CELLS TOPIC ONE

1. Outline cell theory. • organelles: up to 10 µm

• all living things are made of one or more cells • eukaryotic cells: up to 100 µm
• the cell is the smallest unit of life
• all cells come from pre-existing cells
2. Discuss the evidence for the cell theory.
• a theory is a general system of ideas used to explain
or interpret observations
• theories provide predictive power by generating
hypotheses
• a hypothesis is a specific prediction than can be
tested through observation or experiment
• each aspect of cell theory is based on evidence
obtained from observations and experiments
all living things are made of one or more cells
• microscopes allow us to observe that all living things
are either unicellular or multicellular
• exceptions:
1. skeletal muscle, some fungal hyphae, and some algae
have multinucleate cytoplasm, lacking normal cell
separations
2. connective tissue, such as bone, blood and cartilage,
is composed of both cellular and extracellular
structures, especially extracellular proteins and fluids;
however, these extracellular structures are products
of cellular activities
the cell is the smallest unit of life:
• nothing smaller than a cell can survive independently
• subcellular structures cannot survive independently
(nuclei, ER, golgi, chloroplasts, mitochondria)
• the lower limit on cell size is about 200nm, large
enough for DNA, ribosomes, and membranes
all cells come from pre-existing cells:
• this seems to imply that life has always existed, which
is incompatible with geological evidence about the
age of Earth
• therefore, an exception is made for the origin of life,
when cells must have arisen from non-living
substances 5. Calculate linear magnification of drawings and the
actual size of specimens in images of known
• since the conditions of early Earth were anaerobic,
magnification
they allowed for cells to form from non-living
magnification = size of image / actual size of specimen
substances
drawings of microscopic structures must include at least one
• the conditions of present Earth are aerobic, of:
precluding the formation of cells from non-living
substances
• scale bars: |-----------| = 1 µm
3. State that unicellular organisms carry out all the • magnification: x 250
functions of life 6. Explain the importance of the surface area to volume
ratio as a factor limiting cell size
• metabolism: chemical reactions inside the cell,
surface area
including cell respiration to release energy
• sensitivity: perceiving and responding to changes in
• (SA) = f(x2)
the environment • rate of exchange = f(SA)
volume
• homeostasis: keeping conditions inside the organisms
within tolerable limits • (V) = f(x3)
• growth: an irreversible increase in size • metabolism = f(V)
• reproduction: producing offspring either sexually or • metabolism includes heat production/waste
asexually production/resource consumption of a cell
therefore
• nutrition: obtaining food, to provide energy and the
materials needed for growth • as the dimensions of a cell increase, V increases
4. Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell proportionally faster than SA
membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and • thus, SA/V ratio decreases with cell size
cells, using appropriate SI units
• setting an upper limit on cell size
• molecules: ~ 1 nm
• because lower relative SA reduces rate of exchange
• cell membrane thickness: ~ 10 nm
• while higher relative V increases metabolic demands
• viruses: ~ 100 nm
• thus, rate of exchange can’t meet needs of metabolic
• bacteria: ~ 1 µm demands
7. State that multicellular organisms show emergent
properties.
• emergent properties arise from the interaction of
component parts
• the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• life itself can be viewed as an emergent property
8. Explain that cells in multicellular organisms
differentiate to carry out specialized functions by
expressing some of their genes but not others.
unicellular organisms
• must solve all of life’s challenges within the confines
of a single cell
multicellular organisms
• can differentiate into a variety of interdependent cell
types
• each specialized to carry out a subset of functions
• thereby achieving a greater efficiency
• through division of labor among a multicellular
cooperative
cellular differentiation
• achieved through differential gene expression
• all cells in an organism have identical DNA = genome
• different cell types make different proteins
• usually as a result of transcriptional regulation
• each cell type expresses a closely regulated subset of
its genome
• “turning on” some genes and “turning off” others
9. State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide
and have the ability to differentiate along different
pathways.
