 650 mG (the unperturbed earths field in the area was about 540 mG), with the larger variations near metallic or magnetic objects in the homes such as a refrigerator or a metallic air duct. The earth's field was elevated above its natural level within a distance of eight feet from a subcompact passenger car (e.g., the level changed from about 540 to 1100 mG beside the headlight, and to 820 mG beside the drivers door). A common steel folding chair changed the earth's field by up to 60 mG within a distance of one foot. Excluding the WMATA 3000 Series cars, the highest average measured ELF (5 to 2560 or 5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic field levels were about 24, 18, and 24% of the ICNIRP guideline for intercity rail vehicles, urban mass transit vehicles, and station platforms, respectively (see Table 15.9). Average measured magnetic field levels from all other transportation systems (i.e., ferry boat, escalators, moving walkways, conventional cars and light trucks, electric cars and light trucks, jetliner, AC electric shuttle tram, conventional transit bus and electric shuttle bus) were below the ICNIRP guidelines. The highest average measured DC magnetic field level was about 12% of the ICNIRP guideline of 5 G, and the highest average measured ELF (5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic field level was about 10% of the ICNIRP guideline (see Table 15.10). Although all measured average magnetic field levels were below the ICNIRP guidelines for all transportation systems after excluding the WMATA 3000

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Series cars, it must be noted that the measured maximum field levels at some locations in the vehicles or on station platforms for some transportation systems could exceed the ICNIRP guidelines. The characteristics of the wayside field were similar to those on station platforms except that the field levels decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Since the platform measurements were below the ICNIRP guidelines and the field levels decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks, the wayside field levels at separation distances greater than the distance between the station platform and the tracks should also be below the ICNIRP guidelines. The calculated magnetic field levels at a distance of 10 m from the tracks given in Figure 15.7 and Table 15.5 are all below the ICNIRP guidelines. Magnetic field levels measured outside power supply facilities associated with intercity rail and urban mass transit systems are shown in Figure 15.10, and they are lower than those given for transportation vehicles in Figure 15.14. Since the measured magnetic field levels from intercity rail and urban mass transit vehicles were all below the ICNIRP 24-hour exposure guidelines for the general public in all ELF frequency bands, the field levels measured outside power supply facilities would therefore be also below the ICNIRP guidelines.

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Table 15.9

Comparison of Average Magnetic Field with ICNIRP Guidelines Intercity Rail and Urban Mass Transit Systems - Passenger Areas (Ratio (%) = Average field level / Lowest ICNIRP value in each frequency band) Static DC1 0 Hz Sub-Power Freq.2 545 Hz
6.60 0.13 0.13 0.14 2.10 4.28 2.04 6.60 0.89 8.87 0.47 0.37 0.15 4.28

Transportation System
Intercity Rail Vehicles: NEC 25 Hz NEC 60 Hz NEC Non-Electric NJT Long Beach TGV - AC Section TR07 Maglev Commuter Train - AC Drive
4

Power Freq. 3 5060 Hz


0.72 6.24 0.58 2.18 3.05 0.77 4.10 6.24 0.12 1.51 0.13 0.10 0.19 0.77

Power Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz


9.72 3.42 0.42 1.50 1.62 11.10 8.76 11.10 0.96 80.10 0.84 0.42 0.48 11.10

High ELF Freq. 305 2560 Hz


4.32 2.24 0.32 1.12 2.40 1.92 9.44 9.44 1.44 65.92 1.12 0.48 2.08 1.92

Sum of all % in ELF Freq. 52560 Hz


21.36 12.03 1.44 4.95 9.17 18.07 24.34 24.34 3.41 156.40 2.56 1.37 2.91 18.07

12.12 12.60 11.38 14.68 10.90 12.22 10.76 14.68 20.26 53.70 10.68 14.38 5.46 -

All Intercity Rail Vehicles - Highest % Urban Mass Transit Vehicles: WMATA - Subway (Cam) Cars WMATA-3000 Series Cars MBTA - Subway Cars MBTA - High Speed Trolley MTBA - Trolley Bus SkyTrain
5

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Transportation System

Static DC1 0 Hz

Sub-Power Freq.2 545 Hz


4.28 1.91 0.59

Power Freq. 3 5060 Hz


0.77 7.18 0.35

Power Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz


11.10 9.36 1.62

High ELF Freq. 305 2560 Hz


2.08 7.84 2.24

Sum of all % in ELF Freq. 52560 Hz


18.07 24.46 4.79

All Urban Mass Transit Vehicles (excludingg 20.26 3000 Series cars) Highest % All Station Platforms and Waiting Lounges Highest % All Station Platforms for Urban Mass Transit Systems Only Highest %
8 7 6

