Introduction
Structural impediments
to managerial mobility
in industrialised
nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
The author
Lisiunia A. Romanienko is an Instructor at
Louisiana State University, Louisiana, USA.
Keywords
Gender, Occupations, Barriers,
Job mobility, Management, National cultures
Abstract
The relationship between gender and managerial mobility
is explored by examining distinct structural elements
unique to industrialized nations that have been
overlooked in prior occupational opportunity research.
Using country specific files of the database, ``Comparative
project on class structure and class consciousness'' the
analysis provides a multicultural comparison of female
managerial attainment in the UK, Sweden, and the USA.
By examining managerial attainment by gender, the
findings suggest that the combined associational effects
of gender and labor force participation patterns by nation
better assess the severity of occupational barriers to
managerial mobility experienced by women, than when
examining gender participation patterns alone. The data
indicate that barriers for female occupational mobility are
not merely limited to decision making at the interpersonal
level, but provide empirical evidence to suggest that
impediments are more institutionally ingrained and
culturally distinct than previously imagined.
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Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . pp. 415±428
# MCB University Press . ISSN 0964-9425
415
Occupational location by gender has been a
somewhat problematic phenomenon in class
analysis, particularly when exploring the
structural elements that impede women's
participation in labor opportunities available
in industrialized nations. Examining female
mobility patterns has been even more
complex, based on the diverse structural,
economic, social, and cultural influences that
impact feminine class location. The women's
family of origin and location of their spouses
(Adkins, 1996), the devaluing of female labor
(Saint-Paul, 1996), discontinuity of
participation based on reproduction
(Mattilda-Sirpa et al., 1997), racial
discrimination (Sokoloff, 1992), political
instability (Tilly and Tilly, 1998), the lack of
formal authority (Pfeffer, 1977), the need for
disproportionate levels of training, limited
employment opportunities (Roos, 1985),
insufficient remuneration (Cockburn, 1991),
weak labor union ties, and insubordinate
locations within industrial sectors (Hakim,
1996) are serious concerns for feminist
analysis of class and labor relations. Despite
these and other structural and occupational
impediments too numerous to elaborate upon
here, many theorists have provided
compelling frameworks by which to approach,
or neglect, the complex relationship between
women and work.
Trotsky, one of the earliest advocates for
women's rights in all social spheres, was an
outspoken defender of women workers and
their crucial role in occupational struggles and
related class conflict. Marxist frameworks, on
the other hand, have been fraught with
primacy issues, usually relegating gender
analysis to a subordinate dimension through
cursory footnotes in otherwise well-developed
sections of domination and exploitation of the
male proletariat by the male petit and haute
bourgeoisie. Even in historic examinations of
industrial transformations, gender
compositional features in occupation and
class analyses are egregiously omitted, despite
periodic bursts of female participation during
An earlier version of this article was presented at
the 1999 Southern Sociological Society in
Nashville, Tennessee. The author would like to
thank Peter Blau, Joachim Singelmann, Joan
Manley, Troy Blanchard, and others in attendance
for their insight. Any error or omission is however,
the exclusive responsibility of the author.
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
labor shortages and (more consistently in late
capitalism) steady increases in female
participation in subordinated secondary labor
markets. Life trajectory analyses similarly
omit women in social mobility studies, while
Goldthorpe (1980), arguably the most vocal
opponent of female analysis in class
stratification, stubbornly adheres to his
repudiation of gender exploration,
presumably out of statistical lethargy.
Could there be justification to continue to
overlook gender in analyzing class structures
in modern societies? In light of the failure of
structural class analysis to incorporate women
in research pertaining to occupations and
mobility, it may be useful to determine the
extent to which women actually participate in
the industrialised labor force. To determine if
women have significant representation in
occupations and to indicate their importance
in class analysis, three industrialised nations
were examined to identify the compositional
features of labor force participation by
gender. To represent relatively broad cultural,
political, and economic social structures, one
Scandinavian nation, one European nation
(the UK), and the USA were chosen to see if
female labor force participation warrants
further scrutiny. Data regarding national
economic development, population
composition by gender, and women's labor
market participation is presented in Table I.
Clearly there is enough female
representation in the labor force of these
nations to provide empirical justification to
support expanded study of women and their
unique compositional features in the labor
force. Of particular interest is the effect that
gender has upon class membership and
occupational strata. To that end, social
scientists have already begun to contribute to
this important body of literature. One of the
earliest theoreticians on gender and class was
Engels (1968, first published in 1884) in his
Table I Measures of female labor force participation by industrialized nation
Gross domestic
product
(per capita)
UK 21,410
Sweden 25,580
USA 29,240
Note: All figures are for the period 1998
Source: World Bank (2000); Central Intelligence Agency (1998); International Labour Organization (1998)
Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
treatment of social relations in occupational
and domestic spheres. As a student of Marx,
Engels recognized the effect of social
stratification upon power relations within the
home. He argued that the ownership of
property led to status enhancement within
family relations, which in turn enabled the
accumulation of power and the influence of
domination to penetrate the character of
domestic relationships. Just as hegemony
existed in the workplace among those who
had access to the means of production, so too
did the hegemony influence the household.
He did not, however, suggest that more
scrutiny be placed upon women's
participation in the labor force, which was
negligible at the time of his writing; but his
emphasis upon domestic and social power
relations, which have largely remained
unchanged today, despite tremendous
industrial transformations, challenge us to
expand this level of inquiry.