10. Outline one therapeutic use of stem cell.
• bone marrow transplants use hematopoietic stem
cells (HS cells)
• HS cells are found in bone marrow and divide
continually, producing a variety of red and white
blood cells
• just 100 HS cells can completely replace the blood
system of mice when all cells in the marrow have
been destroyed by radiation
• HS cells are used in the treatment of numerous blood
disorders
1. acute leukemia
2. SCID (severe combined immune deficiency)
3. multiple myeloma
4. lymphoma
• in lymphoma:
1. cells are removed from the bone marrow of the
patient
2. high doses of chemotherapy drugs are taken by the
patient to kill dividing cells in the body
3. both cancerous and normal are killed
4. HS cells from the bone marrow are then transplanted
back into the patient
5. these HS cells can then fully restore healthy
production of blood cells in the bone marrow
• ethical issues: use of embryonic stem cells involves
the death of early-stage embryos
• ethical issues: therapeutic cloning could reduce
suffering for patients with a wide variety of conditions
1. Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of
Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote.
 • DNA is circular and naked (not associated with
protein)
• total amount of DNA is much smaller than in
eukaryotes
• the nucleoid is stained less densely than the rest of
the cytoplasm because there are fewer ribosomes in
it and less protein
3. Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron
micrographs of E. coli.

2. Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the function of

each named structure:
cell wall:
• always present
• composed of peptidoglycan
4. State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.
• provides physical protection
• maintains cell shape 1. Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a
•
prevents bursting in hypotonic environment liver cell as an example of an animal cell.
plasma membrane:
2. Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions
• thin layer mainly composed of phospholipids pushed
of each named structure.
up against the inside of the cell wall Free ribosomes:
• provides selectively permeable barrier between • sites of protein synthesis for use within the cytoplasm
homeostatically controlled interior and fluctuating
exterior environments • ribosomes are constructed in the nuclear region
called the nucleolus
• controls entry and exit of substances
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:
• can also pump substances in or out by active • flattened membrane sacs (cisternae)
transport
• ribosomes attached to outside of cisternae
• can produce ATP by cell respiration
pili: • proteins synthesized by ribosomes enter cisternae
• protein filaments protruding from the cell wall • proteins collected within cisternae are packaged in
vesicles
• can be pulled in or push out by a ratchet mechanism
• vesicles transport proteins to Golgi apparatus
• used for cell to cell adhesion
Lysosomes:
• used when bacteria stick together to form • spherical vesicles formed by Golgi apparatus
aggregations of cells
• contain hydrolytic/digestive enzymes
• used when two cells are exchanging DNA during
conjugation • enzymes for breaking down ingested food, damaged
flagella: organelles, or entire cells
Golgi apparatus:
• structures protruding from the cell wall with a
corkscrew shape • consists of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
• base is embedded in the cell wall • unlike ER, cisternae are curved, shorter, and lack
ribosomes
• using energy, they can be rotated, to propel the cell
from on area to another • proteins received from arriving vesicles are processed
•
unlike eukaryotic flagella, they are solid and • carbohydrates added to proteins to form
inflexible, working like a propeller glycoproteins
cytoplasm: • vesicles of glycoproteins exit Golgi for exocytosis or
• fluid filling the space inside the plasma membrane intracellular use
Mitochondria:
• water with many dissolved substances
• double membrane bound
• contains many enzymes
• inner membrane invaginated to form cristae
• contains ribosomes
• site of aerobic respiration, producing ATP
• does not contain any membrane-bound organelles
Nucleus:
•
carries out the chemical reactions of metabolism • double membrane bound, containing pores for
ribosomes: transport of proteins and ribosomes
• small granular structures (70S) • contains chromosomes, made of DNA + protein
• smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes which are 80S • uncoiled chromosomes = chromatin
•sites of protein synthesis • site of DNA replication and transcription into RNA
nucleoid:
• region cytoplasm containing the genetic material
(usually one molecule of DNA)
3. Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron cirographs
of liver cells.

5. State three differences between plant and animal

cells.
Plant cells
• cellulose cell walls
• chloroplasts
• large central vacuole
Animal cells
• no cell walls
• no chloroplasts
• lacking or small vacuoles

4. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic
• naked DNA
• DNA in cytoplasm (no nuclear membrane)
• No membrane-bound organelles (no mitochondria, ER,
golgi)
• ribosome size = 70S
• Only bacteria 6. Outline two roles of extracellular components.
• Size: 1 - 10 µm Plant cell wall
• Evolved at least 3.5 billion years ago • composition: cellulose microfibrils
Eukaryotic • functions:
• DNA associated with proteins 1. provides physical protection
2. prevents excessive water uptake precluding bursting
• True nucleus (enclosed by nuclear membrane)
in hypotonic environment
• Many membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, ER, 3. produces turgor pressure which holds whole plant up
golgi) to compartmentalize functions against the force of gravity
• ribosome size = 80S Animal extracellular matrix
• All cells other than bacteria • animal cells secrete glycoproteins that form the
extracellular matrix
• Size: 2 - 1000 µm
• Evolved 1.5 - 2 billion years ago
• functions: support, adhesion, movement
. Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of
membranes.