13.00 12.50

Notes: 1. For the general public, the ICNIRP static magnetic field exposure guideline is 400 G, except for persons with cardiac pacemakers and other implanted electronic devices, where the guideline is lower, 5 G or 5000 mG. The value of 5 G was used for calculations in this column. The earths field is about 500 mG or 10% of 5 G. 2. The ICNIRP exposure guideline for this frequency band ranges from 16,000 mG at 5 Hz to 1111 mG at 45 Hz. The lowest value of 1111 mG was used for calculations in this column, with the exception of the NEC25 Hz transportation system, where the exposure guideline of 2000 mG at 25 Hz was used since this was the dominant frequency (same as the 25 Hz power frequency) measured for this transportation system in this frequency band. 3. The ICNIRP exposure guideline for this frequency band ranges from 1000 mG at 50 Hz to 833.3 mG at 60 Hz. The lowest value of 833.3 mG was used for calculations in this column, with the exception of the TGV-AC section and TR07-maglev transportation systems, where the exposure guideline of 1000 mG at 50 Hz was used since this was the dominant frequency (same as the 50 Hz power frequency) measured for these transportation systems in this frequency band. 4. Frequency allocations for the 1999 U.S. DOT study on commuter train-AC drive were slightly different from the previous studies. The sub-power frequencies were from 5 to 55 Hz (instead of 5 to 45 Hz), the power frequency was 60 Hz (instead of 50 to 60 Hz), and the high ELF frequencies were from 305 to 3000 Hz (instead of 305 to 2650 Hz). Again, the lowest ICNIRP value for each frequency band was used in the calculations for this transportation system. 5. For the purpose of conservatively estimating exposure to ELF fields in SkyTrain vehicles, the magnitude and frequency characteristics of the magnetic field from the TR07 vehicles were used in the SkyTrain calculations (see text for more details). 6. Magnetic fields produced by the WMATA 3000 Series cars were unique for this particular vehicle design (a large smoothing reactor under the car-floor), and were not inherent characteristics of the chopper control technology. In addition, an improvement in the design of the magnetic circuit could reduce the stray field generated by the smoothing reactor by orders of magnitude. For these reasons, measurements from the 3000 Series cars were excluded in the summary for urban mass transit vehicles. 7. The highest ICNIRP comparison percentages for average magnetic fields from all station platforms and waiting lounges in Table 1504 were calculated here. 8. The highest ICNIRP comparison percentages for average magnetic fields from station platforms for urban mass transit systems in Table 15.4 (i.e., WMATA and MBTA platforms only), and SkyTrain platform data in Section 15.4.2 were calculated here. Note that the SkyTrain platform data covered only ELF frequencies from about 35 to 400 Hz, and TR07 maglev data could not be used here as a conservative estimate as in Note 5 because the maglev data were not taken on platforms, but inside waiting lounges where the field levels were lower than those on platforms.

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Table 15.10

Comparison of Average Magnetic Field with ICNIRP Guidelines - Other Transportation Systems Passenger Areas (Ratio (%) = Average field level / Lowest ICNIRP value in each frequency band) Static DC1 0 Hz SubPower Freq. 555 Hz
0.02 0.14 0.34 0.61 0.37 0.53 0.07 1.18 1.80 1.62

Transportation System
Ferry Boat Escalators Moving Walkways Conventional Cars & Light Trucks Electric Cars & Light Trucks Dynamometer Test Track Jetliner Shuttle Tram - AC Electric Conventional Transit Bus Electric Shuttle Bus

Power Freq. 60 Hz
0.05 0.05 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.00 0.66 0.11 0.10

Power Freq. Harmonics 65300 Hz


0.12 0.12 0.42 0.48 2.16 1.14 0.12 1.80 1.14 5.34

High ELF Freq. 2 305 3000 Hz


0.16 0.16 0.48 0.64 1.60 1.12 8.24 1.92 3.36 2.56

Sum of all % in ELF Freq. 53000 Hz


0.35 0.47 1.39 1.83 4.24 2.88 8.42 5.56 6.41 9.61

10.22 11.14 11.52 6.42 8.16 7.76 11.04 9.40 8.02 7.62

All Transportation Systems - Highest % 11.52 1.80 0.66 5.34 8.24 9.61 Notes: 1. For the general public, the ICNIRP static magnetic field exposure guideline is 400 G, except for persons with cardiac pacemakers and other implanted electronic devices, where the guideline is lower, 5 G or 5000 mG. The value of 5 G was used for calculations in this column. The earths field is about 500 mG, or 10% of 5 G. 2. The ICNIRP exposure guideline for this frequency band ranges from 164 mG at 305 Hz to 62.5 mG at 3000 Hz. The lowest value of 62.5 mG was used for calculations in this column, with the exception of the jetliner, where the exposure guideline of 125 mG at 400 Hz was used since the dominant frequency in this frequency band was due to the 400 Hz power delivery system in the plane.

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Figure 15.14

Average ELF Magnetic Field Ten Transportation Systems

Source: U.S. DOT 1999. Figure 1-1.

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Figure 15.15

Average Magnetic Field Versus Frequency Ten Transportation Systems

Source: U.S. DOT 1999. Figure 1-2.

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15.7

Electromagnetic Compatibility

All electrical and electronic equipment emits electric and magnetic fields. In order for all the equipment to coexist and function properly in the same environment, they must be electromagnetically compatible. Electromagnetic compatibility is therefore the ability of the equipment to function properly in its intended electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances or noise to the environment or to other surrounding equipment. To achieve this goal, the equipment must meet some emission requirements so that the amount of emitted electromagnetic noise is insufficient to interfere with the other surrounding equipment; and at the same time, the equipment must meet some immunity requirements so that it can tolerate a certain amount of electromagnetic noise without affecting its intended functions, i.e., immune to the interfering electromagnetic noise. Electromagnetic interference exists when there is electromagnetic incompatibility and the equipment is experiencing degradation in performance, malfunction, or complete failure. In the railway environment, there are many components which can produce high frequency electromagnetic noise. In the radio frequency band, the major source from the railway system is the sliding current collection device that is used to deliver power to the moving vehicles (ESCARV 2001). Such emissions originate from the micro arcing at the contact (between the line and the pantograph, or between the shoe and rail) during normal sliding and especially from arcing caused by bouncing of the pantograph. The overhead catenary of the railway system can also generate radio frequency noise as a result of corona discharge (the ionization of air molecules surrounding high voltage conductors), and spark discharge (micro arcs as a result of loose contacts between energized metallic parts). Fast semiconductor switching in modern traction technologies or power converters is also a source of electromagnetic noise. The emissions are radiated either directly from the vehicle components or indirectly via the power supply lines with the overhead line acting as an antenna. Higher frequency emissions (>30 MHz, where 1 megahertz or 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz) are generally radiated directly from the source, but lower frequency disturbances can propagate along the power supply lines and produce radio frequency noise at locations where there are no trains in the vicinity. The emission levels attenuate rapidly with distance away from the noise sources.

