In 1965, August Wilson s Fences was created as the fifth part of his Pit tsburg Cycle of dramas of the

20th Century investigation of the evolution of bla ck culture (Gantt, 1; Gantt, 2). The play has an influx of symbolism and metaph ors that tells the late life story of Troy Maxon and the family that surrounds h im. Even from the beginning of the drama there is conflict and foreshadowing th at can be attributed to his own belief that he has failed in life and that the w orld did not give him what he deserved. He believes that he has to go outside o f the family to find refuge and that is how the story begins and ends. Using Formalistic analysis the essay will focus on the motifs that o ccur in each act and scene of the drama to build to the last scene and the concl usion of the play (Chapter 3, 37). The point of view through out the play is th rough the eyes of Troy Maxon as viewed by the audience. He is the lead in the d rama, and all plots revolve around his life and his decisions, some good and oth ers not so good. These motifs also give the audience an understanding as to the life of the African American, both male and female, in the mid to late 1950s an d early 1960s. Life was getting better in the sense of gaining citizenship, but this was also before the civil rights movement and shows that citizenship did n ot mean acceptance or understanding of the assimilated African American culture, or putting into the open the injustice of the past (Burbank, 118). The second facet of this analysis is the combining of each act and s cene through unity and relational issues and actions that keep the drama moving forward and keeping the audience intrigued as to what is to come in the future o f the drama (Chapter 3, 40). Since Wilson loved to use metaphors, the relations hip between the metaphors is as an important aspect as the metaphors themselves (Wilson, 479). The introduction to the drama reinforces the plight of the African A merican to prepare the audience. The audience needs to look at the drama from t he 1950s based on the social and economic conditions of the African American in that decade. The African Americans of the 1950s were looked upon as less than c itizens, and definitely the lowest of the immigrants that were coming to America to find a better life. Many of the African Americans in the cities had migrate d to the North, which instead of taking them in with open arms, pushed them asid e and pushed them back, giving them only the basest parts of life. It is this a spect of their life that Wilson wants the audience to understand throughout this play (Burbank, 117). He introduces the fence in this part as well, so the audi ence will know the importance of the fence as a symbol throughout the play on se veral levels, both societal and individual. Once the setting and atmosphere was set, Wilson immediately takes th e audience into the seemingly happy life of Troy Maxon, before making it apparen t that he felt a failure and not happy. The first symbol that arises is the dif ference between the white people and the black people. Troy takes a stand and a sks why black people never get to drive the trash trucks. Most of his coworkers believe that he will be fired. Luckily, by the end of the play, the audience r ealized that Troy made a giant step for all African Americans, but he still does not appreciate what he has done, and what he has been given. It is not enough. This theme of not being appreciated and believing that something is not enough will permeate throughout all the symbols used in this drama. A second symbol or relational symbols are sports and the individual s dreams of the future. Troy had been in the Negro League and played baseball unt il he was over 40 years old. The problem in regard to baseball arises, when Tro y is overlooked by the newly desegregated professional baseball league because o f his age. His dreams of playing for the professional white league were smashed , and he had nothing to show his worth in the years that followed. That is he b elieved that he was nothing because he never made it to the big leagues (Gantt, 10). Unfortunately, this defeat in career also defeated Troy mentally. From th

at time on he saw his family and his life as failure he wanted to escape from th em, but also felt a responsibility to them. This feeling of failure continues into the relationship that Troy ha s with his son, Cory. Cory is an excellent football player, and yet, Troy refus es to acknowledge his son s ability even when he is recruited by a college. Troy cannot and will not let Cory succeed where he failed and refuses to let Cory go to college on a football scholarship (Gantt, 10). But this is not the only time that Troy shows resentment of his son. In Act 1, Scene 3, Cory asks Troy How co me you ain t never liked me? (Wilson, 504). Troy is angry at this question and te lls Cory that it s my duty to take care of you. I owe a responsibility to you! (Wils on, 505). However, even before this it is obvious that Troy sees Cory as nothing but an irritation that continues until the final scene, when Cory arrives for T roy s funeral. Only then is the animosity put to rest on both sides. Unlike Cory, Troy s first son, Lyons, is accepted by Troy. The fact o f the matter is that Lyons is a failure in Troy s eyes and, therefore, is not any better than Troy. Lyons wants to be a musician, but is not very successful. Tr oy sees Lyons failure in music the same as his playing baseball in the Negro Lea gue and never getting to the professional league. He believes that his son will eventually take a menial job and claim defeat as his own. In the last scene of the play it comes to light that Lyons did end up defeated, but only to a point. His love of music was still alive and he was still following his dream. One thing that is a bit confusing is the love and praise that Troy s peaks in regard to his wife, Rose. He constantly states that there is no better woman or wife, and that she is the best thing that happened to him. The confus ion sets in for the audience, when Bono, Troy s friend, brings up his interest in Alberta in Act 1, Scene 1. Troy does not exactly deny his interest in Alberta; instead he turns it around by asking Bono questions and thereby changing the sub ject without truly answering the question. This avoidance continues on through the drama until he has to tell Rose that Alberta is pregnant with his baby. Rose becomes the strong archetype of the African American woman. Sh e has put her life and soul into Troy, and yet he has sought out the companionsh ip of another (Gantt, 11). He explains the affair as a way to ignore the respon sibilities of his failed life, if at least for a while. This aggravates Rose ev en more, since he has never taken her feelings, wants or needs into consideratio n. Troy continues to be married to Rose, but still sees Alberta with Rose s knowl edge of the situation. Rose even takes the call from the hospital when Alberta dies while giving birth. The strength of Rose does not reach its apex until Tro y brings home his daughter. He asks Rose to help him raise her. Rose s response gives the audience the berth of her strength. In two lines, she puts the future in place, From right now this child got a mother. But you is a womanless man. (Wils on, 530) The strength of not blaming the child is apparent, and it becomes know n that this child will have as good a life as Rose can give her with no animosit y or jealousy of the creation of the child. Troy, on the other hand, is shown t hat he will not only have the responsibility of the child, but will continue to have the responsibility of Rose, Lyons, and Cory with nothing in return. While all of these outward trials are occurring, the fence and baseb all are intrinsic in the explanation of Troy s life. The fence represents the kno wledge of Troy s affair even before it was known to his family. Rose had requeste d the fence, and symbolically it was to hold her family together. The fact that Troy never really worked on the fence all that much shows that he was not in lo ve with Rose, but felt a responsibility to her. He wanted his freedom and the f ence symbolized his acceptance as a failure. Throughout the work, Troy constantly used the game of baseball as a metaphor to life. This is the metaphor that is used, because he was a failure in the desegr

egated professional league and he was a failure in life. The baseball reference s just reinforce the lack of success and create even more animosity toward the f amily and friends in his life. Rose reminded him of his failure, because she wa s there when it occurred. He was able to forget about his failure when he was w ith Alberta, because she was new and had no knowledge of his true failure in lif e. The symbol of the fence and the metaphors of baseball used throughout this drama , connect everything back to the sense that Troy Maxon was unhappy with his life , and felt as if he were a failure. The failure was taken out on those he felt a responsibility to, such as Rose, and Cory. He felt no real responsibility to Lyons, hence there relationship was better. Troy was jealous of Cory and remind ed of his failures by Rose. Wilson used the fence and baseball to tell this sto ry. It was not just a story of a life perceived as a failure, but a look into t he mind and thoughts of an African American man of the 1950s.

Overview: Arguably August Wilson's most renowned work, Fences explores the life and relati onships of the Maxson family. This moving drama was written in 1983 and earned W ilson his first Pulitzer Prize. The protagonist, Troy Maxon is a restless trash-collector and former baseball at hlete. Though deeply flawed, he represents the struggle for justice and fair tre atment during the 1950s. Troy also represents human nature's reluctance to recog nize and accept social change. In the playwright's setting description, symbols connected to his character can be found: the house, the incomplete fence, the po rch, and the makeshift baseball tied to a tree branch. Origins of Troy Maxon: According to Joseph Kelly, editor of The Seagull Reader: Plays, Troy Maxon is lo osely based upon August Wilson's step-father, David Bedford. The following can b e said about both men: Talented, young athletes. Unable to attend college. Turned to crime for income. Killed a man. Spent decades in prison. Married / settled down to a new life after prison term. The Setting Reveals the Man: The set description provides several clues to the heart of Troy Maxon's characte r. The play takes place in the front yard of Troy's "ancient two-story brick hou se." The house is a source of both pride and shame for Troy. He is proud to prov ide a home for his family. He is also ashamed because he realizes that the only way he could afford the house is through his brother (a mentally unstable WWII v eteran) and his brother's disability checks. Building Fences: Also mentioned in the setting description, an incomplete fence borders part of t he yard. Tools and lumber are off to the side. These set pieces will provide the literal and metaphoric activity of the play: building a fence around Troy's pro

perty. Questions to consider: What does the act of building a fence symbolize? What is Troy Maxson trying to keep out? What is he trying to keep in? Troy's Porch and Home-life: According to the playwright's description, "the wooden porch is badly in need of paint." Why does it need paint? Well, in practical terms, the porch is a recent addition to the house. Therefore, it could simply be seen as a task not quite f inished. However, the porch is not the only thing in dire need of attention. Tro y's wife of eighteen years, Rose, has also been neglected. Troy has spent time a nd energy on both his wife and the porch. However, Troy ultimately does not comm it to his marriage nor to the unpainted, unfinished porch, leaving each to the m ercy of the elements. Baseball and Fences: At the beginning of the script, August Wilson makes certain to mention an import ant prop placement. A baseball bat leans against the tree. A ball of rags is tie d to a branch. Both Troy and his teenage son Cory (a football star in the making - if it wasn't for his embittered father) practice swinging at the ball. Later on in the play, when the father and son argue, the bat will be turned on Troy though Troy will ultimately win in that confrontation. Troy Maxson was a great baseball player, at least according to his friend Bono. Although he played brilliantly for the "Negro Leagues," he was not allowed to on the "white" teams, unlike Jackie Robinson. The success of Robinson and other bl ack players is a sore subject for Troy. Because he was "born at the wrong time," he never earned the recognition or the money which he felt he deserved - and di scussion of professional sports will often send him into a tirade. Baseball serves as Troy's main way of explaining his actions. When he talks abou t facing death, he uses baseball terminology, comparing a face-off with the grim reaper to a duel between a pitcher and a batter. When he bullies his son Cory, he warns him: TROY: You swung and you missed. That's strike one. Don't you strike out! During Act Two of Fences, Troy confesses to Rose about his infidelity. He explai ns not only that he has a mistress, but that she is pregnant with his child. He uses a baseball metaphor to explain why he had an affair: TROY: I decent job ut no more. treets with na get that in. To get fooled them, Rose. I bunted. When I found you and Cory and a halfway . . . I was safe. Couldn't nothing touch me. I wasn't gonna strike o I wasn't going back to the penitentiary. I wasn't gonna lay in the s a bottle of wine. I was safe. I had me a family. A job. I wasn't gon last strike. I was on first looking for one of them boys to knock me me home.