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Cholesterol
• Glycoproteins
• Integral proteins embedded in th phospholipid of the
membrane
• Peripheral proteins attached to the phospholipid
surface

2. Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic
properties of phospholipids help to maintain the
structure of cell membranes.
• Hydrophobic fatty acid tails repel water and form the
middle layer of the membrane.
• Hydrophilic phosphate heads attract water and form
the outer layers of the membrane.
3. List the functions of membrane proteins including:
• Hormone binding sites
• Immobilized enzymes
• Cell adhesion
• Cel-to-cell communication
• Channels for passive transport
• Pumps for active transport.
4. Define:
• Diffusion = the passive movement of particles from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
• Osmosis = the passive movement of water molecules,
across a partially permeable membrane, from a
region of lower solute concentration to a region of
higher solute concentration.
5. Explain passive transport across membranes in terms
of simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Concentration gradient: Molecules can diffuse across
membranes from areas of higher to lower concentration by:
• Simple diffusion: traveling directly through the
membrane if they are small and uncharged, thus
avoiding repulsion by the hydrophobic, non-polar tails
of phospholipids in the middle of the membrane.
• Facilitated diffusion: traveling through special
transport proteins, if they match the shape and
charge requirements to fit through the channels
provided by the transport proteins.
6. Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active
transport across membranes.
Against the concentration gradient: Moves substance from an
area where it is in lower concentration to an area where it is in
higher concentration.
Protein pumps:
• Integral protein pumps embedded within membranes.
• Specific to molecule transported.
Requires energy:
• Usually provided by ATP.
• Often by phosphorylating the protein pump as ATP is
hydrolyzed.
7. Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials
within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane.
• Protein synthesis: rER produces proteins which travel
through the lumen of the ER
• Transport in vesicles: Membranes produced by the
rER flows in the form of transport vesicles to the
Golgi, carrying proteins within the vesicles
• Modification: Golgi apparatus modifies proteins
produced in rER
• Transport to membrane: Golgi pinches off vesicles
that contain modified proteins and travel to plasma
membrane
• Exocytosis: Vesicles then fuse with plasma
membrane, releasing their contents by
8. Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it
to change shape, break and reform during endocytosis
and exocytosis.
• Lipids move laterally in a membrane, but flip-flopping
across the membrane is rare.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbon tail of phospholipids have
kinks that keep the molecules from packing together,
enhancing membrane fluidity.
• Cholesterol reduces membrane fluidity by reducing
phospholipid movement at moderate temperatures
but it also hinders solidification at low temperatures.
2.5 Cell Division
1. Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including
interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis.
interphase
 • G1: growth, protein synthesis, increase in the number
of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts
• S: DNA replication
• G2: growth, protein synthesis, preparation for
mitosis/cytokinesis
mitosis = nuclear division
• prophase
• metaphase
• anaphase
• telophase
cytokinesis = cellular division
2. State that tumors (cancers) are the result of
uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in
any organ or tissue.
3. State that interphase is an active period in the life of
a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including
protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in
the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.
4. Describe the events that occur in the four phases of
mitosis:
Prophase:
• Chromosomes condense by supercoiling, becoming
visible
• Centrioles move to opposite poles
• Nucleolus disappears
• Nuclear membrane disappears
• Microtubular spindle apparatus forms at each pole
Metaphase:
• Spindle microtubules attach to chromosome
centromeres
• Chromosomes move to the equator
Anaphase:
• Centromeres split as spindle microtubules pull
chromatids to opposite poles (after centromeres split,
sister chromatids are known as sister chromosomes)
• Sister chromosomes move to opposite poles as
microtubules shorten
Telophase:
• Sister chromosomes have arrived at poles
• Spindle disappears
• Centrioles replicate
• Nuclear membrane becomes visible
• Nucleolus becomes visible
• Chromosomes decondense, becoming chromatin
5. Explain how mitosis produces two genetically
identical nuclei.