Critique of existing literature
Unfortunately, many feminist critiques of
labor have still been limited to the home.
While arguments against compulsive
domesticity are necessary for appropriate
socialization of our youth, and though
egalitarian relations within the domestic
realm regarding household division of labor
remain important to mainstream heterosexual
feminists, these issues should increasingly be
relegated to private audiences. The discourse
of public domain should instead, as argued
most vehemently by marginalized women of
color, transcend these inconsequential issues
and finally give serious academic scrutiny to
gender and class. Pursuit of a feminist class
analysis which continues to be limited to
issues surrounding unpaid domestic labor
within monogamous heterosexual
Female Female labor Total labor Female labor
population force force force (%)
30,075,651 12,041,600 26,947,400 44.69
4,506,545 1,901,000 3,979,000 47.78
139,329,299 60,771,000 131,464,000 46.23
416
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
relationships will have little impact upon
contemporary occupational opportunity
structures, or speak to the true impediments
facing women in the labor force today.
Feminists have made little progress in the
decades since Friedan's groundbreaking work
on women's labor, and should now turn the
agenda toward more pressing macro-
socioeconomic problems including the lack of
feminine economic progress made during
periods of economic expansion, prosperity,
and industrialization: the unequal distribution
of occupational resources, the devaluation of
women's skills, reduced status and wages
associated with ``feminine'' employment, the
maintenance of closed systems of
occupational opportunity as barriers to entry
within many industrial sectors, and the
effective closure of managerial opportunities
at middle and upper levels for the few women
already admitted in various occupations.
Female influence upon household relations
due to occupational status, domestic division
of labor, power relations within the family,
and other insignificant domestic minutiae
have been incorporated in Wright's recent
work on class analysis (1997). Although many
feminists are delighted that such generous
space has been devoted to the issue of gender
in class analysis, much of his treatment
follows in the footsteps of prior feminist
frameworks, exhaustively focusing upon the
construction of family-related variables
regarding egalitarian perceptions of gender
relations, as measured in domestic division of
labor. Fortunately, Wright managed to extend
his gender analysis into more advanced
structural matters. To demystify the
contemporary industrial and cultural
processes in operation that prevent optimal
female labor force participation, feminist
occupational analysis should similarly focus
on structural impediments unique to
industrialized nations that present gendered
occupational barriers to managerial
attainment.
Approach and expected findings
What then, is the influence of gender in
determining women's participation in the
labor force ? In the spirit of the challenge I
have set forth, I will begin to explore the
occupational processes in operation in
distinct industrialised nations. In this paper, I
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Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
intend to provide a synopsis of the current
status of women in the labor force through a
multicultural comparison, provide a
description of the unique features of
occupational opportunity structures in the
UK, Sweden, and the USA; and finally,
extrapolate the implications for public policy.
To that end, the current analysis will examine
by gender managerial attainment data
extracted from the database, Comparative
Project On Class Structure and Class
Consciousness.
Using country-specific files, we approach
the gender-work relationship by examining
impediments that prevent hierarchical
managerial mobility by gender. Although
women compose anywhere from 44 per cent
to 48 per cent of these nations' workforces
(World Bank, 2000), further investigation is
expected to show that women still do not
constitute a representative proportion of
middle or upper level managerial positions
within any industrial sector. This finding, if
supported in this analysis, will provide
compelling evidence to influence policies
which effectively identify and remove sources
of structural impediments preventing class
mobility among women at all occupational
levels and in all industrialised cultures. The
analysis will also examine the validity of global
structural stereotypes, one of which would
suggest that Scandinavian nations, which are
presumably the most egalitarian in political
and social ideologies, exhibit the fewest
impediments for female occupational
mobility. Conversely, the UK, with its class
structure grounded by historically rigid,
feudal class relations (Goldthorpe, 1980),
coupled with processes of historical
uprootedness during industrial
transformation (Leggett, 1968), is likely to
exhibit an occupational structure with the
highest impediments to female mobility.
Finally, the USA, which, in class analysis
literature, is ranked as having occupational
opportunity structures that are relatively
hospitable to the presence of women
(attributed to the existence of an organized
women's political collective (Wright, 1997,
p. 358)), is expected to demonstrate
minimal impediments to female mobility.
Furthermore, a finding that there are indeed
differences in impediments by nations would
result in a formal hypothesis where the
interaction between gender and managerial
attainment should prove to be cultural
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
distinct, and where the association between
the effects of gender and nation of origin
should together prove to be more powerful in
explaining the gender disparity in managerial
attainment than if examining gender alone.
Such a finding would provide preliminary
evidence to suggest that discriminatory
barriers to female managerial mobility in
industrialised nations are a distinct and
pervasive structural feature that fluctuates by
and is permeated within, culture.
Limitations of the data
To determine if these expectations are
correct, data gathered as part of the
Comparative Project on Class was examined
by gender and managerial attainment. One
limitation of the database in this particular
analytic application is that it is unable to
provide data that reflect actual promotional
activity (longitudinally measured upward
occupational status). Although longitudinal
mobility is not a suitable variable for large,
cross-cultural, international database; the
magnitude of impediments preventing female
managerial attainment that the data capture is
highly enlightening, nevertheless.