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Besides radio frequency noise, there are also low frequency emissions produced mainly by the traction equipment and power supply system. The emission levels have been discussed earlier in this report. The most significant low frequency interference effect is due to magnetic field. For railway EMC applications, there is a series of standards produced by the IEC (2003a, 2003b, 2003c, 2003d, 2003e, 2003f). The standards specify the limits for electromagnetic emission of the railway as a whole to the outside world, and for electromagnetic emission and immunity of the equipment operating within the railway environment, covering the frequency range from DC (0 Hz) to 400 GHz (gigahertz, 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz). The electromagnetic compatibility limits are set so that the railway as a whole achieves electromagnetic compatibility with the outside world, and between the various parts of the railway. The immunity levels are chosen to ensure a reasonable level of electromagnetic compatibility with other apparatus within the local railway environment and with emissions which enter the railway from the outside world. Of particular interest to this report is Part 2 of the above-noted IEC standards (IEC 2003b). This part covers electromagnetic emission of the whole railway system to the outside world, sets emission limits from the railway to the outside world at radio frequencies, and defines the applied test methods and gives information on typical field strength values at traction and radio frequency. These emission limits were based on actual levels measured at a number of railway locations in Europe, plus an allowance for variables such as measurement uncertainty and site variations. Meeting the IEC immunity and emission requirements does not guarantee the elimination of all electromagnetic interference problems, but the requirements are sufficient to achieve satisfactory electromagnetic compatibility in the majority of cases. A study by York EMC Services in the United Kingdom concluded that there is some limited evidence in the literature that electromagnetic emissions from the railway system can interfere with other users of electronic equipment (University of York 2002). In most cases, the problems were due to information technology equipment being very close (less than 10 m) to the railway line (e.g., a limited number of low frequency magnetic field interference complaints such as flickering, scrolling and colour change on computer monitors, where the railway

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was close (i.e., a distance of 4 m from a 600 V DC metropolitan tram network) to user equipment). Judging from the radio noise emission limits from the railway system in the IEC Standard (IEC 2003b), there is theoretically a potential for interference to broadcast radio services in proximity from the railway. The above University of York document reported that relatively few interference complaints on broadcast radio services in the AM and FM bands were received. Therefore, it seems that in reality, the EM emission from existing railway systems is unlikely to interfere with AM and FM radio services in most installations. To ensure electromagnetic compatibility within the proposed RAV system and the surrounding environment, the RAV system contract specifications will contain provisions to control and monitor stray currents and EMI specifically electromagnetic compatibility (Parkinson 2003): The Concessionaire will ensure that the RAV System Equipment, rolling stock and systems operate correctly and reliably within the RAV System operating electromagnetic environment and will not themselves affect adjacent third party infrastructure and systems." In addition, the Concessionaire must: "Prepare, maintain and update as necessary throughout the Operating Period (and provide copies of all updates thereof to RAVCo), an EMC engineering report that includes: the external systems and equipment which exist within the limits of the RAV System operating area, that could pose a threat to the reliable and safe operation of the RAV System; the external systems and equipment which exist within the limits of the RAV System operating area, that could be threatened by the operation of the RAV System; the electromagnetic threats and hazards between the sub-systems and Equipment, which comprise the RAV System; the standards, design and development criteria and design strategies that will be used to manage the threats to/from the adjacent systems or equipment, both at sub-system Equipment and system level;

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the tasks to verify that the standards, design criteria and design strategies have been achieved at sub-system and Equipment level, including testing (verification of EMC requirements); the tasks to validate that actions taken have successfully resulted in an EMC compliant RAV System, both from a system operability perspective and compatibility with external systems and equipment, including testing (validation of EMC requirements); the EMC documentation to be produced; the management organization and resources to control, plan and implement the activities defined, including control of external suppliers such as accredited test companies; and the liaison activities with third parties, such as VIAA and public telecommunications operators, to gather necessary information to gain agreement on the adequacy of the EMC performance of the RAV System."

15.8

Discussion

Electric and magnetic fields from AC power lines are predominantly power frequency fields. While EMF of other frequencies sometimes do exist, they are mostly of low order harmonics of the power frequency with a total harmonic distortion typically below a few percent of the fundamental frequency. Unlike fields from power lines, electric transportation systems produce EMF in many frequencies, mostly in the ULF and ELF bands.

15.8.1

Electric Field (0 to 3000 Hz)

The two major electric field sources for electric transportation systems are the high voltage AC (11 to 25 kV) overhead catenaries, and the overhead transmission lines that supply power to the substations of the intercity rail systems. Third rail and catenary circuits of the urban mass transit systems are not significant electric field sources in areas routinely accessible to workers or the general public. The voltage on these systems is relatively low, 600 to 750 V, and power delivery to traction power substations is typically at distribution voltage level. Hence, ELF electric fields associated with urban mass transit