ROSE: You should have stayed in my bed, Troy. TROY: Then when I saw that gal . . . she firmed up my backbone. And I got to thinking that if I tried . . . I just might be able to steal second. Do you und erstand after eighteen years I wanted to steal second. Troy the Garbage Man: The final details mentioned in the setting description reflect Troy's later year

s as a hardworking garbage man. August Wilson writes, "Two oil drums serve as ga rbage receptacles and sit near the house." For nearly two decades, Troy worked from the back of the garbage truck, along si de his friend Bono. Together, they hauled junk throughout the neighborhoods and alleyways of Pittsburg. But Troy wanted more. So, he finally sought a promotion - not an easy task due to the white, racist employers and union members. Ultimately, Troy earns the promotion, allowing him to drive the garbage truck. H owever, this creates a solitary occupation, distancing himself from Bono and oth er friends (and perhaps symbolically separating himself from his African America n community). The Pittsburg Cycle: Fences is part of August Wilson's Pittsburg Cycle, a collection of ten plays. Ea ch drama explores a different decade in the 20th century, and each examines the lives and struggles of African Americans.

The fence referred to by the play's title is revealed to be finished in the fina l act of the play, and Bono has bought his wife a refrigerator as he promised Tr oy he would do if he finished building it. It is not immediately known why Troy wants to build it, but a dramatic monologue in the second act shows how he conce ptualizes it as an allegory to keep the Grim Reaper away. Rose also wanted to buil d the fence and forced her husband to start it as a means of securing what was h er own, keeping what belonged inside in and what should stay outside stay out.

TEMPEST In this post-colonial age the readers tend to give a revisionist reading to any literary text written during the colonial age.In this respect Shakespeare s The Te mpest is a suitable text for the post-colonial study. The play,which reflects a "colonial ethos",can easily fall into the mould of Colonialist literature.Prospe ro s attitude to the island, to Caliban and also his usurption of power all can be interpreted from the post-colonial view.The time of the composition of the play also favors the investigation of colonial interests of The Tempest. Shakespeare s The Tempest premiered two short years after England first colonized Virginia in 1609. The misfortune of one colonial ship, The Sea adventure, separated from it s fleet and then wrecked upon the island of Bermuda served as a starting point f or Shakespeare to base his shipwreck on in The Tempest. At first Prospero s attitude to the island is similar to the attitude of a coloniz er who goes to the colonies.It is true that Prospero s coming to the island is acc idental not intentional.He did not come to the island to better his condition.He was made an exile against his will.But as soon as he lands on the island his co nduct does not differ much from that of a colonist.He subjescts the two inhabita nts of the island and demands unwavering loyalty from them.He uses the island as a colony and very much like a colonist discards it as soon as his use for it is over. Prospero s conduct in The Tempest as an exile reflests the colonial mentality.A co lonist can never think the colony he goes to as his true home.He alawys remains allegiance to the center,his mother country.Here Prospero also shows little love for the new world and remains a protagonist from the old world.His thoughts and attitudes are so strongly determined by his old-world allegiance that his condu ct bears strong resemblances to that of a typical colonist,who explores and expl

oits an alien country for selfish ends and then abandons it. That Prospero at heart is a colonist is seen by the fact that he hates the islan d inspite of his passing twelve years there.The island geve him shelter,provided him sustenance and created opportunity to accomplish his final mission.But in t he play he seldom speaks about the island.He rarely mentions it and on the few o ccasions when he refers to his own abode onthe island he calls it a poor cell , a po or court .It is true that the island is poor and bare compared with Milan,Prospero s home country.But the other characters in the play do not such a dislike to the island. Gonzalo,Ferdinand,Stephano and Trinculo don t hide their likeness to the i sland.Their likeness contrasts Prospero s disliking of the island.Thus the main di fference between responses of Prospero and others is that while Prospero is open ly critical of the island ,others do not profess any hatred for it.Prospero is k een on returning to his home Milan ,leaving the bare island behind while others are not driven by any hatred for the island.Milan or Naples does not appeal to t hem as it does to Prospero.Thus considering his negative attitude to the island which served him as a home for twelve years it can be assumed that at heart he a lways remains a colonist. For Prospero there is always a fixed home and a well defined logos.All his thoug hts and actions are governed by a deep tie to his old home and logos.They failed him in the past ,but he believes the lost order can be recovered if his restora tive plan succeds.He lived on the island as an exile and happy to leave it.It do es not feature in his future thought. For him Milan is home and logos. Like a typical colonist Prospero lives in a bi-polar world,neatly divided into h ome and physically distant colony.Home stands for the values he cherishes and be longs to ,where the island symbolizes the other with which he has the least comm on. Now let us turn to Prospero s relation with Caliban.The relation between them is o bviously the master servant relation.Caliban represents the native population of a country newly discovered by the white explorers and which is then colonized b y them.When the white people conquered a country they considered themselves as t he masters and the native people as slaves.Of course ,in settleing down the colo nizers conferred many benefits upon the native populations.But at the same time they treated the natives as the slaves and servants.From this point of view Cali ban acquires great importance as a representative of the dispossessed natives of a newly discovered country.From Caliban s speech at the beginning of the play we find Prospero s treatment of Caliban and the island. I must eat my dinner This island is mine ,by Sycorax my mother Which thou tak st from me. Caliban is conscious of his claim over the island ,but powerful Prospero rules o ver him and the island.Prospero s attitude is the hegemonic attitude of a colonize r. Thus Prospero emerges as dictorial colonial governor-general,whise presence on t he island demands that Caliban,its native inhabitant,complies with his wishes an d standards.Caliban s lust and his primitive religion are regarded as evil,but iro nically,Prospero depends on Caliban s service for servival.Prospero also exacts co nstant and loyal service from Ariel as a payment for his having rescued him from m Sycorax s imprisonment.The original act of kindness and humanity is rapidly expl oited by Prospero once he recognizes what a powerful agent Ariel can be. Thus Prospero motives which ally alien to he decides to d when he can s conduct on the island is governed by his colonial and utilitarian deny any love ,gratitude,recognition of a place culturally and mor him.He has exploited the island and as soon as its function ends , leave it.He is like a selfish and ungrateful guest who is most gla disown his poor host.

Discord, harmony and reconciliation seem to be the central themes of the play Th e Tempest. Discord and moral chaos predominate the first half of the play. Bitte rness, hatred and suspicion are always close to the surface. The discord exists between the boatswain and the royal party, between the Prospero and Antonio and his accomplices. The discord also exists between Prospero and Ariel and Cali ban . But at the end of the play all discords are resolved. And it is Prospero who m asterfully resolves all disorders and gives the drama a happy ending. Discord followed by harmony In fact, the entire plot of The Tempest is an elaborate scheme designed by Prosp ero to bring his rivals to a state of regret so that he can pardon them and rest ore the rightful order of things to his dukedom of Milan. Since Prospero is seen as being all-powerful over the island, he could easily destroy or punish his en emies in the royal party by any method or means. Instead, he brings the past con spirators face-to- face with the sins of their past, which causes them to be rep entant. In a god-like way, Prospero forgives each of them, allowing them to live and return to Italy. In appreciation, they promise to faithfully serve Prospero . It is a picture of full reconciliation, with the exception of Antonio. To add to the beauty of the reconciled image, Prospero masterfully brings Miranda and F erdinand together as symbols of a new generation standing for hope and re- gener ation. The opening is full of confusion The Tempest opens with total confusion: action, sounds, and the elements produce a sense of discord in the universe. The opening confrontation between Gonzalo a nd the boatswain reveals one of the most important themes in The Tempest: class conflict, the discord between those who seize and hold power and those who are o ften the unwilling victims of power. When confronted by members of the royal par ty, the boatswain orders that they return below deck. He is performing his job, and to stop in response to Alonso's request for the master would be foolish. The boatswain cares little for Alonso's rank as king and asks, "What cares these ro arers for the name of king?" (15 16). The king has no protection from the storm simply because of his rank, because the storm has little care for a man's social or political position. Conflict between the colonized and the colonizer Apart from this conflict, there are many tempests to be explored during the cour se of The Tempest. In addition to class conflict, there are also explorations in to colonialism (English explorers had been colonizing the Americas) and a desire to find or create a utopian society. Other tempests will be revealed in subsequ ent scenes, such as the emotional tempests that familial conflict creates (consi der the conflict between Antonio and Prospero, and the coming conflict between S ebastian and Alonso); the tempests of discord (consider Caliban's dissatisfactio n and desire for revenge) and of forbidden love (consider the romance between Mi randa and Ferdinand). Finally, there are the tempests caused by the inherent con flict between generations. So, although The Tempest might correctly be called a romantic comedy, the title and the opening scene portend an exploration of confl icts more complex than romantic. Familial conflict This theme of discord is farther developed in the second scene. Here in order to satisfy Miranda s query Prospero reveals to Miranda that Antonio is his brother, and that he was once the rightful Duke of Milan, a position Antonio now holds. A

ntonio usurped Prospero's estate and wealth while Prospero became increasingly " rapt in secret studies" and oblivious to his brother's machinations; and in orde r to take Prospero's title as well, Antonio arranged to have his brother Prosper o and Prospero's daughter Miranda killed secretly. But Prospero is widely known to be a good man, so those charged with his death decide not to kill him, Instea d, Prospero and Miranda were set adrift on the open sea in a decayed vessel, and were able to survive off the supplies that the honest councilor Gonzalo arrange d for them to have; thus, they landed on the island where they now live. Discord between human and the supernatural The discord is seen also between human and the supernatural beings.Prospero s init ial interaction with Ariel and Caliban gives us an impression that they are both little more than slaves to Prospero's wishes, and their relation with him is no t harmonious. Prospero has clearly promised Ariel freedom and then denied it, an d he treats Caliban as little more than an animal. The audience needs to underst and that cruel circumstance and the machinations of men have turned Prospero int o a different man than he might otherwise have been. But Prospero's character is more complex than this scene reveals, and the relationship between these charac ters more intricate also. Any initial concern that the audience might have because of Caliban's enslavemen t evaporates at the news that he attempted to rape Miranda. His subsequent behav ior will further prove his character, but he can be redeemed, and his redemption is necessary if the play is to succeed. Furthermore, Caliban, who is initially bad and represents the black magic of his mother, serves as a contrast to the go odness of Ferdinand and Miranda. The young lovers are instantly attracted to one another, each one a mirror image of the other's goodness. It is their goodness that facilitates the reconciliation between Prospero and his enemies. In this re conciliation lies Ariel's freedom and Caliban's redemption. Beginning of harmony But there is a suggestion of harmony with the entry of Fardinand at the end of A ct 1 ,Scene 2.Ariel, playing music and singing, enters and leads in Ferdinand. P rospero tells Miranda to look upon Ferdinand, and Miranda, who has seen no human s in her life other than Prospero and Caliban, immediately falls in love. Ferdin and is similarly smitten and reveals his identity as the prince of Naples. Prosp ero is pleased that they are so taken with each other but decides that the two m ust not fall in love too quickly, and so he accuses Ferdinand of merely pretendi ng to be the prince of Naples. When he tells Ferdinand he is going to imprison h im, Ferdinand draws his sword, but Prospero charms him so that he cannot move. M iranda attempts to persuade her father to have mercy, but he silences her harshl y. This man, he tells her, is a mere Caliban compared to other men. He explains that she simply doesn t know any better because she has never seen any others. Pro spero leads the charmed and helpless Ferdinand to his imprisonment. Secretly, he thanks the invisible Ariel for his help, sends him on another mysterious errand , and promises to free him soon. Act II: Scene 1 Once again we see the glimpse of disorder and disloayalty.This scene exposes the wicked nature of Prospero's rivals. Antonio is pictured as the most vile amongs t the royal party. Once he stole Prospero's dukedom and set him assail to die; n ow he persuades Sebastian to kill his brother Alonso, the King of Naples, and st eal his kingdom. The hunger for power is shown by Shakespeare to be strong and c orrupting. Act II: Scene 2