Prior attempts to prove discriminatory
hiring practices against women using this
database have been futile. One weakness lies
in the strategy of using macro sociological
data to try to demystify micro managerial
phenomena. For example, Wright (1997)
elaborately details the explicit authority
dimensions of relationships across formal
hierarchies using autonomy, sanctioning,
authority, and decision-making indices
constructed by each nation. The interaction
of gender and authority that he analyzed,
while statistically significant, did not
adequately capture the complexities of
workplace relations. Instead, the analysis
inadvertently elaborated upon the effect that
the size of an organisation has on
fundamental authority measures that the
individual is experiencing in the workplace,
not gender distinctions in equitable
delegation of responsibility as he proposed.
The size of an organisation has more impact
upon the likelihood of an individual to have
what he calls ``sanctioning authority'', as well
as decision-making capabilities. The larger
the firm, the larger the supervisor-employee
ratio. The larger the supervisor-employee
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Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
ratio, the more likely it will be for individuals
to be delegated or exert sanctioning authority.
Similarly, where decision-making capabilities
are concerned, those in authority positions
in smaller firms will have greater decision-
making capabilities, and with broader
dimensions, based on reduced bureaucratic
complexity and reduced fragmentation.
Furthermore, his measures do not
adequately control for the individual's
tendency to seek or avoid power,
responsibility, accountability, and decision
making, where variability by gender has been
sufficiently documented in a variety of
settings (Larson and Wislon, 1998; Johnson
and DaVanzo, 1998). The elaboration of
placement and activities (managerial
responsibilities and levels of authority
exercised) in different occupations has largely
failed to produce any particularly striking
effects using the subcategories of authority
dimensions offered in the database. Given the
limitation posed by operationalization of the
data, and in light of the complex nature of
authority relations which is not fully captured
in the database; the focus upon
individualistic, particularistic data that the
Comparative Project provides does not serve
the current intended exploration of
managerial mobility by gender. The limitation
does, however, justify the less propinquitous
approach proposed where authority is
examined, not in light of distinguished types
exercised in the workplace, but by contrasting
those who do not possess it.
A final theoretical caveat needs elaboration.
The labor categories inherent in Wright's
(1985, p. 48) unrevised class framework[1]
was indicative of features required for the
current analysis, including reduced
complexities, parsimonious treatment of class
categories, and expediency of managerial
attainment. It also allowed for swift
elimination of those who are self-employed ±
who are not capable of providing data
regarding dimensions of managerial mobility
by gender. With these limitation in mind, we
proceed with the analysis to determine the
composition of women across occupational
and national boundaries, to ascertain where
women are most concentrated (managerial or
nonmanagerial occupational levels) and to
identify which cultures (specific nations) are
more likely to facilitate optimal occupational
opportunities for women. Before examining
the data, it is necessary to justify the
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
paradigmatic class framework used to
associate the effects of gender, culture, and
managerial attainment extracted from the
Comparative Project database.
Theoretical framework
Use of the analytic class framework espoused
by Poulantzas (1978), while elegantly simple
and straightforward, was considered but
ultimately rejected on the basis of the need to
decompose occupations into broad categories
based on relations to the means of
production. The author did not believe that
these categories would adequately capture the
intermediary class positions or intrasectoral
complexities necessary to make conclusions
regarding female managerial mobility within
industries. Also, as eloquently described in
the analytic framework comparisons by Blom
and Kivinen (1992, p. 350), the use of
Wright's categorisation scheme actually
allows for more fortuitous examination when
investigating those occupying lower and
middle-class positions.
The main differences between the class theories
of Poulantzas and Wright can be summarized in
three points: Wright's working class is twice as
large as Poulantzas'; Poulantzas' bourgeoisie is
considerably larger than Wright's; and
Poulantzas' new petty bourgeoisie includes part
of Wright's working class.
In direct opposition to Goldthorpe's
contention to evaluate female positions based
on the status of the spouse, and in light of the
more realistic portrayal of the global
phenomenon of female poverty; recall that
women remain overwhelmingly subordinate
in their economic position in all nations and
are therefore underrepresented among the
bourgeoisie, are more likely to be members of
the working class, and are presumably less
likely to occupy the position that Poulantzas
refers to as the ``new petty bourgeoisie''.
These conceptualisations provide justification
for use of Wright's unrevised model for the
analysis which, based on his categorizations,
will elicit a more accurate portrayal of the
contemporary feminine face of poverty, as
well as women's relatively innocuous impact
upon global labor force participation patterns.
Because women are expected to occupy
lower, middle, and working classes; and due
to Wright's ability to measure hierarchical
authority dimensions within industries, the
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Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
Wright model is that which most closely
represents the depth of occupational analysis
necessary to explicate the relationship
between gender and class. As such, and in
light of the limitations already established, the
Wright class model remains the preferred
typology within which to approach the
gender-occupation-nation interaction. To
begin, it may be useful to examine class
categories by nation presented in Table II.