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systems are similar to those near common distribution lines along residential streets, from a few volts per meter to 100 or 200 V/m. Electric field levels decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. The calculated static electric field levels at 10 m from the track range from <10 to 63 V/m for transportation systems using DC voltages of 600 to 3000 V. As expected, the lowest electric field level, <10 V/m, is from third rail power supply systems; and the highest, 63 V/m, is from catenary power supply system. The level of 63 V/m compares well with an estimated DC field of 50 V/m or less on station platforms, or at road crossings directly under the 600 V DC catenary for the MBTA system. Electric fields are easily attenuated by most common materials, especially conductive materials, and do not penetrate significantly into the passenger vehicles. Structures like buildings, platform overhangs, and vegetation provide varying degrees of shielding of electric field in station buildings, on station platforms, and at the wayside. Regardless of the type of transportation technology to be used in the RAV Project, the expected electric fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be similar to those measured and calculated for urban mass transit systems in the U.S. DOT studies and IEC standards. With this assumption, the expected static and ELF electric field levels from the new rapid transit system will be below the ICNIRP 24-hour electric field exposure guidelines for the general public. The ELF electric fields will likely be insignificant when compared to those generated by common distribution lines found in residential areas, typically from a few volts per meter to 100 or 200 V/m. The static electric field at a distance of 10 m from the track will be about 60 V/m for a catenary DC supply system, and <10 V/m for a third rail DC supply system. Electric field levels decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks.

15.8.2

Magnetic Field (0 to 3000 Hz)

ELF magnetic fields produced by transportation systems are far more complex than those produced by power lines. The transportation system magnetic field environment has large variations in space and time.

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Because of the bandwidth (35 to 400 Hz) of the instruments used in the SkyTrain magnetic field measurement study, the actual ELF (5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic field levels were likely to be higher than those recorded. As discussed in SECTION 15.6.1, the SkyTrain system uses similar propulsion technology as the TR07 maglev system, thus magnetic fields from the SkyTrain system should have characteristics similar to those from the TR07 system. For the purpose of estimating conservatively the actual ELF fields in SkyTrain vehicles, the ELF field levels in all the frequency bands from the TR07 vehicles were used in the evaluation of ELF fields from SkyTrain vehicles in Table 15.11, and in the ICNIRP comparison evaluations for SkyTrain in Table 15.9, instead of using the lower field levels measured in SkyTrain vehicles given in Table 15.6. Magnetic fields produced by the WMATA 3000 Series cars were unique for this particular vehicle design (a large smoothing reactor under the car-floor), and were not inherent characteristics of the chopper control technology. In addition, an improvement in the design of the magnetic circuit could reduce the stray field generated by the smoothing reactor by orders of magnitude. For these reasons, measurements from the 3000 Series cars were excluded in the summary evaluation of magnetic fields from urban mass transit systems. For reasons given in SECTION 15.6.1, average fields (i.e., field levels that have been averaged over time and space in the transportation system environment) rather than maximum fields were used in the ICNIRP guideline comparison analyses. Using a conservative estimation procedure given in SECTION 15.6.1 and excluding the WMATA 3000 Series cars, the average measured magnetic field levels from all electric transportation systems were below the ICNIRP guidelines, see Table 15.9. The highest average measured DC magnetic field levels were about 15, 20, and 13% of the ICNIRP guideline of 5 G for intercity rail vehicles, urban mass transit vehicles, and station platforms, respectively. The earths field represents about 10% of the ICNIRP guideline of 5 G, and can be perturbed easily by all common ferromagnetic objects. For example, the earth's field was elevated above its natural level within a distance of eight feet from a subcompact passenger car (e.g., the level changed from about

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540 to 1100 mG beside the headlight, and to 820 mG beside the drivers door). A common steel folding chair changed the earth's field by up to 60 mG within a distance of one foot. Excluding the WMATA 3000 Series cars, the highest average measured ELF magnetic field levels were about 24, 18, and 24% of the ICNIRP guideline for intercity rail vehicles, urban mass transit vehicles, and station platforms, respectively. The average measured magnetic field levels from all other transportation systems (i.e., ferry boat, escalators, moving walkways, conventional cars and light trucks, electric cars and light trucks, jetliner, AC electric shuttle tram, conventional transit bus and electric shuttle bus) were below the ICNIRP guidelines. The highest average DC magnetic field level was about 12% of the ICNIRP guideline of 5 G, and the highest average ELF magnetic field level was about 10% of the ICNIRP guideline (see Table 15.10). Although all measured average magnetic field levels were below the ICNIRP guidelines for all transportation systems after excluding the WMATA 3000 Series cars, it must be noted that the measured maximum field levels at some locations in the vehicles or on station platforms for some transportation systems could exceed the ICNIRP guidelines. The characteristics of the wayside field were similar to those on station platforms except that the field levels decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Since the platform measurements were below the ICNIRP guidelines and the field levels decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks, the wayside field levels at separation distances greater than the distance between the station platform and the tracks should also be below the ICNIRP guidelines. The calculated magnetic field levels at a distance of 10 m from the tracks given in Figure 15.7 and Table 15.5 are all below the ICNIRP guidelines. Magnetic field levels measured outside power supply facilities associated with intercity rail and urban mass transit systems are shown in Figure 15.10, and they are lower than those given for transportation vehicles in Figure 15.4. Since the measured magnetic field levels from intercity rail and urban mass transit vehicles were all below the ICNIRP 24-hour exposure guidelines for