Caliban drunkenly watches the happy reunion of Stefano and Trinculo and decides that Stefano is a god, dropped from heaven. Caliban swears devotion to this new "god," and the three leave together, amid Caliban's promises to find Stefano the best food on the island. Act III: Scene 3 Here the major symbol the feast appears. The feast usually symbolizes harmony. The weary members of the royal party are exhausted, hungry, and tired of searchi ng for the "lost" prince Ferdinand. At Prospero s command some island spirits on t he island prepare a feast for the tired royalty. Ariel then appears in the form of a harpy, a bird- like beast with a woman's face, and sits on the table, makin g the food disappear. The amazed members of the royal party are stunned. Ariel, still disguised, begins to address the men who once tried to destroy Prospero. H e recounts all of the events that led to Prospero's fall, blaming Antonio for co nspiring, and Alonso and his brother Sebastian for helping. Alonso is completely awestruck and filled with remorse for his past actions. When he gets up and run s away, Antonio and Sebastian follow him. These two are angry, not repentant. Final scene This final scene indicates the extent of Prospero's forgiveness and provides an example of humanity toward one's enemies. Before he confronts his enemies, Prosp ero tells Ariel that "The rarer action is / In virtue than in vengeance" (27 28). That is, it is better to forgive than to hate one's enemies. This is the example that Prospero provides in reuniting everyone in this final scene. All the major characters, except Prospero and Miranda, find themselves unexpecte dly thrown together after adventures and a long journey. Prospero is the contriv er and agent of this reunion. In a gesture of reconciliation, Prospero embraces Alonso, who is filled with remorse and immediately gives up Prospero's dukedom. Gonzalo is also embraced in turn, and then Prospero turns to Sebastian and Anton io. Prospero tells them that he will not charge them as traitors, at this time. Antonio is forgiven and required to renounce his claims on Prospero's dukedom. Those thought dead are discovered to be alive. A lost son is restored to a joyou s parent. Those who have committed offenses repent and are forgiven. The one cha racter who does not seem to be penitent is Antonio. A generous Prospero singles him out for pardon, but Antonio gives no reply. Except for Antonio, the other members of the royal entourage respond to Prospero 's forgiveness. Alonso and Gonzalo react most affirmatively, pledging themselves to the restored Duke of Milan. Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo respond with prop er humility; they cannot be expected to participate in the general happiness on a higher level since most of their antics were more of a comic nature. Ariel, th e long-standing servant to Prospero, is delighted to be set free at last. Ariel enters with the master of the boat and boatswain. Although the ship lay in harbor and in perfect shape, the puzzled men cannot explain how any of this has occurred. In the end, Prospero leaves Caliban to his island and to the natural world that he craves. The conclusion is about redemption, the personal redemption that so m any of the participants reach. Caliban's regret during this final scene indicate s he, too, has found the way to reconciliation.

Antigone deals with four main questions: whether whether whether whether Polynices ought to be given burial rituals someone who buried him in defiance of state ought to be punished Creon is entitled to the throne Creon's actions are just or are they taken in haste without thinking

Antigone buries Polyneices at the very beginning, and so the play is consumed ma inly with the second, third and fourth questions. Once Creon has discovered that Antigone buried her brother against his orders, the ensuing discussion of her f ate is devoid of arguments for mercy because of youth or sisterly love from the Chorus, Haemon or Antigone herself. Most of the arguments to save her center on a debate over which course adheres best to strict justice.[6] The German poet Friedrich Hlderlin, whose translation of the play had strong impa ct on Heidegger's reading, brings out a more subtle reading of the play: he focu ses on Antigone's legal and political status within the palace, her privilege to be the hearth (according to the legal instrument of the epiklerate) and thus pr otected by Zeus. According to the legal practice of classical Athens, Creon is o bliged to marry his closest relative (Haemon) to the late king's daughter in an inverted marriage rite, which would oblige Haemon to produce a son and heir for his dead father in law. Creon would be deprived of grandchildren and heirs to hi s lineage - a fact which provides a strong realistic motif for his hatred agains t Antigone. This modern and realistic perspective has remained submerged for a l ong time.[7] The play collection named "The Oedipus Cycle" which was translated by Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald also includes the play "Antigone", accurat ely written in English.[8] Once the initial premises behind the characters in Antigone have been establishe d, the action of the play moves steadily and inevitably towards the outcome.[9] Because Creon is the person and a king taking rash actions in rage that he is, h e will naturally decree that the body of the disloyal brother remain unburied, a nd will naturally demand absolute obedience to his decree. Antigone, being the p erson that she is and holding her views, will naturally defy the decree. Creon w ill naturally demand that the unknown criminal be arrested and brought before hi m, etc. Because the action is so self-sustained, most interpretations of the pla y center around the text itself. Both Creon and Antigone show much pride which l eads to their fates, with Creon's wife and son being killed and Antigone herself dying. This turn of events will eventually lead to Creon's downfall. The problem of the second burial An important issue still debated regarding Sophocles' Antigone is the problem of the second burial. When she poured dust over her brother's body, Antigone compl eted the burial ritual and thus fulfilled her duty to him. Having been properly buried, Polyneices' soul could proceed to the underworld whether or not the dust was removed from his body. However, Antigone went back after his body was uncov ered and performed the ritual again, an act that seems to be completely unmotiva ted by anything other than a plot necessity so that she could be caught in the a ct of disobedience, leaving no doubt of her guilt. Several scholars have attempted to solve this problem. Richard Jebb suggests tha t the only reason for Antigone's return to the burial site is that the first tim e she forgot the Choa (libations), and "perhaps the rite was considered completed only if the Choa were poured while the dust still covered the corpse."[10] Gilbert Norwood explains Antigone's performance of the second burial in terms of her stubbornness. His argument says that had Antigone not been so obsessed with the idea of keeping her brother covered, none of the deaths of the play would h ave happened. This argument states that if nothing had happened, nothing would h ave happened, and doesn't take much of a stand in explaining why Antigone return

ed for the second burial when the first would have fulfilled her religious oblig ation, regardless of how stubborn she was. This leaves that she acted only in pa ssionate defiance of Creon and respect to her brothers earthly vessel.[11] Tycho von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff justifies the need for the second burial by co mparing Sophocles' Antigone to a theoretical version where Antigone is apprehend ed during the first burial. In this situation, news of the illegal burial and An tigone's arrest would arrive at the same time and there would be no period of ti me in which Antigone's defiance and victory was to be appreciated. J. L. Rose maintains that the solution to the problem of the second burial is so lved by close examination of Antigone as a tragic character. Being a tragic char acter, she is completely obsessed by one idea, and for her this is giving her br other his due respect in death and demonstrating her love for him and for what i s right. When she sees her brother's body uncovered, therefore, she is overcome by emotion and acts impulsively to cover him again, with no regards to the neces sity of the action or its consequences for her safety.[12] Another possibility is that the first burial was performed by the gods, not Anti gone. When the guards examine the first burial, they see no tracks leading up to the body and no evidence of digging. After hearing the guards' story, the choru s comments, "My lord, the thought has risen in my mind:/ Do we not see in this t he hand of God?" Therefore when Antigone goes to bury her brother the "second" t ime, she is really going for the first time, and is not aware that the gods buri ed her brother already. Themes State control A well established theme in Antigone is the right of the individual to reject so ciety's infringement on her freedom to perform a personal obligation,[13] obviou s in Antigone's refusal to let Creon dictate what she is allowed to do with her family members. She says to Ismene about Creon's edict, "He has no right to keep me from my own."[14] Related to this theme is the question whether Antigone's w ill to bury her brother is based on rational thought or instinct, a debate whose contributors include greats like Goethe.[13] Natural law and contemporary legal institutions In Antigone, Sophocles asks the question, which law is greater: the gods' or man 's. Sophocles votes for the law of the gods. He does this in order to save Athen s from the moral destruction which seems imminent. Sophocles wants to warn his c ountrymen about hubris, or arrogance, because he knows this will be their downfa ll. In Antigone, the hubris of Creon is revealed. Civil disobedience The contrasting views of Creon and Antigone with regard to laws higher than thos e of state inform their different conclusions about civil disobedience. Creon de mands obedience to the law above all else, right or wrong. He says that "there i s nothing worse than disobedience to authority" (An. 671). Antigone responds wit h the idea that state law is not absolute, and that it can be broken in civil di sobedience in extreme cases, such as honoring the gods, whose rule and authority outweighs Creon's. Citizenship The concept of citizenship appears most clearly in the values clash between Creo n and Antigone. Creon defines citizenship as utmost obedience to the will of the state, and thus condemns Antigone to death when he feels that she has abandoned her citizenship by disobeying him. Antigone allows more room for individualism within the role of the citizen. The debate over citizenship, however, extends be yond just the argument between Creon and Antigone.

Creon's decree to leave Polyneices unburied in itself makes a bold statement abo ut what it means to be a citizen, and what constitutes abdication of citizenship . It was the firmly kept custom of the Greeks that each city was responsible for the burial of its citizens. Herodotus discussed how members of each city would collect their own dead after a large battle to bury them.[15] In contrast with t he Persians who would leave their dead unburied, the Greeks considered burial a sign of recognition of citizenship and affiliation. In Antigone, it is therefore natural that the people of Thebes did not bury the Argives, but very striking t hat Creon prohibited the burial of Polyneices. Since he is a citizen of Thebes, it would have been natural for the Thebans to bury him. Creon is telling his peo ple that Polyneices has distanced himself from them, and that they are prohibite d from treating him as a fellow-citizen and burying him as is the custom for cit izens. In prohibiting the people of Thebes from burying Polyneices, Creon is essentiall y placing him on the level of the other attackers the foreign Argives. For Creon, the fact that Polyneices has attacked the city effectively revokes his citizensh ip and makes him a foreigner. As defined by this decree, citizenship is based on loyalty. It is revoked when Polyneices commits what in Creon's eyes amounts to treason. When pitted against Antigone's view, this understanding of citizenship creates a new axis of conflict. Antigone does not deny that Polyneices has betra yed the state, she simply acts as if this betrayal does not rob him of the conne ction that he would have otherwise had with the city. Creon, on the other hand, believes that citizenship is a contract; it is not absolute or inalienable, and can be lost in certain circumstances. These two opposing views - that citizenshi p is absolute and undeniable and alternatively that citizenship is based on cert ain behavior - are known respectively as citizenship 'by nature' and citizenship 'by law.'[16] Fidelity Antigone's determination to bury Polyneices arises from a desire to bring honor to her family, and to honor the higher law of the gods. She repeatedly declares that she must act to please "those that are dead" (An. 77), because they hold mo re weight than any ruler, that is the weight of divine law. In the opening scene , she makes an emotional appeal to her sister Ismene saying that they must prote ct their brother out of sisterly love, even if he did betray their state. Antigo ne believes that there are rights that are inalienable because they come from th e highest authority, or authority itself, that is the divine law. While he rejects Antigone's actions based on family honor, Creon appears to valu e family heavily himself as well. This is one of the few areas where Creon and A ntigone's values seem to align. When talking to Haemon, Creon demands of him not only obedience as a citizen, but also as a son. Creon even goes so far as to sa y "everything else shall be second to your father's decision" ("An." 640-641). T his stance seems extreme, especially in light of the fact that Creon elsewhere a dvocates obedience to the state above all else. While it is not clear how he wou ld handle these two values in conflict, it is clear that even for Creon, family occupies a place as high as if not higher than the state. Portrayal of the gods In Antigone as well as the other Theban Plays, there are very few references to the gods. Hades is the god who is most commonly referred to, but he is referred to more as a personification of Death. Zeus is referenced a total of 13 times by name in the entire play, and Apollo is referenced only as a personification of prophecy. This lack of mention portrays the tragic events that occur as the resu lt of human error, and not divine intervention. The gods are portrayed as chthon ic, as near the beginning there is a reference to "Justice who dwells with the g ods beneath the earth." Sophocles references Olympus twice in Antigone. This con trasts with the other Athenian tragedians, who reference Olympus often. Love/Family

Antigone's love for family is shown when she buries her brother, Polyneices. Hai mon was deeply in love with his cousin and fiance Antigone, and he killed himself in grief when he found out that his beloved Antigone had hanged herself.