Without exemplifying distinct patterns, and
relatively consistently observed in all three
industrialised nations, it is obvious that the
majority of managerial and supervisory
positions are occupied by men. To examine
these findings in greater detail, let us focus
upon managerial and supervisory levels of
employment specifically to determine which
country has the most hospitable environment
for women at the highest levels of hierarchical
mobility. By examining Table II, we see that
the UK has the most egalitarian ratio of
females to males in managerial positions
across industries. Then, the USA follows
closely behind. The nation found to have a
high gender gap was Sweden, where less than
13 per cent of the entire female labor force
reflects managerial attainment. This low
managerial ranking by gender was supported
by other measures calculated by the
Scandinavian government (Nordic Council
and the Nordic Statistical Secretariat, 1984,
p. 215), who determined that Sweden was
actually high on impediments to female labor
force participation when compared to other
Scandinavian nations. This conclusion was
based on social factors that are not captured
in the current analysis (i.e. educational access,
openness of occupational opportunity
structures, wages, and other industrial
indicators). Does this lower than anticipated
ranking of women in managerial positions in
Sweden provide evidence that the
Scandinavian nations are not as hospitable to
women as we would expect? By the admission
of their own authorities, the answer is
affirmative. Just as the UK and the USA have
considerable restrictions for women in
managerial positions, Sweden does not
necessarily provide fewer structural
impediments than other industrialised
nations, and certainly not at the highest
managerial levels.
This finding provides evidence to show that
occupational mobility among women is
restricted in all relatively hospitable
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
Table II Gender labor force characteristics by occupational categories in three industrialized nations
All managers
(including advisor-
managers, supervisors)
Male Female
UK 31 20
Sweden 28 13
USA 36 25
Notes: All figures presented are comparisons using within group row percentages;
the current analysis
Source: Comparative Project on Class Structure and Class Consciousness
industrialised nations to some degree. It
would be problematic to suggest that cross-
cultural gender differences are exclusively
attributable to inhospitable occupational
conditions, or that structural impediments are
the only causal factor for the discrepancies;
however, there is a significant relationship
between mobility, placement, and structural
impediments, especially when controlling for
measures of differential expertise (i.e.
technical/vocational skills, credentials, formal
training, etc.) Wright (1997, p. 352), for
example, differentiates for level of expertise
and finds substantial evidence that gender
discrimination cannot be ruled out in
determining occupational placement.
Nondiscriminatory influences such as
professional aspiration, personal attributes,
and authority-related variables were isolated,
but could not account for the full variance in
gender placement exemplified in all nations.
Other studies have also attempted to
determine the impact of discriminatory hiring
and promotional policies, and have provided
compelling evidence that gender
discrimination substantially influences
occupational placement. If discrimination
were not in operation, women could
reasonably expect to occupy higher levels of
authority in virtually every industry, and in
greater numbers. The current analysis is
expected to provide further evidence that
structural impediments to female managerial
mobility are in effect in industrialised nations
to some degree.
Methodology
Overall, 4,674 interviews were conducted in
the UK (n = 1,770), Sweden (n = 1,145), and
Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
All those self-employeda
(including petty
Semi-autonomous bourgeoisie, small
employees Working class employers, bourgeoisie)
Male Female Male Female Male Female
9 15 43 58 17 7
14 20 43 62 15 5
8 9 39 55 17 13
a
These cases were removed for
the USA (n = 1,759) as part of the
Comparative Project on Class and Class
Consciousness. Questionnaires were designed
to determine managerial attainment,
occupational stratification, and a variety of
other class-related measures. After removal of
self-employed cases that convolute the
analysis, 3,967 relevant cases remained
(Britain (n = 1,168), Sweden (n = 1,074), and
the USA (n = 1,725)).
To determine the impact of deleterious
structural restrictions experienced by women
in the workforce, the interaction effects of
gender (predictor variable), and managerial
attainment (categorical dependent variable)
within occupations by countries were
examined. Due to the nonrankable,
categorical nature of the variables involved in
operationalising gender differences in
intraoccupational mobility, loglinear analysis
was used. To discover the relationships
apparent and possible effects to be expected,
contigency tables were constructed. To
determine what effect gender has on the
likelihood of being a manager in these
different nations in further detail, an
unsaturated model was performed, which
examined all possible associations, including
the main effect of gender and all
combinations of interactional effects of
managerial attainment and national labor
force participation, to exhibit how variances
are partitioned. Because the attainment of
managerial rank intraoccupationally was
being tested as the dependent categorical
variable, loglinear analysis could determine
how the main effect of gender persisted across
national lines, as well as managerial
attainment likelihood in each nation. The
interaction of gender with nation of origin was
of interest, in the hope that this particular
association could distinguish any significant
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Lisiunia A. Romanienko Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428

gendered cultural occupational mobility highest proportion of female labor was

patterns.
Results
The Comparative Project country-specific
database files yielded some compelling
evidence regarding hypothesised egalitarian
features of occupational opportunity
structures among the nations examined. The
results were able to fully dispute Scandinavian
superiority in egalitarian labor force
opportunities, while providing support for
reduced (fewer or less restrictive)
impediments expressed through diminished
gender disparities in advanced industrial
societies. Contingency tables providing this
evidence are presented in Table III.
The most optimistic situation appears in the
USA. US data show a much more egalitarian
opportunity structure than the other two
nations, based on women's high
compositional data. Over 25 per cent of the
female workforce has been able to transcend
structural impediments to intraoccupational
mobility, and obtain positions of managerial
status. Perhaps due in part to rigid historical
class lines, less than 20 per cent of the UK
female labor force was able to attain
managerial positions in all occupations.