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the general public in all ELF frequency bands, the field levels measured outside power supply facilities would therefore be also below the ICNIRP guidelines. Like any substations of a power grid, the strength of EMF from equipment within the substations of the transportation systems, such as transformers, reactors, and capacitor banks, decreases rapidly with increasing separation distance. Beyond the substation fence or wall, the EMF produced by the substation equipment is typically indistinguishable from background levels, and the strongest EMF source outside the substation is the overhead and underground power lines entering or leaving the substation. Table 15.11 gives the highest measured average magnetic field levels from all transportation systems reviewed in this report, after excluding one type of vehicle (WAMATA-3000 Series Cars) due to its unique design. This table provides conservative estimates for field levels for the RAV Project. Regardless of the type of transportation technology to be used in the RAV Project, the expected magnetic fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be similar to those measured and calculated for urban mass transit systems in the SkyTrain and U.S. DOT studies (after excluding one type of vehicle due its unique design), and IEC standards. With this assumption, the expected average static and ELF magnetic field levels from the RAV rapid transit system will be below the ICNIRP 24-hour magnetic field exposure guidelines for the general public. However, it must be noted that the maximum fields at some locations in the vehicles (e.g., near the traction control equipment) or on station platforms could exceed the ICNIRP guidelines. Average power frequency (60 Hz) magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles will likely be in the range of 10 mG (see Table 15.11). This level is comparable to magnetic fields found directly under overhead power distribution lines. Exposure to magnetic fields is a common occurrence in our daily life. Power frequency fields near common household appliances range from <1 to ~150 mG at a distance of one foot from the field source (see Table 15.1). Note that the field characteristics from household appliances and the RAV rapid transit system are different (e.g., field levels drop off more rapidly with separation

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distance from the household appliances than those from the RAV rapid transit system). Average ELF (5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles and on station platforms will likely be about 50 and 10 mG, respectively. Average static magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles and on station platforms will likely be about 1000 and 600 mG, respectively. The earths field is about 500 mG, and can be perturbed easily by all common ferromagnetic objects. A study shows that the earth's field can be elevated above its natural level within a distance of eight feet from a subcompact car (e.g., from about 540 to 1100 mG beside the headlight, and to 820 mG beside the drivers door); and a common steel folding chair can change the earth's field by up to 60 mG within a distance of one foot. The characteristics of the wayside magnetic field from the new rapid transit system will be similar to those on station platforms except that the field levels will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Static magnetic fields at a distance of 10 m from the tracks will likely be <500 mG for a third rail DC supply system. At this distance, the static fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be indistinguishable from the earths field, which is ~500 mG. Average wayside ELF magnetic fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be <10 mG at a distance of 10 m from the tracks. Magnetic field levels will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Like any substations of a power grid, the strength of EMF from equipment within the substations of the RAV Project will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the equipment. Beyond the substation fence or wall, the EMF produced by the substation equipment is typically indistinguishable from background levels, and the strongest EMF source outside the substation is the overhead and underground power lines entering or leaving the substation. The characteristics of these power lines will be similar to the main distribution lines found in residential or commercial areas.

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Table 15.11 Highest Average Magnetic Field All Transportation Systems - Passenger Areas (Field level in milligauss) Static DC 0 Hz
734 538 734 1013 1013 650 625 576

Transportation System
Intercity Rail Vehicles: All vehicles in Table 15.2 1 Commuter Train in Table 15.7 All Intercity Rail Vehicles Urban Mass Transit Vehicles: 2 All vehicles in Table 15.3 3 SkyTrain 2,3 All Urban Mass Transit Vehicles 4 All Station Platforms & Waiting Lounges in Table 15.4 All Station Platforms for Urban Mass Transit 5 Systems Only 1,6 Other Transportation Systems in Table 15.7

Sub-Power Freq. 545 Hz


132.0 18.5 132.0 9.9 47.6 47.6 38.1 6.5 16.4

Power Freq. ELF Power High ELF Harmonics Freq. Freq. Freq. 50 60 Hz 65300 Hz 3052560 Hz 52560 Hz
52.0 34.2 52.0 1.6 7.7 7.7 59.8 2.9 5.5 18.5 14.6 18.5 1.6 18.5 18.5 15.6 2.7 8.9 2.7 5.9 5.9 1.3 1.2 1.3 4.9 1.4 13.5 133.8 49.6 133.8 9.4 52.4 52.4 62.2 8.6 20.4

Notes: 1. Frequency allocations for the 1999 U.S. DOT study on commuter train-AC drive and other transportation systems (ferry boat, escalators, moving walkways, conventional cars and light trucks, electric cars and light trucks, jetliner, AC electric shuttle tram, conventional transit bus and electric shuttle buses) were slightly different from previous studies. The sub-power frequencies were from 5 to 55 Hz (instead of 5 to 45 Hz), the power frequency was 60 Hz (instead of 50 to 60 Hz), and the high ELF frequencies were from 305 to 3000 Hz (instead of 305 to 2560 Hz). 2. Magnetic fields from the WMATA-3000 Series cars in Table 15.3 were excluded here because they were unique for this particular vehicle design, and were not inherent characteristics of the chopper control technology. In addition, an improvement in the design could reduce the stray field from the smoothing reactor by orders of magnitude. 3. For the purpose of conservatively estimating exposure to ELF fields in SkyTrain vehicles, the ELF field levels in all the frequency bands from the TR07 vehicles were entered in this row, see Section 15.6.1 for more details. 4. The highest average field levels from all station platforms and waiting lounges in Table 15.4 are shown here. 5. The highest average field levels from station platforms for urban mass transit systems in Table 15.4 (i.e., WMATA and MBTA platforms only), and SkyTrain platform data in Section 15.4.2 are shown here. Note that the SkyTrain platform data covered only ELF frequencies from about 35 to 400 Hz, and TR07 maglev data could not be used here as a conservative estimate as in Note 3 because the maglev data were in waiting lounges and not on platforms. 6. The value in the high ELF frequency band was due to the 400 Hz power delivery system in the jetliner.