Desire Under the Elms, tragedy in three parts by Eugene O Neill, produced in 1924 and published in 1925. The last of O Neill s naturalistic plays and the first in wh ich he re-created the starkness of Greek tragedy, Desire Under the Elms draws fr om Euripides Hippolytus and Jean Racine s Phdre, both of which feature a father retu rning home with a new wife who falls in love with her stepson. In Euripides tragedy Hippolytus, he was son of Theseus, king of Athens, and the Amazon Hippolyte. Theseus queen, Phaedra, fell in love with Hippolytus. When Phae dra s passion was revealed to him, he reacted with such revulsion that she killed herself, leaving a note accusing Hippolytus of having tried to rape her. Theseus , refusing to believe Hippolytus protestations of innocence, banished him and cal led down upon him one of the three curses the sea god Poseidon had given to him. Poseidon sent a sea monster that frightened Hippolytus horses until he could no longer control them. They smashed the chariot and dragged their master to death. Eugene O Neill wrote Desire Under the Elms in 1924, as he struggled to embrace li fe in the wake of his mother s death. By setting this coming of age story in Gold Rush America, O Neill invented a hermetic world of catharsis, in which the arrival of a woman forcefully unlocks the present from the past. O Neill s world the family f arm comes to life through the vitality of lust and the struggle for power between the play s youngest son, Eben, and his father s new wife, Abbie. Informed by Greek t ragedy and autobiography, Desire Under the Elms strains between naturalism and g hostly myth. The land is the most essential asset to any farmer. In the play Desire Under th e Elms, this is also the case. The land in the play is the central theme, it hol ds all of the elements of the play together. It was the object of greed as well. The farm was the source of greed for three of the characters in the play, Ephra im Cabot, his son Eben, and his new wife Abbie. Peter and Simon focused their gr eed on the fields of gold in the West, primarily in California. One of the ways in which Eugene O'Neill made the land symbolic in the play was through the use o f stones. Throughout the play stones, and the walls they created, are mentioned by both Ephraim Cabot and others. The land on this farm was very poor from the d escriptions Ephraim Cabot gives us. The land, from his account, was covered with stones. In order for him to farm his land, he had to remove all the stones and decided to make walls with them. This was hard work, but Ephraim Cabot did not m ind the back-breaking work because he felt that God was hard, and this was part of His plan. To Peter and Simon, the stone walls were symbolic in their own way. They represented a sense of confinement and imprisonment. Ephraim Cabot was a m an of little or no real emotion. He was very hard on his children and his first wife. As a result Eben, Simon, and Peter hated their father. They felt trapped i nto doing his wishes, and they saw no real way out. To Peter and Simon, the ston e walls built around the farm by their father symbolized their imprisonment for life. This point is clearly shown when Peter and Simon leave to go find gold in California. In their jubilation upon leaving they say, "The halter's broke-the h arness is busted-the fence bars is down-the stone walls air crumblin' an' tumbli n'!" (O'Neill 1076). Eben makes an interesting reference to the stone walls as w ell. He believes that the stone walls caused the lack of caring and emotion towa rds their mother by Peter and Simon. He states, "An' makin' walls-stone atop o' stone-makin' walls till yer heart's a stone ye heft up out o' the way o' growth onto a stone wall t' wall in yer heart!"(O'Neill 1069). What he is really saying is the fact that the many years of hard work on the farm have made Simon, Peter

, and of course their father Ephraim, immune to emotion or caring. All they knew was work, and it was work that had made them and their father not care about th eir first mother. The land also is symbolic in other ways as well. Peter, Ephrai m, and Simon, as most farmers, see the land as a thing of beauty. This can be se en in several places in the play. O'Neill uses the beauty of the land to describ e things completely unrelated to the land. When Abbie tries to seduce Eben she u ses nature to prove her point by saying, "H'aint the sun strong an' hot? Ye kin feel it burnin' into the earth-Nature-makin' thin's grow-bigger n' bigger-burnin' inside ye-making' ye want t' grow-into somethin' else-till ye're jined with itan' it's your'n-but it owns ye, too-an' makes ye grow bigger-like a tree-like th em elums-"(O'Neill 1081). Eben uses the beauty of the land to describe Minnie, h is girlfriend in the beginning of the play. He says, "her mouth's wa'm, her arms 're wa'm, she smells like a wa'm plowed field, she's purty..."(O'Neill 1071). Ep hraim also uses the land as a symbol to describe heaven. He describes it by stat ing, "The sky. Feels like a wa'm field up thar."(O'Neill 1082). Here Ephraim is describing his old age and what he feels heaven would be like. Peter and Simon e ven imagine California as being not unlike their farm in New England. In the ear ly part of the play they imagine California as "fields o' gold!" and "Fortunes l ayin' just atop o' the ground waitin' t' be picked!"(O'Neill 1067). What is iron ic here is that they imagine gold in California being just like the stones in th e fields of their father's farm. In California they would be picking up stones j ust as they had done in New England. Another part of the landscape of the farm, and one of the most important, are the two elm trees on each side of the house. The elms represent the spirit of Eben's mother. Ephraim gives a clue to this whe n he leaves his party and in the yard says, "Ye kin feel it droppin' off the elu ms, climbin' up the roof, sneakin' down the chimney, pokin' in the corners! They 's no peace in houses, they's no rest livin' with folks. Somethin's always livin ' with ye. I'll go t' the barn an' rest a spell."(O'Neill 1094). This statement has two very important aspects. First, it shows that the spirit of his former wi fe is still in the house. Moreover, it shows Ephraim's close ties to the land, a nd illuminates the fact that he can not share his life with other people. He fee ls that the animals in the barn can understand him better than any human since b oth the animals and Ephraim are close to the land, and fail to show emotion. The most important aspect of the land throughout the play deals with greed. Ephraim Cabot is an extremely possessive man. He even states that he would rather burn the farm to the ground than give it away. Everyone in the play wants the farm, d espite the fact that when Ephraim first bought it, many people considered it wor thless. He removed all the stones from the fields, planted them, and raised his animals. It is as a result of these years of hard work that makes the farm so at tractive to everyone, and is in fact the reason why everyone wants it. Ephraim f elt that it was God's will for him to have to go through hardships in working th e land. God wanted him to be a hard man. And Ephraim felt that it was not right for anyone to have the luxury of receiving a farm when he had to build it with h is own blood and sweat. This was not what God wanted. And in the end of the play , God did in fact win. Eben feels that he is the rightful heir to the land. Abbi e, through lies and chicanery, feels that she is the rightful owner of the farm. Ephraim feels that the land will always be his, and not belong to anyone else. Peter and Simon felt that they were entitled to the land due to the years of blo od and sweat they had donated to the land and their father's wishes. In fact, Si mon, Peter and Eben hope that Ephraim is dead when he leaves to get married in t he first scene of the play. And in the last line of the play, even the sheriff a dmits that he would like to have the farm as well. It is this greed over land th at effects every major character in the play. The true importance of the land be comes very clear by the end of the play . It is what drives all of the character s. It affects their feelings, emotions, and outlook on life. It is all that they know and care for. Being farmers, it is their livelihood and a source of pride, at least for Ephraim. It can also be used to show beauty, as well as loneliness . The land is life, and the land is death. The land understands the farmer, just as the farmer understands the land. To the farmer the land is tangible, while e motions and personal relationships may seem immaterial. Throughout history, land

has been a source of greed and power in many civilizations, and it can create s ocial status, as it is a limited commodity. Land is more than likely what brough t Ephraim Cabot's ancestors to America. They, as he, saw the true value of the l and. But more importantly, the farmer who lives off the land is in a position to understand it in a way that is far deeper than its material value, and this tru e of Ephraim Cabot as well. For these reasons the land in the play has a most si gnificant importance as well as a symbolic value.

The Cherry Orchard (??????? ??? or Vishnyovy sad in Russian) is Russian playwrigh t Anton Chekhov's last play. It premiered at the Moscow Art Theatre 17 January 1 904 in a production directed by Constantin Stanislavski. Chekhov intended this p lay as a comedy and it does contain some elements of farce; however, Stanislavsk i insisted on directing the play as a tragedy. Since this initial production, di rectors have had to contend with the dual nature of this play. The play concerns an aristocratic Russian woman and her family as they return to the family's estate (which includes a large and well-known cherry orchard) just before it is auctioned to pay the mortgage. While presented with options to sav e the estate, the family essentially does nothing and the play ends with the est ate being sold to the son of a former serf, and the family leaving to the sound of the cherry orchard being cut down. The story presents themes of cultural futi both the futility of the aristocracy to maintain its status and the futilit lity y of the bourgeoisie to find meaning in its newfound materialism. In reflecting the socio-economic forces at work in Russia at the turn of the 20th century, inc luding the rise of the middle class after the abolition of serfdom in the mid-19 th century and the sinking of the aristocracy, the play reflects forces at work around the globe in that period. Since the first production at the Moscow Art Theatre, this play has been transla ted and adapted into many languages and produced around the world, becoming a cl assic work of dramatic literature. Some of the major directors of the world have directed this play, each interpreting the work differently. Some of these direc tors include Charles Laughton, Peter Brook, Andrei Serban, Eva Le Gallienne, Jea n-Louis Barrault, Tyrone Guthrie and Giorgio Strehler. The play's influence has also been widely felt in dramatic works by many includi ng Eugene O'Neill, George Bernard Shaw and Arthur Miller. Characters The spellings of character names vary depend on the transliterations used. Madame Lyubov Andreievna Ranevskaya - a landowner. Ranyevskaya is the linchp in around which the characters revolve. A commanding and popular figure, she rep resents the pride of the old aristocracy, now fallen on hard times. Her confused feelings of love for her old home, and sorrow at the scene of her son's death, give her an emotional depth that keeps her from devolving into a mere aristocrat ic grotesque. Most of her humor comes from her inability to understand financial or business matters. Peter Trofimov - a student and Anya's love interest. Trofimov is depicted as the "eternal" (or in some translations "wandering") student. An impassioned lef t-wing political commentator, he represents the rising tide of reformist politic al opinion in Russia, which struggled to find its place within the authoritarian Czarist autocracy. Boris Borisovich Simeonov-Pishchik - a landowner. Another old aristocrat, wh ose own estate has hit hard times. He is constantly discussing new business vent