Sweden ranks last, having a mere 12 per cent
of the female workforce represented among
managers. This may indicate an increased
likelihood of structural impediments to
female labor force participation in
Scandinavian nations, in contrast to their
social and economic political orientations. A
more advantageous occupational opportunity
structure was found in the USA, where the
represented among managerial attainers. Due
perhaps to the size and strength of the labor
market, women have been able to make some
progress in hierarchical structures across all
occupational sectors. This figure includes all
supervisory and managerial levels, in all
occupations, and in all industries; which may
indicate significantly fewer structural
impediments to female labor force
participation. As expected, there were no
dramatically egalitarian features in any
nation's labor force, nor were there
excessively prohibitive impediments to
prevent female labor force participation in any
of these industrialised nations. These findings
show, nonetheless, that gender and
managerial attainment in all nations are
associated in some way to some degree. A
cursory examination indicates that there
seems to be different magnitudes of
association between gender and managerial
attainment by nation. To determine with
greater specificity how these variables are
associated when compared with other
nations, loglinear analysis was performed.
We expected that the degree of association
between gender and managerial attainment
differed significantly by nation. The
magnitude of the association between gender
and managerial attainment in the UK would
not be expected to be the same as the
magnitude of the association exhibited in
Sweden or the USA. This finding, if
supported, would suggest that gender and
managerial attainment interact by varying
magnitudes among the nations examined,
thus proving some gender impact in
promotional processes cross-culturally. It is
the difference, therefore, in the variations of

Table III Frequency and percentage cross tabulations of likelihood of managerial attainment by gender and country
among the employed
UK Sweden USA
Managerial attainment Males Females Males Females Males Females Total
Frequencies
Managers 216 90 162 54 328 214 1,064
Nonmanagers 482 380 460 398 544 639 2,903
Total 698 470 622 452 872 853 3,967
Percentages
Managers 30.95 19.15 26.04 11.95 37.61 25.09 26.86
Nonmanagers 69.05 80.85 73.96 88.05 62.39 74.91 73.14
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note: Missing data: 707 cases of self-employed individuals
Source: Comparative Project on Class Structure and Class Consciousness

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Lisiunia A. Romanienko Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428

interaction between gender and managerial positions in that nation. The comparisons of
attainment that will be explored by the the three models are presented in Table IV.
models presented. To determine what As expected, women in the UK and Sweden
particular interactional effects are in reflected lower observed frequencies among
operation, the categorical variables were managerial attainers than would be expected
initially analysed using loglinear analysis then when comparing both Models 1 and 2. This
Logit precedures were performed because one suggests that there is a strong association
dichotomous dependent variable could be between gender and nationality, which
isolated (managerial attainment or not). To together substantially accounts for much of
recapitulate the formal hypotheses: the observed gender deficiencies in
H1: the degree of association between the managerial attainment across all employment
effects of gender and managerial categories in both nations. The USA, on the
attainment differs by nation other hand, shows more optimistic data.
H2: the association between the effects of When examining the managerial attainment
gender and nation of origin together is patterns exhibited in the USA, there are
more powerful in explaining the gender actually higher observed frequencies of
disparity in managerial attainment than managerial attaining females then expected in
if examining gender alone Models 1 or 2. This finding suggests that
there is actually a higher expected ratio of
The model being tested, therefore, is the
managerial attaining females in the USA than
interaction effects of gender and likelihood of
can be reasonably expected in Model 2 based
managerial attainment in nations examined,
solely on gender composition of the labor
and to that end, the differences in magnitude
force, or Model 1 where gender effects are
of association that are evident in different
partitioned separately (see Table IV).
nations will be explored. This test is a
When measuring the interactional effects of
preferred alternative to attempting to prove or
gender and nationality to determine
compare levels of discrimination in nations
managerial attainment tested in Model 1,
using the data available, due to limitations
there seems to be some itinerative effect. This
already discussed in this paper. For purposes
of the current analysis, determining that there Table IV Observed and expected frequencies of managerial attainment by
is an association between gender and gender in the UK, Sweden and the USA
managerial attainment to differing degrees
Expected Expected
will be an important foundation for future Observed (%) (Model 1) (%) (Model 2) (%)
analysis to determine what cultural features
and possible occupational factors may be UK
responsible for creating more favorable Managers
Males 216 (30.95) 224.81 (32.21) 341 (61.20)
professional climates for women in
Females 90 (19.15) 94.79 (20.17) 216 (38.80)
industrialised nations, thereby facilitating
Nonmanagers
female intraoccupational moblity.