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15.8.3

Electromagnetic Compatibility

All electrical and electronic equipment emits electric and magnetic fields. In order for all the equipment to coexist and function properly in the same environment, they must be electromagnetically compatible to each other by meeting some emission and immunity requirements. Electromagnetic interference exists when there is electromagnetic incompatibility and the equipment is experiencing degradation in performance, malfunction, or complete failure. In the railway environment, there are many components which can produce high frequency electromagnetic noise. In the radio frequency, the major source is the sliding current collection device. The emissions originate from micro arcing at the contact (between the line and the pantograph, or between the shoe and rail) during normal sliding, and especially from arcing caused by bouncing of the pantograph. Corona and spark discharges on overhead catenaries can also generate radio noise. Fast semiconductor switching in modern traction technologies or power converters is another radio noise source. The emissions are radiated either directly from the vehicle components or indirectly via the power supply lines with the overhead line acting as an antenna. The emission levels attenuate rapidly with distance away from the noise sources. Besides radio frequency noise, there are also low frequency emissions produced mainly by the traction equipment and power supply system. The emission levels have been discussed under static and ELF electric and magnetic fields. The most significant low frequency interference effect is due to magnetic field. A study by University of York EMC Services (2002) concluded that there is some limited evidence in the literature that electromagnetic emissions from the railway system can interfere with other users of electronic equipment. In most cases, the problems were due to information technology equipment being very close (<10 m) to the railway line, e.g., a limited number of low frequency magnetic field interference complaints (flickering, scrolling and colour change on computer monitors) where the railway was close (e.g., a distance of 4 m from a 600 V DC metropolitan tram network) to user equipment.

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For railway electromagnetic compatibility applications, there are a series of IEC standards specifying the limits for electromagnetic (EM) emission of the railway as a whole to the outside world, and for EM emission and immunity of the equipment operating within the railway environment. Meeting the IEC immunity and emission requirements does not guarantee the elimination of all EMI problems, but the requirements are sufficient to achieve satisfactory electromagnetic compatibility in the majority of cases. Judging from the radio noise emission limits from railway systems in the IEC Standard (IEC 2003b), there is theoretically a potential for interference to broadcast radio services in proximity from the railway. The University of York (2002) reported that relatively few interference complaints on broadcast radio services in the AM and FM bands were received. Therefore, it seems that in reality, the EM emission from existing railway systems is unlikely to interfere with AM and FM radio services in most installations. To ensure electromagnetic compatibility within the proposed RAV system and the surrounding environment, RAV Project contract specifications will contain provisions to control and monitor stray currents and electromagnetic interference, specifically electromagnetic compatibility. Based on a preliminary review of the electromagnetic compatibility literature, and assuming that the new rapid transit system will produce electromagnetic emission levels meeting the IEC emission requirements, and at the same time are comparable to those described in the University of York study (2002), it is unlikely that electromagnetic emissions from the new rapid transit system will interfere with AM and FM radio services in most installations. The probability of Interference with cable services, such as cable television, is even lower. Low frequency magnetic field interference with computer monitors is not likely for distances over 10 m from the tracks. In the unlikely event that an interference complaint does occur, the procedure to resolve the complaint is similar to that for power lines. Industry Canada will be contacted for their assistance to determine the cause of the complaint. If the cause is indeed from the transportation system, the Concessionaire will endeavour to resolve the complaint by finding a solution that is mutually acceptable to both the complainant and the Concessionaire.

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15.9

Conclusions

Based on a review of available literature on electric and magnetic fields from electric transportation systems, the following conclusions are drawn:

15.9.1

Electric Field (0 to 3000 Hz)

Regardless of the type of transportation technology to be used in the RAV Project, the expected electric fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be similar to those measured and calculated for urban mass transit systems in the U.S. DOT studies and IEC standards. With this assumption, the expected static (DC, 0 Hz) and ELF (5 to 3000 Hz) electric field levels from the new rapid transit system will be below the ICNIRP 24-hour electric field exposure guidelines for the general public. The ELF electric fields will likely be insignificant when compared to those generated by common distribution lines found in residential areas, typically from a few volts per meter to 100 or 200 V/m. The static electric field at a distance of 10 m from the track will be <10 V/m for a third rail DC supply system. Electric field levels decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Electric fields are easily attenuated by most common materials especially conductive materials, and do not penetrate significantly into the passenger vehicles. Structures like buildings, platform overhangs, and vegetation provide varying degrees of shielding of electric field in station buildings, on station platforms, and at the wayside.

15.9.2

Magnetic Field (0 to 3000 Hz)

In addition to the power frequency, the RAV rapid transit system will produce magnetic fields of other frequencies, mostly from 0 to 3000 Hz. The magnetic fields will have complex frequency spectra, and will be highly variable in space and time. Regardless of the type of transportation technology to be used in the RAV Project, the expected magnetic fields from the new rapid transit system will likely be similar to those measured and calculated for urban mass transit systems in the SkyTrain and U.S. DOT studies (after excluding one type of vehicle due its unique design), and IEC standards. With this assumption, the