• DNA replication during S phase of interphase
produces two identical copies of DNA
• Identical sets of DNA are attached to each other as
sister chromatids of each of the cell’s chromosomes
• Mitosis segregates the two chromatids of each
chromosome to opposite poles, forming two identical
nuclei, each with one complete copy of the original
DNA
• Cytokinesis separates the two daughter nuclei into
two identical daughter cells
6. State that growth, embryonic development, tissue
repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.
Previous IB Exam Essay Questions: Unit 1
1. Discuss possible exceptions to cell theory. 4 marks
• skeletal muscle fibers are larger/have many nuclei/are
not typical cells
• fungal hyphae are (sometimes) not divided up into
individual cells
• unicellular organisms can be considered acellular
• because they are larger than a typical cell/carry out
all functions of life
• some tissues/organs contain large amounts of
extracellular material
• e.g. vitreous humor of eye/ mineral deposits in bone/
xylem in trees/other example
• statement of cell theory/all living things/most tissues
are composed entirely of true cells
2. Explain how the surface are to volume ratio
influences cell sizes. 3 marks
• small cells have larger ratio (than larger cells)/ratio
decreases as size increases
• surface area/membrane must be large enough to
absorb nutrients/oxygen/substances needed
• surface area/membrane must be large enough to
excrete/pass out waste products
• need for materials is determined by (cell) volume
• cell size is limited (by SA/Volume ratio)/cells divide
when they reach a certain size
• reference to diffusion across/through
membrane/surface area
3. Outline differentiation of cells in a multicellular
organism. 4 marks
• differentiation is development in different/specific
ways
• cells carry out specialized functions/become
specialized
• example of a differentiated cell in a multicelluar
organism
 • cells have all genes/could develop in any way 8. Distinguish between the structure of plant and
animal cells. 6 marks
• some genes are switched on/expressed but not others Award 1 mark per difference plant cells
• position/hormones/cell-to-cell signals/chemicals
determine how a cell develops
• a group of differentiated cells is a tissue
4. Draw a diagram of a prokaryotic cell 6 marks
• cell wall shown clearly and labelled
• cell surface membrane shown thinner than and
adjacent to cell wall and labelled
• cytoplasm shown with no nucleus present and
labelled
• ribosomes shown free in the cytoplasm and labelled
• loop of DNA shown in the cytoplasm/nucleoid and
labelled as DNA
• plasmid shown as a small loop and labelled
• slime capsule shown as a layer outside the cell wall
and labelled
• mesosome shown as a membrane invagination and
labelled
• flagellum shown and labelled (reject if shown with
microtubules)
5. Draw a diagram to show the organelles which are
found in the cytoplasm of plant cells. 6 marks
Award 1 mark for each of the following structures accurately
drawn and labelled
• rough endoplasmic reticulum
• (free ribosomes)
• Golgi apparatus
• mitochondrion
• chloroplast
• vacuole
• nucleus
• lysosome
• smooth endoplasmic reticulum
6. State one function of each of the following
organelles: lysosome, Golgi apparatus, rough
endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, mitochondrion. 5 marks
• lysosome: hydrolysis/digestion/break down of
materials (macromolecules)
• Golgi apparatus:
synthesis/sorting/transporting/secretion of cell
products
• rough endoplasmic reticulum: site of synthesis of
proteins (to be secreted)/ intracellular transport of
polypeptides to Golgi apparatus
• nucleus: controls cells activities/mitosis/replication of
DNA/transcription of DNA (to RNA)/directs protein
synthesis
• mitochondrion: (aerobic) respiration/generates ATP
7. Draw a diagram of the ultra-structure of an animal
cell as seen in an electron micrograph. 6 marks
Award 1 mrak for each of the following structure clearly drawn
and labelled correctly. Award marks for labelled eukaryotic
structures, then deduct 1 mark per labelled prokaryotic
structure shown, e.g. mesosome, cell wall.