Males 482 (69.05) 473.19 (67.79) 404 (61.20)
To examine this interaction, the magnitude
Females 380 (80.85) 375.21 (79.83 256 (38.80)
of Observed Frequencies already presented in
Sweden
Table III are compared to Expected
Managers
Frequencies of Model 1. These Expected
Males 162 (26.05) 200.33 (32.21) 137 (52.90)
Frequencies are calculated by comparing the
Females 54 (11.95) 91.16 (20.17) 122 (47.10)
relationships among the variables without
Nonmanagers
expressing a particular association among
Males 460 (73.95) 421.67 (67.79) 434 (52.90)
gender and managerial attainment. Expected
Females 398 (88.05) 360.84 (79.83) 386 (47.10)
Frequencies of Model 2 are the no association
USA
model, constructed using expected
Managers
frequencies if there was no gender or national
Males 328 (37.61) 280.85 (32.21) 144 (57.90)
influence in effect when determining
Females 214 (25.09) 172.04 (20.17) 104 (42.10)
managerial attainment, based exclusively on
Nonmanagers
female labor force composition data
Males 544 (62.39) 591.15 (67.79) 824 (57.90)
presented in Table I, and by estimating Females 639 (74.91) 680.96 (79.83) 599 (42.10)
representative proportions of females
Source: Comparative Project on Class Structure and Class Consciousness
expected in managerial and nonmanagerial
422
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations Women in Management Review
Lisiunia A. Romanienko Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428

means that the combination or interaction Table V Predicted log odds of managerial attainment by gender in the
effect of gender with nationality did a UK, Sweden and the USA
somewhat better job in explicating the gender Residual Adj. residual Dev. residual
difference among managerial attainers then if
the variables were not combined. There were, UK
however, some other unexpected results. Managers
The Residual column shows the differences Males ±8.81 ±0.86 ±0.59
between the expected and observed values. Females ±4.79 ±0.64 ±0.50
The sign indicated the direction of the Nonmanagers
change, and shows a negative direction of Males 8.81 0.86 ±0.40
female occupation Residuals among managers Females 4.79 ±0.64 ±0.25
in the UK and Sweden, but not in the USA. Sweden
This suggests that when examining female Managers
managerial attainment alone, the no Males ±38.33 ±3.89 ±2.80
association model did not fit the data Females ±37.16 ±5.05 ±4.22
precisely in the UK and Sweden, and so the Nonmanagers
model being tested which measures the Males 38.33 3.89 1.84
interactional effects between gender and Females 37.16 5.05 1.92
nation presented in observed frequencies, is USA
increasing the goodness of fit in only these Managers
nations. The US data are more problematic. Males 47.15 4.40 2.74
Logit procedures predict the log odds (ratio Females 41.96 4.97 3.08
of two expected frequencies) of the dependent Nonmanagers
variable. The model is similar to linear Males ±47.15 ±4.40 ±1.97
regression, in that the expected value of a Females ±41.96 ±4.97 ±1.62
continuous dependent variable is a linear Source: Comparative Project on Class Structure and Class Consciousness
function of one or more independent
variables. In the current treatment, the effect
rather to other effects not measured in the
of managerial attainment is measured to be a
model. Hence, nationality and gender
linear function of the combination of gender
influence the likelihood of women achieving
and nation of origin. The figures presented
intraoccupational mobility to some degree,
provide the predicted log-odds of managerial
but do not necessarily explain much of the
potential of women who are British, or
gender gap in managerial attainment
Swedish, or from the USA. Since the gender
cross-culturally when combined.
and managerial attainment effects are
examined, logits are defined in terms of
conditional probabilities (Table V).
The unusually large residuals in Sweden Discussion
and the USA shows that the combination of
As a preliminary examination, loglinear
gender and nation of origin do not adequately
account for gender disparity in managerial models were examined to determine
attainment. In loglinear analysis, the measure interactional effects that are exhibited among
of the strength of the association of gender the variables. Gender and nationality do effect
and nation occurs by comparing it to the fit of the likelihood for women to achieve
the model excluding it (Model 1), the intraoccupational mobility, and the extent to
difference in fit being due to the which this association occurs varies by
consequences of that relationship. Therefore, country. But the model combining gender
we must conclude that as applied to Sweden and nation of origin does not predict expected
and the USA and at all managerial attainment frequencies well. Instead, there must be some
levels, the model exhibiting associated effects intervening industrial or occupational feature
is not as good a fit to explain managerial that interacts with gender that can better
attainment gender deficiencies, as when the demystify the occupational management
effects are measured alone. barrier (``glass ceiling'') phenomenon.
The probability of managerial attainment The data comparing differences in
by nation depends, therefore, not to the effect magnitude of the associations does, however,
of the two variables in combination, but provide evidence to suggest that there are
423
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
unique elements in each nation's
occupational opportunity structure that
determine the extent to which women will be
free to ascend to management positions. As
such and in light of the data presented, the
nation with the fewest impediments for
women to exhibit mobility through
occupational opportunity structure is the
USA. Here, women compose over 46 per cent
of the labor force, and more than 25 per cent
of the managerial positions in that nation.
The loglinear interaction among variables also
yielded somewhat favorable results in the
USA when comparing expected frequencies
to those observed. In the UK, women make
up a smaller proportion of the workforce
(44.7 per cent), and a smaller proportion (less
than 20 per cent) of the managerial positions
in the UK[2]. Since the residuals were
smallest when examining UK data, this may
indicate that the effects of the combination of
gender and nation of origin are strongly
associated with gender disparities in
managerial attainment in this nation. On the
other hand, the nation with the most
structural obstacles to intraoccupational
mobility is Sweden, which, despite having the
highest proportion of female workers in the
labor force (nearly 48 per cent), ranks highest
as having the most impediments to female
managerial attainment, as measured in the
proportion of women allowed to ascend to
managerial positions (12 per cent). There was
also an unusually high discrepancy in
residuals calculated in the female managerial
category for this nation, where female ratios
were the lowest of all female labor force data
examined. This peculiar finding warrants a
much broader examination of the gender
mobility impediments in Sweden's
occupational opportunity structure, perhaps
found among occupational or industrial
factors, which could account for the low
predicted odds of the association measured in
the analysis.