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expected average static and ELF magnetic field levels from the RAV rapid transit system will be below the ICNIRP 24-hour magnetic field exposure guidelines for the general public. However, it must be noted that the maximum fields at some locations in the vehicles (e.g., near the traction control equipment), or on station platforms could exceed the ICNIRP guidelines. Average power frequency (60 Hz) magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles will likely be in the range of 10 mG, a level comparable to those found directly under overhead power distribution lines. Exposure to magnetic fields is a common occurrence in our daily life, power frequency fields near common household appliances range from less than 1 to ~150 mG at a distance of one foot from the field source. It should be noted that the field characteristics from household appliances and the RAV rapid transit system are different (i.e., field levels drop off more rapidly with separation distance from household appliances than those from the RAV line). Average ELF (i.e., 5 to 3000 Hz) magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles and on station platforms will likely be about 50 and 10 mG, respectively. Average static magnetic fields in the RAV vehicles and on station platforms will likely be about 1,000 and 600 mG, respectively. The earths field is about 500 mG, and can be perturbed easily by all common ferromagnetic objects. A study shows that the earth's field can be elevated above its natural level within a distance of eight feet from a subcompact car (e.g., from about 540 to 1,100 mG beside the headlight, and to 820 mG beside the drivers door); a common steel folding chair can change the earth's field by up to 60 mG within a distance of one foot. The characteristics of the wayside magnetic field from the RAV rapid transit system will be similar to those on station platforms except that the field levels will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks. Static magnetic fields at a distance of 10 m from the tracks will likely be less than 500 mG for a third rail DC supply system. At this distance, the static fields from the RAV Project will likely be indistinguishable from the earths field. Average wayside ELF magnetic fields from the RAV Project will likely be less than 10 mG at a distance of 10 m from the tracks. Magnetic field levels will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the tracks.

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Like any substations of a power grid, the strength of EMF from equipment within the RAV substations will decrease rapidly with increasing distance from the equipment. Beyond the substation fence or wall, the EMF produced by the substation equipment is typically indistinguishable from background levels, and the strongest EMF source outside the substation is the overhead and underground power lines entering or leaving the substation. The characteristics of these power lines will be similar to the main distribution lines found in residential or commercial areas.

15.9.3

Electromagnetic Compatibility

Based on a preliminary review of the electromagnetic compatibility literature and assuming that the RAV system will produce electromagnetic emission levels meeting the IEC emission requirements, and at the same time will be comparable to those described in the study by University of York (2002), it is unlikely that electromagnetic emissions from the system will interfere with commercial (AM and FM) radio services in most installations. The probability of interference with cable services, such as cable TV, will be even more remote. Low frequency magnetic field interference with information technology equipment, such as computer monitors, will not be likely for distances greater than 10 m from the tracks. In the unlikely event that an interference complaint does occur, the procedure to resolve the complaint is similar to that for power lines. Industry Canada will be contacted for their assistance to determine the cause of the complaint. If the cause is indeed from the new rapid transit system, the Concessionaire will endeavour to resolve the complaint by finding a solution that is mutually acceptable to both the complainant and the Concessionaire. To minimize the potential interference impacts of electromagnetic fields associated with the new rapid transit system and to ensure electromagnetic compatibility within the proposed RAV system and the surrounding environment, the RAV contract specifications will contain provisions to control and monitor stray currents and electromagnetic interference, specifically electromagnetic compatibility.

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15.10 References
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 2003. Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents & Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs). American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio. Bombardier. 1998. Mark II Vehicles Contract Technical Specification - Schedule G. Revision 7. Bombardier Transportation. September 29, 1998. Canadian Federal-Provincial-Territorial Radiation Protection Committee. 1998. Health Effects and Exposure Guidelines Related To Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 50/60 Hz Electric and Magnetic Fields An Overview. Prepared by a Working Group of the Federal-Provincial Territorial Radiation Protection Committee. Electric Power Research Institute. 1993. Survey of Residential Magnetic Field Sources - Volume 1: Goals, Results and Conclusions. Prepared by L. Zaffanella. EPRI Report No. TR-102759. Electric Power Research Institute. 1992. Measurement of Power System Magnetic Fields by Waveform Capture. EPRI Final Report TR-100061, Project RP2942-1, Palo Alto, California, February. ESCARV. 2001. Electrical System Compatibility for Advanced Rail Vehicles Final Synthesis Report. ESCARV Project. Reference No. BRPR-CT970541 / BE 97-4097, March. Feero, W.E. and F.M. Dietrich. 1995. Magnetic Field Qualification of Electrified Transportation Systems. Paper presented in the EMF Management Techniques Training Session, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers/Power Engineering Society, Winter Meeting, February, 1995. Health Canada. 1999. Limits of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields in the Frequency Range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz Safety Code 6. Document No. 99-EHD-237, Health Canada.

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Imposimato C. 2000. Summary of Test Methods and Results of Electric and Magnetic Fields at a DC Train Station Along the Milan - Malpensa Airport Route. Prepared for ITALTEL. Order No. AR0/016001/1B0. Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano, Milan, Italy. July 21, 2000. International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 1998. Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (Up to 300 GHz), Health Physics, Vol. 74, No. 4, pp. 494-522, April 1998. International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection 1994. Guidelines on Limits of Exposure to Static Magnetic Fields. International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection Health Physics, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 100106, January 1994. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003a. IEC International Standard 62236-1: Railway Applications - Electromagnetic Compatibility - Part 1: General. April, 2003. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003b. IEC International Standard 62236-2: Railway Applications - Electromagnetic Compatibility - Part 2: Emission of the Whole Railway System to the Outside World. April 2003. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003c. IEC International Standard 62236-3-1: Railway Applications - Electromagnetic Compatibility - Part 31: Rolling Stock - Train and Complete Vehicle. April 2003. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003d. IEC International Standard 62236-3-2: Railway Applications - Electromagnetic Compatibility - Part 32: Rolling Stock Apparatus. April, 2003. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003e. IEC International Standard 62236-4: Railway Applications - Electromagnetic Compatibility - Part 4: Emission and Immunity of the Signalling and Telecommunications Apparatus. April, 2003.