ures that may save him, or badgering Ranyevskaya for a loan. His character embod ies the irony of the aristocracy's position: despite his financial peril, he spe nds the play relaxing and socializing with the Gayevs. Anya - Lyubov's daughter, aged 17. She journeys to Paris to rescue her mothe r from her desperate situation. She is that rare character, a truly virtuous, st rong, young female. She is in love with Trofimov, and listens to his revolutiona ry ideas, whether she is actually taking them in or not. Varya - Lyubov's adopted daughter, aged 24. Varya creates one of the mysteri es of the play: why did Ranyevskaya adopt her? Is she the illegitimate child of her late husband? Is she the bastard daughter of Gayev? Varya is deeply religiou s, and very serious, as well as being very controlling towards other characters. She has a troubled relationship with Lopakhin, to whom she is romantically link ed, but of whom she disapproves. Leonid Andreieveitch Gayev - the brother of Madame Ranevskaya. One of the mo re obviously comic characters, Gayev is a talkative eccentric. His addiction to billiards (often manifesting itself at times of discomfort) is symbolic of the a ristocracy's decadent life of leisure, which renders them impotent in the face o f change. Gayev tries hard to save his family and estate, but ultimately, as an aristocrat, lacks the drive. Yermolai Alexeievitch Lopakhin - a merchant. Lopakhin is by far the richest character in the play, but comes from the lowest social class. This contrast def ines his character: he is enjoying living the high life, but at the same time is uncomfortably conscious of his low beginnings and obsession with business. Ofte n portrayed as an unpleasant character because of his greedy tendencies, and ult imate betrayal of the Gayev family, there is nothing in the play to suggest this : he works strenuously to help the Gayevs, but to no avail. Lopakhin represents the new middle class in Russia, one of many threats to the old aristocratic way of doing things. Charlotta Ivanovna - a governess. By far the most eccentric character, Charl otta is the only governess the Gayevs could afford to provide a companion for An ya. She is a melancholy figure, raised in by a German woman without any real kno wledge of whom her Circus Entertainer parents were. She performs card tricks and ventriloquism at the party in the third act, and accepts the loss of her statio n, when the family disbands, with pragmatism. Yepikhodov - a clerk. The Gayev's estate clerk is also another source of com edy. He is unfortunate and clumsy in the extreme, earning him an insulting nickn ame of "Twenty-Two Calamities" (This nickname varies according to the translatio n). He considers himself to be in love with Dunyasha, whom he has asked to marry him. Dunyasha - a housemaid. Like Lopakhin, she is another example of the social mobility in Russia at the time. A peasant who is employed as the Gayev's chamber maid, Dunyasha is an attention seeker, making big scenes, and dressing as a lady , to show herself off. She is in some respects representative of the aristocracy 's impotence, as a lowly chambermaid would not normally have the freedom to dres s like a lady and flirt with the manservants. She is in love with Yasha. Firs - a manservant, aged 87. An aging eccentric, Firs considers the emancip ation of the Russian serfs to be a disaster, and talks nostalgically of the old days, when everybody admired their masters and owners, such as Gayev's parents a nd grandparents. His madness and harmlessness are a source of much of the play's poignancy, symbolizing the decay of the old order into muttering madness. Yasha - a young manservant. The play's only truly unpleasant character, Yash a represents the new, disaffected Russian generation, who dislike the staid old ways, and who provide the foot soldiers of the revolution. A rude, inconsiderate and predatory young man who wears cheap cologne, Yasha, like Dunyasha and Charl otta, is the best the Gayevs can afford. He is in conflict with Yepikhodov for t he affections of Dunyasha, whose affections he toys with. A Stranger - a passer-by who interrupts and insults the Gayevs as they laze around on the Gayevs' estate during Act II. He is symbolic of the intrusion of n ew ideologies and social movements that infringed on the aristocracy's peace in Russia at the turn of the 20th century.

The Stationmaster and The Postmaster - Both officials attend the Gayevs' par ty in Act III. Although they both play minor roles in the act (the Stationmaster attempts to recite a poem, and the Postmaster flirts with Dunyasha), they are m ostly symbols of the deprecation of the aristocracy in 1900s Russia - Firs comme nts that, whereas once they had barons and lords at the ball, now it's the postm an and the stationmaster, and even they come only to be polite. Guests, servants, and others. Background There were several experiences in Chekhov's own life that are said to have direc tly inspired his writing of The Cherry Orchard. When Chekhov was sixteen, his mo ther went into debt after having been cheated by some builders she had hired to construct a small house. A former lodger, Gabriel Selivanov, offered to help her financially, but in turn secretly bought the house for himself. At approximatel y the same time, his childhood home in Taganrog was sold to pay off its mortgage . These financial and domestic upheavals imprinted themselves on his memory grea tly and would reappear in the action of The Cherry Orchard. Later in his life, living on a country estate outside Moscow, Chekhov developed an interest in gardening and planted his own cherry orchard. After relocating to Yalta due to his poor health, Chekhov was devastated to learn that the buyer of his former estate had cut down most of the orchard. Returning on one trip to hi s childhood haunts in Taganrog, he was further horrified by the devastating effe cts of industrial deforestation. It was in those woodlands and the forests of hi s holidays in Ukraine that he had first nurtured his ecological passion (this pa ssion is reflected in the character of Dr. Astrov, whose love of the forests is his only peace, in his earlier play Uncle Vanya). A lovely and locally famous ch erry orchard stood on the farm of family friends where he spent childhood vacati ons, and in his early short story "Steppe", Chekhov depicts a young boy crossing the Ukraine amidst fields of cherry blossoms. Finally, the first inklings of th e genesis for the play that would be his last came in a terse notebook entry of 1897: "cherry orchard". Today, Chekhov's Yalta garden survives alongside The Che rry Orchard as a monument to a man whose feeling for trees equaled his feeling f or theatre. Indeed, trees are often unspoken, symbolic heroes and victims of his stories and plays; so much so that Chekhov is often singled out as Europe's fir st ecological author. Chekhov wrote The Cherry Orchard during the course of several years, alternating between periods of lighthearted giddiness and despondent frustration which he c onsidered as bordering upon sloth (in a letter he wrote, "Every sentence I write strikes me as good for nothing.") Throughout this time he was also further inhi bited by his chronic tuberculosis. Guarded by nature, Chekhov seemed overly secr etive about all facets of the work, including even the title. As late as the Sum mer of 1902 he still had not shared anything about the play with anyone in his i mmediate family or the Art Theatre. It was only to comfort his wife Olga Knipper , who was recovering from a miscarriage, that he finally let her in on the play' s title, whispering it to her despite the fact that the two were alone. Chekhov was apparently delighted with the very sound of the title, and enjoyed the same sense of triumph months later when he finally revealed it to Stanislavski. By Oc tober 1903 the play was finished and sent to the Moscow Art Theater. Three weeks later Chekhov arrived at rehearsals in what would be a vain attempt to curb all the "weepiness" from the play which Stanislavski had developed. The author appa rently also snickered when, during rehearsals, the word "orchard" was replaced w ith the more practical "plantation", feeling he had perfectly and symbolically c aptured the impracticality of an entire way of life. Although critics at the time were divided in their response to the play, the deb ut of The Cherry Orchard by the Moscow Art Theater on January 17, 1904 (Chekhov' s birthday) was a resounding theatrical success and the play was almost immediat

ely presented in many of the important provincial cities. This success was not c onfined only to Russia, as the play was soon seen abroad with great acclaim as w ell. Shortly after the play's debut, Chekhov departed for Germany due to his wor sening health, and by July 1904 he would be dead. Synopsis Act I Opens in the early morning hours of a cool day in May in the nursery of Lyubov A ndreyevna Ranevskaya's ancestral estate somewhere in the provinces of Russia jus t after the turn of the 20th Century. Ranevskaya has been away for five years, s ince the death by drowning of her young son, living in France with her unnamed l over. After news that she had tried to kill herself Ranevskaya's 17-year-old dau ghter Anya and Anya's governess Charlotta Ivanovna have gone to fetch Ranevskaya to bring her home to Russia. They are also accompanied by Yasha, Ranevskaya's v alet who was with her in France. Upon returning the group is met, in addition to Lopakhin and Dunyasha, by Varya, Ranevskaya's adopted daughter and housekeeper who has overseen the estate in her absence; Leonid Andreyevich Gayev, Mme. Ranev skaya's brother; Boris Borisovich Simeonov-Pishchik, a neighbor who is constantl y asking for loans; Semyon Yepikhodov, a clumsy clerk in the Ranevskaya househol d; and the aged footman, Firs, who has worked for the Ranevskaya family since be fore the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, and regrets the emancipation as a gr eat loss of societal structure. Lopakhin has come to remind Ranevskaya and Gayev that their estate, including th e cherry orchard, is due to go to auction in August to pay off the family's debt s. He offers a plan to save the estate if only they will allow part of it to be developed into summer cottages. However, this will incur the destruction of thei r famous cherry orchard which is nationally known for its size. While Ranevskaya enjoys the view of the orchard as day breaks, she is surprised by Peter Trofimo v, a young student and the former tutor of Ranevskaya's son, Grisha, whose death prompted Ranevskaya to leave Russia five years ago. Ranevskaya is grief-stricke n at the reminder of this tragedy, despite Trofimov's insistence on seeing her u pon her return (much to the consternation of Varya.) After Ranevskaya retires for the evening, Anya confesses to Varya that their mot her is heavily in debt. They all go to bed with a renewed hope that the estate w ill be saved and the cherry orchard preserved. Trofimov stares after the departi ng Anya and mutters "My sunshine, my spring" in adoration. Act II Act II takes place outdoors on the family estate nearby to the cherry orchard in mid-summer. The act opens with Yepikhodov and Yasha vying for the affection of Dunyasha, while Charlotta soliloquizes about her life as she cleans a rifle. In Act I it was revealed that Yepikhodov proposed to Dunyasha around Easter time, h owever she has since become infatuated with the more "cultured" Yasha. Charlotta leaves and soon after Dunyasha sends Yepikhodov off to fetch her cloak so that she and Yasha might have some time alone, but that too is interrupted when they hear their employer coming. Yasha shoos Dunyasha away so they won't be caught an d Ranevskaya, Gayev, and Lopakhin appear, once more discussing the uncertain fat e of the cherry orchard. Shortly Anya, Varya, and Trofimov arrive as well. Lopak hin teases Trofimov for his being a perpetual student and Trofimov espouses his philosophy of work and useful purpose to the delight and humour of everyone arou nd. During their conversations, a drunken and disheveled vagrant passes by and b egs for money; Ranevskaya thoughtlessly gives him all of her money, despite the protestations of Varya. Shaken by the disturbance, the family departs for dinner , with Lopakhin futilely insisting that the cherry orchard be sold to pay down t he debt. Anya stays behind to talk with Trofimov, who disapproves of Varya's con stant hawk-like eyes, reassuring Anya that they are "above love". To impress Tro fimov and win his affection, Anya vows to leave the past behind her and start a new life. The two depart for the river as Varya calls scoldingly in the backgrou