The data showed some cultural bias against
men as well, thereby giving even more
support to the associational effects of
occupational structural factors by nation.
Men in managerial positions in Sweden were
expected to have much higher occupancy
rates among managers, suggesting that the
Scandinavian labor market may, overall, have
a higher supervisor to worker ratio than other
industrialized nations. This may indicate that
there are structural mobility features that
424
Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
impact men and women more equally than
expected, and that all workers experience
severe restrictions against intraoccupational
mobility, regardless of gender. This indicates
the need for identification of other cultural
features distinguishing the Swedish
occupational opportunity structures from
other industrialized nations, or use of an
alternative indicator for status within the
Swedish labor force. Similarly, the relatively
egalitarian features exhibited in the USA may
actually indicate some possibility for
``diluted'' prestige associated with ``manager''
status, rather than capture any substantial
female intraoccupational ascendancy
patterns, as originally intended.
Conclusion
Despite the differences in impediments across
cultures, there is overwhelming evidence of
restrictive structures in the industrialized
nations examined to some degree. There is
obviously much more research needed to
distinguish what factors may be in operation
to determine female occupational placement.
The analysis attempted to move gender
explorations beyond the scope of
discriminatory hiring practices at the
individual decision-making level, and provide
evidence of distinct, ingrained,
institutionalized, cultural barriers unique to
particular industrialised nations. There are
significant ramifications of this finding toward
international policies designed to enhance the
likelihood for greater equality in the
workplace. Whether the focus should be to
increase the proportion of women in the labor
force across managerial and occupational
cleavages, or instead, to facilitate the
intraoccupational movement of women
already occupying positions within
occupations, is yet to be determined.
Comparative data using cross-cultural
research can be particularly fortuitous in
highlighting the distinct social, political, and
industrial features that may illuminate the
types of deleterious or beneficial influences
that can restrict or enhance women's
occupational mobility within unique cultural
occupational environments. Once these labor
force characteristics have been identified,
substantial effort can be made to continue
and expand innovative governmental,
organisational and industrial solutions to
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
create equitable employment environments
for women around the world. It is only
through full resolution to responsive national
affirmative action policies at the legislative
level, employer incentive programs within
industries, mentoring programs within
occupations, equitable promotional policies
within managerial ranks, and the ubiquitous
commitment to the destruction of informal
institutional pathways that reproduce the
gender, racial, and ethnic features of existing
occupational hierarchical systemic hegemony,
that we will be able to remove international
restrictions for female managerial mobility
within industrialised nations for the future.
Notes
1 Wright (1985, p. 48) Unrevised categories are
managers (including advisor-managers and
supervisors), self-employed (including petty
bourgeoisie, small employers, and the bourgeoisie),
semi-autonomous employees, and the working
class. For the present analysis, the managers have
remained unchanged, and semi-autonomous
employees and the working class have been
collapsed and defined as ``nonmanagers''. The
remaining class category in Wright's unrevised
typology, self-employed, have been filtered due to
Wright's criteria (1985) regarding the supervision of
others. They have no direct supervisory
responsibilities, and would therefore have no
impact upon the analysis.
2 Due to discrepancies in the availability of data
regarding England and the UK, the geographic unit
of analysis has fluctuated somewhat between the
UK and Britain.
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Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
Abstracts from the
wider literature
``Structural impediments to
managerial mobility in
industrialised nations''
The following abstracts from the wider
literature have been selected for their
special relevance to the preceding article.
The abstracts extend the themes and
discussions of the main article and act as
a guide to further reading.
Each abstract is awarded 0-3 stars for
each of four features:
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quoting the reference number shown at
the end of the abstract.
Gender occupational segregation and its
impact on the gender wage differential
among rural-urban migrants: a Chinese
case study
Meng, X. in Applied Economics (UK),
Jun 1998 Vol. 30 No. 6: p. 741 (12 pages)
Considers gender inequality in the context of
rural-urban migration in developing
countries, a little-researched topic. Uses
Brown's two-stage procedure to show how
segregation of occupations by gender affects
wage differentials, given that individual
occupational attainment is an endogenous
variable. Surveys 1,504 adults in Jinan City,
Shandong province, China, in 1995,
discovering income, family status, training
and experience. Reveals that male earnings
before and after migration are 130 per cent of
female, men are older and married, and men
work in construction while women work in
service industries. Argues that discrimination
causes the disparity, with a small contribution
426
Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
from occupational attainment, and that the
urban labour market should be opened out.
Style: Theoretical with application in practice
Research implications:***
Practice implications:* Originality:***
Readability:** Total number:*********
Reference: 27AP942
Cost: £30 (plus VAT)
Overt employment discrimination by
multinational firms: cultural and
economic influences in a developing
country
Lawler, J.J. and Bae, J. in Industrial
Relations (USA), Apr 98 (37/2): p. 126
(27 pages)
Examines the employment practices of
multinational companies operating in
Thailand, a rapidly developing country, to
discover if they engage in overt gender
discrimination in their recruitment
advertising. Investigates two factors which
might be expected to influence whether or not
firms engage in discriminatory recruitment
practices ± the national culture of the firm's
home country and the economic growth of
the host country. Using Hofstede's analysis of
national culture, asks if gender discrimination
is affected by the level of individualism/
collectivism and masculinity/femininity in the
parent company's home country culture. Also
asks if overt discrimination will decrease as
the rate of real growth in the host country's
economy increases. Analyses job adverts for
white-collar and professional employees in the
main Thai newspaper, looking at the
advertising firm's country of origin. Finds that
home country culture does seem to influence
discriminatory behaviour. In relation to the
impact of economic growth, discovers that
growth seems to be associated with an
increased likelihood that adverts will refer to
equal opportunities.