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International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003f. IEC International Standard 62236-5: Railway Applications - Electromagnetic Compatibility - Part 5: Emission and Immunity of Fixed Power Supply Installations and Apparatus. April, 2003. International Electrotechnical Commission. 1998. IEC International Standard 61000-2-7(1998-01) Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 2: Environment Section 7: Low Frequency Magnetic Fields in Various Environments. Geneva, Switzerland. January 1998. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. 1994. Standard 644-1994: IEEE Standard Procedures for Measurement of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields from AC Power Lines. New York, N.Y. Muc A.M. 2001. Electromagnetic Fields Associated with Transportation Systems. Prepared by Radiation Health and Safety Consulting for the Air Health Effects Division of the Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch of Health Canada, Contract reference 4500016448, May 29. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 1998. Assessment of Health Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields. U.S. NIEHS Working Group report. U.S. National Institute of Health, NIH Publication No. 98-3981, August 1998. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 1999. Health Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields. U.S., NIH Publication No. 99-4493. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2002. EMF Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Electric Power Questions & Answers. Prepared by NIEHS and National Institute of Health. June 2002. National Research Council. 1997. Possible Health Effects of Exposure to Residential Electric and Magnetic Fields. Committee on the Possible Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Biologic Systems, Board on Radiation Effects Research, Commission on Life Sciences, U.S. National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

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Neutra R.R., V. DelPizzo and G.M. Lee. 2002. An Evaluation of the Possible Risks from Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMFs) from Power Lines, Internal Wiring, Electrical Occupations, and Appliances. California EMF Program, Final Report, June 2002. Parkinson T. 2003. EMI. Email from Tom Parkinson of Tom Parkinson Vancouver Canada to Steve Warner of RAV Project Management, July 1, 2003. Takahashi K. 1993. Magnetic Field Measurements for B.C. Rapid Transit Co. Ltd. Powertech Labs Inc., June 9, 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1999. Survey and Assessment of Electric and Magnetic Field (EMF) Public Exposure in the Transportation Environment. Prepared by F.M. Dietrich and W.L. Jacobs of Electric Research for DOT RSPA - Volpe National Transportation Systems Center. Contract No. DTRS-57-96-C00073. U.S. National Technical Information Services (NTIS) Document No. PB99-130908, March, 1999. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1993a. Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems: Magnetic and Electric Field Testing of the Amtrak Northeast Corridor and New Jersey Transit North Jersey Coast Line Rail Systems. Volume I: Analysis; Volume II: Appendices. Prepared by F.M. Dietrich, W.E. Feero, P.N. Papas, G. Steiner and W.L. Jacobs of Electric Research and Management for DOT/FRA. Report Nos. DOT/FRA/ORD-93/01.I and DOT/FRA/ORD-93/01.II, April 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1993b. Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems: Magnetic and Electric Field Testing of the French Train a Grande Vitesse (TGV) Rail System. Volume I: Analysis; Volume II: Appendices. Prepared by F. M. Dietrich, P.N. Papas, W.L. Jacobs and W.E. Feero of Electric Research and Management for DOT/FRA. Report Nos. DOT/FRA/ORD-93/03.I and DOT/FRA/ORD93/03.II, May 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1993c. Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems: Magnetic and Electric Field Testing of the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Metrorail

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System. Volume I: Analysis; Volume II: Appendices. Prepared by F. M. Dietrich, P.N. Papas, W.L. Jacobs and W.E. Feero of Electric Research and Management for DOT/FRA. Report Nos. DOT/FRA/ORD-93/04.I and DOT/FRA/ORD-93/04.II, June 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1993d. Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems: Magnetic and Electric Field Testing of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) Urban Transit System, Volume I: Analysis; Volume II: Appendices. Prepared by F.M. Dietrich, P.N. Papas, W.E. Feero, W.L. Jacobs, G.A. Steiner, and D.C. Robertson and of Electric Research and Management for DOT/FRA. Report Nos. DOT/FRA/ORD-93/05.I, and DOT/FRA/ORD-93/05.II, June 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1993e. Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems: Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Field of Conventional and Advanced Electrified Transportation Systems. Prepared by F.M. Dietrich, W.E. Feero and W.L. Jacobs of Electric Research and Management for DOT/FRA. Report No. DOT/FRA/ORD-93/07, August 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1993f. Safety of High Speed Guided Ground Transportation Systems: EMF Exposure Environments Summary Report. Prepared by D. Goellner, T. Inge, L. Gillette, N. Hankin and B. Hostage of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (DOE) for DOT/FRA. Report No. DOT/FRA/ORD-93/28, August 1993. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1992. Safety of High Speed Magnetic Levitation Transportation Systems: Magnetic Field Testing of the TR07 Maglev Vehicle and System, Volume I: Analysis; Volume II: Appendices. Prepared by F.M. Dietrich, W.E. Feero, D. Robertson and G. Steiner of Electric Research and Management for U.S. Department of Transportation /Federal Railroad Administration. Report Nos. DOT/FRA/ORD-92/09.I, and DOT/FRA/ORD-92/09.II, April 1992. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. EMF in Your Environment: Magnetic Field Measurements of Everyday Electrical Devices. Office of

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Radiation and Indoor Air, Radiation Studies Division, Washington, DC. Report No. 402-R-92-008. University of York. 2002. Potential Electromagnetic Interference to Radio Services from Railway. Prepared by T. Konefal, D.A.J. Pearce, C.A. Marshman, L.M. McCormack, D. Bozec and A.C. Marvin of York EMC Services Ltd., University of York, United Kingdom. Final Report (AY4110) for Radiocommunications Agency. Wong P.S. and A. Sastre. 1995. Simultaneous AC and DC Magnetic Field Measurements in Residential Areas: Implications for Resonance Theories of Biological Effects. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 1906-1912, October 1995.

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