nd. Act III It is the end of August, and the evening of Ranevskaya's party has come. Offstag e the musicians play as the family and their guests drink, carouse, and entertai n themselves. It is also the day of the auction for the estate and the cherry or chard; Gayev has received a paltry amount of money from his and Ranevskaya's sti ngy aunt in Yaroslavl, and the family members, despite the general merriment abo ut them, are both anxious and distracted while they wait for word of their fates . Varya worries about paying the musicians and scolds their neighbour Pischik fo r drinking, Dunyasha for dancing and Yepikhodov for playing billiards. Sharlotta entertains the group by performing several magic tricks. Ranevskaya scolds Trof imov for his constant teasing of Varya, whom he refers to as "Madame Lopakhin". She then urges Varya to marry Lopakhin, but Varya demurs, reminding her that it is Lopakhin's duty to ask for her hand in marriage, not the other way around. Sh e says that if she had money she would move as far away from him as possible. Le ft alone with Ranevskaya, Trofimov insists that she finally face the truth that the house and the cherry orchard will be sold at auction. Ranevskaya shows him a telegram she has received from Paris and reveals that her former lover is ill a gain and has begged for her to return to his aid. She also reveals that she is s eriously considering joining him, despite his cruel behaviour to her in the past . Trofimov is stunned at this news and the two argue about the nature of love an d their respective experiences. Trofimov leaves in a huff but offstage falls dow n the stairs and is carried in by the others. Ranevskaya laughs and forgives him for his folly and the two quickly reconcile. Anya enters declaring a rumour tha t the cherry orchard has been sold. Lopakhin arrives with Gayev, both of whom ar e exhausted from the trip and the day's events. Gayev is distant, virtually cata tonic and goes to bed without saying a word of the outcome of the auction. When Ranevskaya asks who bought the estate, Lopakhin reveals that he himself is the p urchaser and intends to chop down the orchard with his axe. Ranevskaya, distraug ht, clings to Anya, who tries to calm her and reassure her that the future will be better now that the cherry orchard has been sold. Act IV It is several weeks later, once again in the nursery (as in Act I), only this ti me the room is being packed and taken apart as the family prepares to leave the estate forever. Trofimov enters in search of his galoshes, and he and Lopakhin e xchange opposing world views. Anya enters and reprimands Lopakhin for ordering h is workers to begin chopping down the cherry orchard while the family is still i n the house. Lopakhin apologizes and rushes out to stop them for the time being in the hopes that he will be somehow reconciled with them. Charlotta enters, los t and in a daze, and insists that the family find her a new position. Ranevskaya tearfully bids her old life goodbye and leaves as the house is shut up forever. In the darkness Firs wanders into the room and discovers that they have left wi thout him and boarded him inside the abandoned house to die. He lies down on the couch and resigns himself to his fate (apparently dying on the spot), as offsta ge we hear the axes as they cut down the cherry orchard. Themes One of the main themes of the play is the effect social change has on people. Th e emancipation of the serfs on 19 February 1861 by Alexander II allowed former s erfs to gain wealth and status while some aristocrats were becoming impoverished , unable to tend their estates without the cheap labor of slavery. The effect of these reforms was still being felt when Chekhov was writing forty years after t he mass emancipation.[1] Chekhov originally intended the play as a comedy (indeed, the title page of the work refers to it as such), and in letters noted that it is, in places, almost f arcical.[2] When he saw the original Moscow Art Theatre production directed by C onstantin Stanislavski, he was horrified to find that the director had moulded t

he play into a tragedy. Ever since that time, productions have had to struggle w ith this dual nature of the play (and of Chekhov's works in general). Ranevskaya's failure to address problems facing her estate and family mean that she eventually loses almost everything and her fate can be seen as a criticism o f those people who are unwilling to adapt to the new Russia. Her petulant refusa l to accept the truth of her past, in both life and love, is her downfall throug hout the play. She ultimately runs between her life in Paris and in Russia (she arrives from Paris at the start of the play and returns there afterwards). She i s a woman who lives in an illusion of the past (often reliving memories about he r son's death, etc.). The speeches by the student Trofimov, attacking intellectu als were later seen as early manifestations of Bolshevik ideas and his lines wer e often censored by the Tsarist officials. Cherry trees themselves are often see n as symbols of sadness or regret at the passing away of a certain situation or of the times in general. The theme of identity, and the subversion of expectations of such, is one that c an be seen in The Cherry Orchard; indeed, the cast itself can be divided up into three distinct parts: the Gayev family (Ranevskaya, Gayev, Anya and Varya), fam ily friends (Lopakhin, Pishchik and Trofimov), and the "servant class" (Firs, Ya sha, Dunyasha, Sharlotta and Yepikhodov), the irony being that some of them clea rly act out of place - think of Varya, the adopted daughter of an aristocrat, ef fectively being a housekeeper; Trofimov, the thinking student, being thrown out of university; Yasha considering himself part of the Parisian cultural lite; and both the Ranevskayas and Pishchik running low on money while Lopakhin, born a pe asant, is practically a millionaire. While the Marxist view of the play is more prevalent, an alternative view is tha t The Cherry Orchard was Chekhov's tribute to himself. Many of the characters in the play hearken back to his earlier works and are based on people he knew in h is own life. It should also be noted that his boyhood house was bought and torn down by a wealthy man that his mother had considered a friend. The breaking guit ar string in acts 2 and 4 herald back to his earliest works. Finally the classic "loaded gun" that appears in many of Chekhov's plays appears here, but this is his only play in which a gun is shown but not fired. he cherry orchard has a four-act structure and time is measured throughout by th e seasons, these are told by either the weather or the state the cherry trees in the orchard are in, (if there in blossom or not) it only follows one of the rul es of Aristotelian Drama and this is that it all takes place at the estate. It i s a play in the form of realism with melodramatic moments and is played with the removal of the fourth wall, throughout it has a few moments of Symbolism such a s the string snapping which occurs at two key moments in the play, however there is some confusion with many critics in what the string snapping actually symbol ises. The play in my opinion is a tragicomedy as the main plot essentially is about th e loss of the cherry orchard, but throughout it has moments of rather absurd com edy for example when Lopakhin first raises the issue of the cherry orchard being in financial trouble, Charlotta Interrupts saying her dog eats nuts. Gayev also brings a slight amount of comedy to the play with his billiards movements added throughout his speeches.Pishchik is also a comic character throughout the play there are also elements of comedy brought in by Yepikhodov s clumsiness and Firs. The play is in a four-act structure. It is set in a series of montages. A montag e is a way of showing the audience time has passed without the unimportant and i rrelevant parts being shown as time goes by. The pace varies throughout the play with some acts flowing rapidly. Most of the action in each act is set all in th e exact same place such as act one which is all set in the nursery and little ac

tion takes place anywhere else. With Regards to roles the minium number of cast to use is thirteen this would ha ve to use doubling for the station master, postmaster and passerby. However as t here is a party in act three a cast of least seventeen would have to be used to make the dance in act three look visually pleasing. (If the cast was of seventee n, no doubling would be needed). As this is a play in the form of realism cross casting would ruin this and I personally would not use cross casting as an optio n.The play also requires a Jewish Orchestra (3 piece to play music for the dance in act 3) which could either be on or off stage. Throughout the play there are many moments of dramatic tension. I believe the on e of the biggest moments of dramatic tension in the play is when Lophakin intend s on proposing to Yasha in the final scene. This is because audiences of today a re used to the denouements being happy and everything working it out in the end, however this by no means occurs in The Cherry Orchard as also in the final scen e every character goes their separate ways with the exception of one. This chara cter who has remained the most loyal to the family and the estate all through th e play and all of their life is Firs. Firs sets a key moment in the play and the Final denouement which comes as a rather big surprise, as all through the scene we (the audience) have been falsely informed by the onstage action that Firs ha s been taken ill in a hospital. When everyone has left Firs enters the empty sta ge just as the door has been locked and performs a soliloquy realising he is goi ng to die in that room and never see the outdoors ever again this in my opinion is the most emotion-filled scene of the play. As well as being the most emotionfilled scene it is perhaps also the most dramatically ironic as moments before A nya Bids farewell, old life! and Trofimov hails new life.

The play as a staged performance is rather large (as a production)with regards t o cast and technical elements although never in the play are all main twelve cha racters on stage together, however they do all meet each other at some point and usually exit/enter in groups of three or for and the usual amount for people to be on stage is four or five. The casting would be relatively easy providing peo ple can dance, this is with the exception of Charlotta who would have to be able to perform various magic tricks and be a ventriloquist or provide equally impre ssive burlesque in place of these rather important parts of the script.

Another key issue in the form and structure of The Cherry Orchard is the setting which as I mentioned earlier would have to change with the seasons in regards t o the cherry orchard. But as well as the cherry orchard changing the nursery als o has too as it is filled with furniture when they first arrive which is sometim es used as essential props for example Gayev addresses a cabinet of sorts in the first act and Yepikhodov throughout the play knocks over furniture to show his clumsy nature.

The mood and atmosphere (which could easily be emphasised through different ligh ting effects) are sometimes hard to tell and changes at a very rapid pace. The u nderlining mood throughout though is undoubtedly sadness as in the before time t he characters have had some bad times upon their estate. The characters also hav e had some good times and reminisce about their happy days of childhood if I wer e to direct this I would use a screen showing flashbacks with the character who is discussing the memories providing a sort of narration. although this would de part form realism it would provide the audience with an insight and understandin g of each of the characters such as Trofimov and his drowning student, Gayev and

Ranyevskaya and their memories of childhood and the adventures several characte rs have in Paris. If the screen narration idea was to be used it would require extra work on them if to be shown live as it would be a performance within a performance and take t ime for the actress /actor to get right . The structure of The Cherry Orchard re quires very disciplined actors for various reasons such as the Dance Routine in Act 3 would be accompanied with music by a small orchestra and if one person mes sed up the whole visual element could potentially be ruined. The pace in the final act is a lot faster than the three before it and everythin g ties itself up the final act is fast flowing as everyone says fair well. This is until Firs enters unexpectedly and everything slows down reflecting the old f ragile state of Firs.

Character Profiles Anya : Anya is the seventeen-year-old daughter of Madame Ranevsky who has lived in Paris for the last five years. Although she is young, she is nevertheless se nsible, more so than her flighty mother and an optimistic idealist like the phil osopher Trophimof. Barbara : Barbara is Madame Ranevsky's oldest daughter who hopes to marry Lopak hin. She has been the housekeeper while her mother has been in Paris and wears a ring of keys at her waist. She sees full well what is happening on the estate b ut is powerless to prevent the family's imminent financial disaster because she has no money, and thus no power. She only wants to join a convent, but does not even have enough money to do this and so must take a job as a housekeeper. Charlotte : An orphan, Charlotte is Anya's governess but since there is no long er a need for her services she does not know what to do with herself. She perfor ms magic tricks. Dunyasha : Dunyasha is the seventeen-year-old servant girl who acts like a lady , feeling faint and dancing at the family parties. The clerk Ephikhodof is in lo ve with her but she is taken with the servant Yasha who has recently returned fr om Paris. Dunyasha provides comic relief and represents the changing classes in Russia. Simeon Panteleyitch Ephikhodof : Ephikhodof is a bumbling, stumbling clerk who works on the cherry orchard estate. He provides comic relief by constantly falli ng down. He is in love with young Dunyasha who prefers Yasha. In time, he goes t o work for Lopakhin. Leonid Andreyitch Gayef : Gayef, Madame Ranevsky's older bachelor brother, is a n aristocrat who is so fascinated by billiards that comments about the game freq uently creep into his everyday conversation. An old-school aristocrat who has ne ver worked, he does not get along with the former serf Lopakhin. He is a clown o f sorts but becomes a more serious character by the end of the play after he tak es a job in a bank. Yermolai Alexeyitch Lopakhin : Born into a family of serfs, Lopakhin grew up on the cherry orchard estate. Through hard work and shrewd investments he has clim bed into the role of new master. He will never be a true aristocrat, however. In lieu of an education, he works extra hard, but gives his poor background away b y being overly familiar with the servants. However, he has become so involved wi th business that he has not had a chance to cultivate any sort of social life an d this disheartens Barbara, Madame Ranevsky's older daughter, who wants Lopakhin to propose. Firs Nikolayevitch : The oldest member of the cast, Firs is eighty-seven-yearsold and was born a serf on Madame Ranevsky's estate. He refuses to accept Libera tion and argues that life was easier in the old days when master and serf knew t heir social positions. Firs stands in opposition to the former serf Lopakhin who