Style: Theoretical with application in
practice/Survey
Research implications:***
Practice implications:** Originality:**
Readability:** Total number:*********
Reference: 27AM927
Cost: £24 (plus VAT)
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
Industrialization, female labour force
participation, and the modern division
of labour by sex
Rau, W. and Wazienski, R. in Industrial
Relations (USA), Oct 1999 Vol. 38 No. 4:
p. 504 (18 pages)
Examines the effect of industrialization on the
gendered division of labour, focusing on the
evidence that female labour force
participation decreases in the early phases of
industrialization and increases as countries
become fully industrialized (the
U-hypothesis). Reviews the literature on this,
comparing it with the case made for the
'emancipation hypothesis', which argues that
there is a direct relationship between
industrialization and the increasing
employment of women. Uses the
International Labour Office Yearbook of
Statistics from the 1960s and 1970s to test the
validity of the two theories. Concludes that
the U-hypothesis is upheld and points out
that this gives some explanation of the gender
segregation within modern industry ± women
mainly entering the workforce after the
institution building stage of modern societies,
thereby losing advantage in the labour market
to men.
Style: Theoretical with application in
practice/Survey
Research implications:**
Practice implications:** Originality:**
Readability:** Total number:*********
Reference: 29AA345
Cost: £24 (plus VAT)
Through the brick wall, and the glass
ceiling: women in the civil service in
Bangladesh
Zafarullah, H. in Gender, Work and
Organization (UK), Jul 2000 Vol. 7 No. 3:
p. 197 (13 pages)
Examines the constraints that women in face
in entering and making a career in the
Bangladeshi Civil Service. Reviews the
cultural attitudes to women in Bangladesh
and other developing countries, also
reviewing the international and other
pressures being placed on governmental
organizations to adopt equal opportunities
policies for women. Sets out the status of
women in Bangladesh and describes the
equal opportunities initiatives set up by the
Bangladeshi Civil Service, particularly the
427
Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
quota system for recruitment. Reports a
survey of women working in the Civil
Service, which asked about their pre-entry
educational status; the barriers encountered
before entering the Civil Service and
subsequently in their careers with the
Service; their commitment to their jobs and
careers; and their perceptions of unequal
treatment. Identifies the attitudinal barriers
among the women themselves, as well as
among their male managers and colleagues,
that hold back women's career development.
Also identifies the social and organizational
barriers.
Style: Theoretical with application in practice
Research implications:**
Practice implications:** Originality:**
Readability:** Total number:********
Reference: 29AT214
Cost: £24 (plus VAT)
The changing status of women in India:
impact of urbanization and
development
Ghosh, R.N. and Roy, K.C. in International
Journal of Social Economics (UK), Vol. 24
No. 7/8/9 97: p. 902 (16 pages)
Examines the effect which urbanization and
development has had on the role of women
in India in terms of a number of
demographic and socio-economic indicators
(such as sex ratios), literacy rates, age at
marriage and percentage of women in the
total labour force. Takes into consideration
the added dimension of religious and cultural
demands, pressures and constraints on the
role of women, before concluding that
development and urbanization has led to
uneven results for different categories of
women: middle-class educated women were
able to improve in economic and social
status, whereas the poorer women in rural
India were left behind; and Christian and
Hindu women were able to progress socially
to a much greater degree than Muslim
women.
Style: Case study
Research implications:**
Practice implications:*** Originality:**
Readability:*** Total number:**********
Reference: 26AZ879
Cost: £30 (plus VAT)
Structural impediments to managerial mobility in industrialised nations
Lisiunia A. Romanienko
The employment of women managers
and professionals in an emerging
economy: gender inequality as an
organizational practice
Appold, S.J., Siengthai, S. and Kasarda, J.D.
in Administrative Science Quarterly
(USA), Sep 1998 Vol. 43 No. 3: p. 538 (28
pages)
Compares the employment of women in
Thailand with the situation in Japan and the
USA to assess the importance of women in
management positions in rapidly developing
countries. Investigates organizational factors
affecting the employment of high-skill women
by private firms, testing key aspects of three
organizational theories about the employment
of high-skill women: market incentives,
cultural values and social homophily.
Develops hypotheses reflecting the
relationship between these theories and the
employment of women, testing them against
428
Women in Management Review
Volume 15 . Number 8 . 2000 . 415±428
the practices of randomly selected firms from
Thailand, Japan and the USA. Suggests, from
the findings, that the representation of women
among managers and professionals may be a
product of a mutually constraining
relationship between market incentives and
the social homophily preferences of male
employees. Finds no support for the belief
that the employment of women in managerial
positions hinders organizational performance.
Concludes that a greater representation of
women at the top in Thai firms implies that
gender is only one of a number of distinctions
contributing to social distance in
organizations.
Style: Survey
Research implications:**
Practice implications:** Originality:**
Readability:** Total number:********
Reference: 28AD165
Cost: £18 (plus VAT)