• nuclear membrane/nucleus (with nuclear membrane
shown double with pores)
• ribosomes (free or attached to ER)
• endoplasmic reticulum/ ER
• plasma/cell membrane (reject if shown as a double
line)
• mitochondria (shown with inner and outer membrane)
• Golgi (apparatus)
• lysosomes
• have cell walls, animals do not
• have plastids/ chloroplasts, animals do not
• have a large central vacuole, animals do not
• store starch, animal cells store glycogen
• have plasmodesmata, animal cells do not
animal cells
• have centrioles, plant cells do not
• have cholesterol in the cell membrane, plant cells do
not
• plant cells are generally have a fixed shape/ more
regular whereas animal cells are more rounded
9. Using a table, compare the structures of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells. 5 marks prokaryotic cells eukaryotic
cells
• DNA naked/loop of DNA associated with
protein/histones/nucleosomes/DNA in chromosomes
• location of DNA in cytoplasm/nuceloid/no nucleus
within a nucleus/nuclear membrane
• membrane bound organelles none present
• ribosomes 70S 80S
• plasma membrane same structure within both groups
• cell wall peptidoglycan/not cellulose/not chitin
cellusose/chitin/not peptidoglycan
• respiratory structures mesosomes/no mitochondria
mitochondria
10. Draw a diagram to show the structure of a cell
membrane 5 marks
• phospholipids labelled with hydrophillic (heads) and
hydrophobic (tails)
• phospholipid bilayer clearly shown and labelled
• proteins shown in the bilayer and labelled
• transmembrane and peripheral/extrinsic proteins
shown and labelled
• glycoproteins shown and labelled
• cholesterol shown and labelled
• glycolipids shown and labelled
• thickness shown as 10 nm/ + or - 2 nm
11. Explain how the structure and properties of
phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell
membranes. 9 marks
phospholipid structure
• hydrophobic tail/hydrophilic head
• head made from glycerol and phosphate
• tail made from two fatty acids
• saturated/ unsaturated fatty acid (in tail)
arrangement in membrane
• phospholipids form a bilayer
• heads face outside the membrane/ tails face inside
the membrane/ hydrophic interior/ hydrophilic
exterior of membrane
A suitable annotated diagram may incorporate all or many of
the above points. Award 5 marks maximum for a suitable
diagram that is labelled correctly.
• phospholipids held together by hydrophobic
interactions
• phospholipid layers are stabilized by interaction of
hydrophilic heads and surrounding water
• phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity/ flexibility
• fluidity/ flexibility helps membranes to be
(functionally) stable
 • phospholipids with short fatty acids/ unsaturated fatty • cells cannot grow beyond a certain size
acids are more fluid • surface area to volume ratio becomes too small
• fluidity is important in breaking and remaking • transport across the membrane too slow
membranes (e.g. endocytosis/ exocytosis)
• example
• phospholipids can move about/ move horizontally/
"flip flop" to increase fluidity • nucleus cannot control the cell
• hydrophilic/ hydrophobic layers restrict entry/ exit of • control of cell division sometimes lost
substances • tumor formation
12. Explain the role of vesicles in transportation of 16. Outline the processes that occur in a cell during
materials within cells. 8 marks interphase, including those needed to prepare for
• vesicles are membrane bound packages/droplets mitosis. 4 marks
• formed by pinching off/budding off a piece from a • DNA replication
membrane • DNA transcription
• can carry proteins • enzyme/ protein synthesis
• rough ER synthesizes proteins • biochemical reactions/ example of a biochemical
• proteins enter/accumulate inside the ER reaction
• transported to Golgi apparatus for processing • cell respiration
• targeted to/transported to specific cellular organelles • growth
• fuse with membrane of organelle so contents of • organelles replicated
vesicle join the organelle
• transported to the plasma membrane
• fuses with plsma membrane releases/secretes
contents
• exocytosis
13. Describe the process of active transport. 4 marks
• uses/ requires energy/ ATP
• goes against concentration gradient/ lower to higher
concentration
• requires a protein in the cell membrane/ pump/
carrier protein (reject channel)
• hydrolysis of ATP/ ATP --> ADP + phosphate
• involves a conformational change in the pump/
protein/ diagram to show this
14. Outline the ways in which substances move
passively across membranes. 5 marks
• diffusion (is a method of passive transport across the
membrane)
• pore/ channel proteins for facilitated diffusion/ to
allow hydrophilic particles across
• movement from high to low concentration/ down the
concentration gradient
• membrane must be permeable to the substance
diffusing
• oxygen/ other named example of a substance than
can diffuse through membranes
• osmosis is movement of/ diffusion of water through a
membrane
• from a region of lower to a region of higher solut
concentration/ higher to lower water potential
• membranes are (nearly) always freely permeable to
water
15. Explain the reasons for cell division in living
organims. 8 marks
• to increase the number of cells in an organism
• to allow differentiation/ cell specialization
• for greater efficiency
• to replace damaged/ lost cells
• example
• binary fission
• asexual reproduction of unicellular organisms
• gamete/ spore formation
• cells only arise from pre-existing cells
• refer to Virchow