has adapted to the new Russian society by becoming a businessman and landowner. At the end, Firs is forgotten and locked away, and his death on stage signifies the end of an era. Simeonof Pishtchik : Madame Ranevsky's neighbor Pishtchik, who is always borrow ing money, provides comic relief. He is charming but spends much of his time att empting to bilk others out of money so he can pay off his own mortgage. However, at the end of the play he comes into good fortune when some of his land is rent ed, and he manages to return some of Madame Ranevsky's money. Madame Ranevsky : She is the Russian aristocrat who owns the cherry orchard est ate and who has recently returned from Paris, where she had been for five years following the death of her young son, Grisha. The youngster died by drowning sho rtly after the death of Madame Ranevsky's alcoholic husband. She escaped to Pari s where she took an abusive lover who has just left her for another woman. A spe ndthrift, Madame Ranevsky finds it difficult to accept unpleasant facts, especia lly those concerning her ancestral home which she is about to lose if she cannot make the next mortgage payment. She throws money away as if she had an unlimite d supply and cannot come to terms with the changing times. An aristocrat who has fallen on hard times, she still lives in the past and cannot adapt to the new t wentieth century. Peter Trophimof : Trophimof is the perpetual student, a philosopher who used to be Madame Ranevsky's son's tutor. He has remained on the cherry orchard estate after the boy's death. He balances out some of the play's more flighty character s and speaks sense about the future of Russia. He realizes that the artistocrat/ serf social dichotomy is over and preaches that everyone must work hard if they are to succeed. He is the most thoughtful character and although he falls in love with Anya, he cannot handle the emotional involvement, claiming instead that he and Anya are a bove love. Yasha : Yasha is Madame Ranevsky's young servant but acts more like a member of the family. He has seen the lights of Paris and is eager to return. He begins a love affair with the young Dunyasha but tells her to keep it secret. He is too proud to see his aging peasant mother and wants only to return to Paris with his mistress.

A Shakespearean tragedy is built upon a central conflict which runs thro ugh from the beginning to the end of the tragedy until the conflict is finally r esolved.The conflict provides the exposition,suspense,climax and the catastrophe of the play.In the case of Hamlet it is not otherwise.The play is built upon th e long,tragic conflict between Hamlet and Claudius and the conflict is built upo n the motif of revenge. So,the driving force that shapes the turns of the plot of the play namely exposi tion,gradual development of the plot,the suspense,climax and the catastrophe of the play is the revenge,especially the revenge for the death of father. It is no t only Hamlet s desire to take revenge ,but also that of Laertes that also acts as the driving force behind the plot. In the play Hamlet two of the character's fat hers are brutishly murdered. The first murdered character is King Hamlet who is supposed to be revenged by his son prince Hamlet. The second murder is Polonius who is supposed to be revenged by his son Laertes. Both Prince Hamlet and Laerte s go to seek revenge for the death of fathers, however they will each use differ ent methods to accomplish their deeds. But the play in which the central action springs from the revenge motif is calle d the revenge tragedy,which shares some other typical features.So,before going f urther let us see what motivated Shakespeare write such a tragedy in which reven

ge takes the driving wheel.At first,the writer was certainly influenced by his a ge. Hamlet is a play that very closely follows the dramatic conventions of revenge i n Elizabethan theater. All revenge tragedies originally stemmed from the Greeks, who wrote and performed the first plays. After the Greeks came Seneca who was v ery influential to all Elizabethan tragedy writers,including William Shakespeare . The two most famous English revenge tragedies written in the Elizabethan era w ere Hamlet, written by Shakespeare and The Spanish Tragedy, written by Thomas Ky d. These two plays used mostly all of the Elizabethan conventions for revenge tr agedies in their plays. Hamlet especially incorporated all revenge conventions i n one way or another, which truly made Hamlet a typical revenge play. Shakespeare s Hamlet is one of many heroes of the Elizabethan and Jacobean stage wh o finds himself grievously wronged by a powerful figure, with no recourse to the law, and with a crime against his family to avenge. It is said that most of the time Shakespeare wrote the dramas that his contempor ary audience wanted.During the time of Elizabethan theater, plays about tragedy and revenge were very common and a regular convention seemed to be formed on wha t aspects should be put into a typical revenge tragedy. Now let us discuss in details how the revenge motif helps to carry out the plot. Before introducing the revenge motif,the dramatist at first sets an appropriate setting .In the beginning, Shakespeare sets up the scene, having a ghost on a d ark night. Everyone is working and something strange is happening in Denmark. It is as if Shakespeare is saying that some kind of foul play has been committed. This sets up for the major theme in the play which is of course revenge. The real tension of the play begins as soon as the ghost of the late king tells Hamlet about his murder. Hamlet learns that his father's death was no mistake, b ut it was Hamlet's uncle's plan to murder him. The ghost also tells Hamlet that he has been given the role of the person who will take revenge upon Claudius.So, like a typical revenge tragedy ,in Hamlet a crime (the killing of the king) is c ommitted and for various reasons laws and justice cannot punish the crime so the individual ,Hamlet proceeds on to take revenge in spite of everything. Hamlet must now think of how to take revenge on Claudius, although he doesn t know what to do about it. He ponders his thoughts for a long period of time, expecti ng to do the deed immediately, but instead he drags it on until the end of the p lay. The conflict of the play gets further development when Hamlet feigns to be insan e.Thus,the revenge motif drives him to disguise himself as a mad. Hamlet starts a battle of wits with Claudius by acting mad and calling it his ant ic disposition , although the whole thing was a ploy to get closer to Claudius to be able to avenge his father s death more easily. The tactic was a disadvantage in th at it drew all attention upon himself. More importantly though it was an advanta ge that his antic disposition , isolated him from the rest of the court because of the people not paying attention to what he thought or did because of his crazine ss. After this the revenge motif also structures the middle of the play.One importan t part of all revenge plays is that after the revenge is finally decided upon, t he tragic hero delays the actual revenge until the end of the play.Hamlet does t he same thing and his delay of killing Claudius takes on three distinct stages. Firstly he had to prove that the ghost was actually telling the truth,secondly h is not killing of Claudius while praying and finally his accidental killing of P olonius.

Hamlet first decides to act abnormal which does not accomplish much besides warn ing his uncle that he might know he killed his father. Later in the play a troop of actors come to act out a play, and Hamlet has them reenact the murder of is father in front of his uncle Claudius. The actors murder scene also make Hamlet question himself about the fact that he has done nothing yet to avenge his fathe r. Hamlet says " But am I Pigeon-livered and lack gall / To make oppression bitt er, or ere this / I should ha' fatted all the region kites / With this slave's o ffal. Bloody, bawdy villain! ( Act II scene 2 page 84 line 577- 580 ). During the play Hamlet watches is uncle Claudius to see his reaction when the ac tors perform the murder scene. Hamlet plan works his uncle throws a fit and runs out the room, where Hamlet goes after him. Now,Hamlet knows that Claudius is gu ilty. Afterwards Hamlet finds his uncle as praying, and he pulls out his sword and get s ready to kill Claudius. But all the sudden Hamlet changes his mind because if he kills his uncle while he's praying he will go to heaven, and Hamlet wants him to go to hell. If Hamlet had done it here then Claudius would have gone to heav en because he confessed while Hamlet s father was in purgatory because he did not get the opportunity to confess. So Hamlet therefore decided not to murder Claudi us at this point in the play. So hamlet postpones the execution of his uncle. The third delay was the fact that he got side tracked. He accidentally killed Po lonius which created a whole new problem with the fact that Laertes now wanted H amlet dead. After he commit this murder he was also sent off and unable to see t he king for another few weeks until he could finally do the job. So,the next confrontation between Hamlet and Claudius does not happen till the e nd of the book when Hamlet escapes from the latter's ill murder attempt on his l ife.Claudius tells Laertes that Hamlet is the one who killed his father and thus inspires Laertes to take revenge on Hamlet. Claudius hatchs a plan according to which Hamlet and Laertes will have a mock sword fight, but Laertes will be usin g a real poisoned sword. Laertes agrees with this, ready to claim Hamlets life f or his father's vile murder. Thus Hamlet sword fences with Laertes. All the sudden Hamlet's mother Queen Gert rude drinks a poison glass intended for Hamlet. When Hamlet is not looking Laert es stabs him with a poison sword then Hamlet takes hold of the poisoned sword, a nd stabs Laertes with it. As this happens Queen Gertrude dies from the poison dr ink. As Laertes lays down dying he reveals to Hamlet that his uncle King Claudiu s was behind it all, the poisoned sword and drink that has just killed his mothe r. Hamlet then in a fit of rage runs his uncle through with the poison sword. Ha mlet has now finally revenged his father through much time then after his task i s completed he finally collapses from the poison on the sword. In this play Hamlet by William Shakespeare these two characters Hamlet and Laert es both seek to avenge their slayed fathers. Hamlet with his passive and schemin g approach manages to kill his father's murder his uncle Claudius. Laertes with his direct, and forceful dedication slays his fathers killer Prince Hamlet. Alto ugh Laertes took a much more direct approach than Hamlet wasting no time, they b oth however accomplished their goal but at the ultimate price of both their live s! Dramatic irony is used in Hamlet to aspects of dishonesty and mischief, while in corporating tragedy. The ironic situations often take place when Hamlet is fina lly in pursuit of action. In Act 3, Scene 4, Hamlet is asked by his mother, Gertrude, to reveal what was making him act like he was crazy. Hamlet believes that Gertrude is truly having a heart to heart with him and really desires to put Hamlet s troubles to ease. How

ever, what Hamlet does not know is that Gertrude allows Polonius to hide being t he arras to overhear their conversation for King Claudius. As the audience, we a re aware that Polonius is in the room with Gertrude and Hamlet, but Hamlet is un aware of his presence. By arguing to Gertrude over her marriage to his uncle Cla udius, Hamlet s emotions of hate towards Claudius were beginning to boil and it wa s as if Hamlet would commit to anything under impulse. At this point, Hamlet is in complete control over Gertrude, using physical force to pressure her to admit her guilt. While still listening from being the arras, Polonius, believing that the Queen could be in danger, calls out for help. Tragically, as an audience, w e know that Hamlet will act on impulse by confusing Polonius for Claudius. Alth ough Hamlet is unknown of the identity of the man hiding being the arras, he ass umes it is Claudius and acts irrationally, killing Polonius. Even immediately af ter the incident, it is revealed that Hamlet was not sure that he had killed Cla udius when he says Is it the king? (Act 3, Scene 4, Line 32). It is tragic that th e dramatic irony of this scene made is predictable for the audience to determine Polonius fate. In this case, Polonius suffers for his mischief. Dramatic irony also comes in play is in Act 5 Scene 2, when Gertrude is mistaken ly murdered. King Claudius, pretending to be alongside Hamlet, presents a cup o f what appears to be an alcoholic beverage to Hamlet for his excellent in fencin g against Laertes. However, the cup is poisoned with the intoxicants acquired by Laertes. The audience is well aware of the King s plot to dispose of Hamlet if La ertes fails to do so himself. Luckily, Hamlet does not drink the deadly concocti on saying that I ll play this bout first. Set it by awhile. (Act 5, Scene 2, Line 29 2). Consequently, Gertrude, also presuming the cup is filled with alcohol, takes a drink for Hamlet because she is proud of him and carouses to thy fortune (Act 5 , Scene 2, Line 299). With the purpose of the poison for Hamlet, King Claudius w arns Gertrude, do not drink. (Act 5, Scene 2, Line 301). Because she does not see a reason why she should not celebrate her son s skills in fencing, the Queen takes a drink. Queen Gertrude s gesture to Hamlet only led her to her fate. It was all because of the King s dishonest measures that leaves the audience knowing that sh e will inevitably fall to her tragic death without the ability to be saved. Futh ermore, the King is aware that he has unintentionally poisoned her, yet, he does not speak up. Instead, King Claudius makes the excuse that She swoons to see the m bleed. (Act 5, Scene 2, Line 323) when Gertrude collapses shortly after she tak es the drink. The audience feels sorrow for her death caused by another individu al s dishonesty. Hence, the death of Queen Gertrude was a tragic death displayed t hrough dramatic irony. A situation taking place aside the main plot of the play is the movement of Fort inbras. It is ironic that the audience knows that Fortinbras and his army is not attacking Polack, but invading Denmark to restore honor and a piece of land tak en from Norway back when King Hamlet was in power. Claudius, is blind-sided by t his and has granted Fortinbras easy entry into Denmark, thinking that it is a di rect passage for them to attack Polack. This situation is another example of how dramatic irony is used through dishonesty. Fortinbras and his army arrive at th e castle in Act 5, Scene 2, to find King Claudius, Queen Gertrude, Prince Hamlet , and Laertes dead in front of the throne. He notices that there are no longer a ny successors to the throne, and therefore he claim my vantage doth invite me. (Ac t 5, Scene 2, Line 412). This is tragic because we are used to having the prota gonist succeed with his endeavours. Here, we want Hamlet to succeed by killing C laudius and taking his rightful place to the throne. But as the course of incide nts played out, Hamlet was slashed by the poisoned-tipped sword of Laertes and w as not able to become King. It is tragic that things do not turn out as expected , leaving Fortinbras able to exploit the opportunity to crown himself as the Kin g of Denmark. The dramatic irony in Hamlet is used to emphasize the how mischief and dishonest y can lead to tragic occurrences. This can be seen through the deaths of Poloniu s and Queen Gertrude, as well as the rise of Fortinbras, as the new King of Denm

ark.

Shakespeare s soliloquies in Hamlet differ radically from their common convention as inessential speeches to augment audience understanding. On the contrary, they are just as important, if not more so, as the segments where character interact ion occurs. Without the soliloquies, the play would be vacuous and sporadic. Hig hly dramatic, they give it momentum; propel it forward to new and exciting level s by influencing plot, characterisation and mood, as well as expressing key them es. This is primarily based on the fact that much of Hamlet involves a struggle with the self; there are conflicts between characters, but there are also indivi dual, existential, psychological conflicts. Hamlet s highly dramatic second and th ird soliloquies are two such arias. Hence, in Hamlet, soliloquies should not be considered standalone speeches as they are integral to play action. Hamlet s soliloquies both influence are influenced by plot. It is through the soli loquies that the intrinsic theme of Hamlet s procrastination is extended and reali sed by the audience. If he did not constantly remind us of his inaction through self-directed harangues, the audience would scarcely notice his procrastination nor realise the extent to which he agonises over his inexplicable delay. The fir st and second soliloquies function in bringing this to light. The former does th is through Hamlet s violent criticism of himself I am pigeon-liver d and lack gall to make oppression bitter -and at the through revealing that doubt of the ghosts vali dity has weakened his purpose. In the second, Hamlet contemplates how enterprises of great pitch and moment (as his resolution to avenge his father) lose their nam e of action by thinking too much about them. To examine the importance of soliloq uies in terms of how they contribute to action, it is first necessary to define the nature of this action . What must be understood is that Hamlet is largely a pla y about inaction. The plot centres on his persistent irresolution to fulfil his filial and moral duty. In Hamlet s second soliloquy, he begins o, what a rogue and peasant slave am I! He compares his dismal deficiency in passion to an actor, who had tears in his eyes, distraction in his aspect for a work of fiction. More impo rtantly, it is because of his soliloquies that action eludes him. He is cursed w ith an excessive meditative faculty- by concentrating too much on whether or not he should act, the native hue of resolution is sicklied over with the pale cast of thought . Action characteristically influences further action- it is a never-en ding and overlapping sequence of cause and effect. Hence, we should not consider soliloquies as isolated passages- but should broaden the scope of analysis to j udge how they act as a catalyst for future events. Hamlet makes a profound decis ion to use a play to determine the validity of the ghost and catch the conscience of the king . This decision leads to a vital turning point, and dictates the plot s direction from there on. The third soliloquy follows the second without any se ction in between where Hamlet interacts with other characters. After indulging i n this prolific amount of self-pity and arousing acute melancholy, his abnormall y violent reaction to Ophelia s rejection is not so surprising- especially when he just reflected on the pangs of dipriz d love. Plot fluctuations hence are highly de pendent on Hamlet s soliloquies, and therefore play a significant role in the acti on of the play. Hamlet s character is filled out and further clarified through his soliloquies, an d hence the interpretation of our hero very much depends on them. These intimate revelations permit the audience to examine and discern Hamlet s true emotions. On scrutiny by the entire kingdom, it is necessary to constrain or disguise real f eeling in the presence of others. One palpable impression that is portrayed via his to be or not to be soliloquy is his fixation and yearning for death, and conve rsely his disgust at the banality of life. Melancholy has completely percolated his character, until existence seems nothing but a mortal coil - something which ro pes him down brutally to humanity in a useless fleshy package. While Hamlet reve

als this repugnance earlier during his conversation with Rosencrantz and Guilden stern, his already pessimistic attitude has exacerbated since then, so that he t eeters near the brink of suicide. A release from the whips scorns insolence and pangs nexed to a weary life has become something devoutly to be wished . His sensitivity to the injustice in the world marks his idealistic desire for a moral world. Integ rity is especially important to him, and he agonises over which is nobler ; to endu re life s ills with patience, or to take arms against them in intrepid defiance. Thi s value also links to his struggle to define truth . While some regard Hamlet as en igmatic and profound, others interpret Hamlet s soliloquies as little more than an other example of extreme introversion. Indeed, his mind lapses into disconsolate philosophizing whenever he is alone, complaining unremittently. We also realise how prone he is to making sweeping statements, using the pronouns we and us , when h is observations on human sociology appertain mainly to himself. This links to th e next passage, when he remarks to Ophelia that men are arrant knaves, all of us . Furthermore, Hamlet states death is the undiscovered country /from whose bourn no traveller returns. Depending on how one interprets this line, it may reveal that Hamlet is prone to indulging in grandiose and melodramatic axioms, without cons ulting memory first. For his father returns , at least in spirit, to the mortal rea lm- he has witnessed the spectre himself. This tendency to give in to his dramat ic side links to his rash conflict with Laertes in the graveyard scene. Soliloqu ies are just as important to play action as other sections because they illustra te crucial character features. Hamlet s soliloquies are vital in establishing the mood and themes of the play. Wi thout the soliloquies, Hamlet would remain an entertaining revenge drama. But th at enigmatic and sordid quality which suffuses the tragedy would be significantl y diminished. The soliloquies, triggered by self-doubt and distress at the corru ption of Denmark, explore the dimensions of the human character through Hamlet s s ordid contemplation. The play becomes a dense examination of how external diffic ulties (the incestuous marriage between Hamlet s mother and uncle, the unweeded gar den of the Kingdom, the onus of forced revenge) affect man psychologically. We se e the self-directed anger and torment in his second soliloquy- I,/ a dull and mud dy-mettled rascal, peak/ like a John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause,/ and can say nothing- no, not for a king . A heart-wrenching hopelessness is also establish ed. Hamlet knows that he has all the motive in the world to kill Claudius- the m an murdered his father, married his mother, and usurped his rightful position on the throne. The spectre of his father s spirit demanded revenge. And yet, he cann ot act, and he doesn t know why. Fie upon it! Foh! he explodes, when he realises that all his ranting on the remorseless, treacherous, lecherous, kindles villain mean n othing in the end, because it achieves nothing. Even through remarking on his pr ocrastination, he is still procrastinating. The third soliloquy is structured si milarly to a scholar s argument; but the subject of this contention is weighty- to be, or not to be . To live, or to die. He desires the latter, but, a coward , fearful of what dreams may come after death, he resigns himself to life. This theme of de ath hangs over the entire play; we see Hamlet s ideas develop on it later during t he graveyard scene. Soliloquies affect the mood of the entire play, and are thus part of the action. Hamlet s soliloquies constitute a crucial and dramatic part of play dynamics. Ofte n highly intimate, they do not merely reflect on the plays general happenings, b ut are interwoven into the action. Acting as portals into Hamlet s psyche, they es tablish crucial elements of character. Furthermore, they are infinitely importan t in the interpretation of plot, especially through exploring the theme of Hamle t s procrastination. The tumultuous state of his mind affects and explains some of his following actions. Additionally, important decisions are made which steer t he course of the play. The fact that psychological action is part of the physica l action means that the mood of the play becomes more complex. If the audience w eren t privy to the hero s agonising thoughts, no doubt the play would have only hal f the reputation it holds today.

T.S. Eliot's study of Hamlet and His Problems was about how the plot and charact er are separated when analyzing the text without considering any aspects of its performance. Eliot examined why Hamlet had a hard time trying to connect with an audience that had an enriched background to Shakespeare and his historical back ground. Also, Hamlet has been produced countless times that the text itself has been ignored because the actor, director, and producer's point-of-view was getti ng in the way. Eliot used the theoretical perspective of New Criticism in order analyze the text only without any historical background to the Shakespeare getti ng the way. The text was analyzed to see if every idea, imagery, and revealing f acts came alive that worked towards a unifying theme. T.S. Eliot used New Critic ism to recruit contemporary literature scholars into studying the text and put a side any knowledge regarding Shakespeare to show its faults on a textual perspec tive. Eliot pointed out that the text of Hamlet was so close to the works of Thomas Ky d's Spanish Tragedy and Arden of Feversham (T.S Eliot). All Shakespeare had to d o was take the concept of revenge and make it his own by "revising the text of K yd" (T.S Eliot). The only unifying theme that was the constant between Kyd and S hakespeare was revenge. The imagery and idea of Kyd's work became Shakespeare's when he began writing Hamlet. Eliot continued to examine Shakespeare's Hamlet and discovered that it was not a great work of art. According to Eliot, Hamlet was a failure due to the complexi ty of the plot and the discontinuity of the scenes because the play's length was not properly revised (T.S. Eliot). However, Hamlet was a "work of art because [ the audience] found [the story] interesting because an audience would not pay to have people read Hamlet to them, an audience would rather pay to have Hamlet pe rformed for them (T.S. Eliot). Eliot claimed that "the artist keeps [the story] alive by his ability to intensi fy the world to his emotions" (T.S. Eliot). What Eliot meant was that Shakespear e's name with Hamlet signified the greatness of the work because it was great th eatrical performance. Regardless, Hamlet should be studied without the aspects o f its performance getting in the way. Using New Criticism would dismiss any outs ide influences and allow readers to become more intimate with the text. Reading the text on its own would create the images in the artists' mind in hopes to fin d a connection to their own lives; the feeling of being alive by connecting with the author's text only is needed to make sense of the language. In other words, the reader becomes the artist when they connect with the text itself. Eliot stayed true with New Criticism by claiming that "the artistic 'inevitabili ty' lies in this complete adequacy of the external to the emotion; and this is p recisely what is deficient in Hamlet" (T.S. Eliot). In other words, Eliot used N ew Criticism to show Contemporary Literature Scholars how Shakespeare took someo ne else's idea and made it his own. Eliot stated that Shakespeare could only be read to find the unifying theme and to see Hamlet's unexpressed emotions. Litera ry Scholars could identify the textual problems if they look at the text alone. Finally, Eliot effectively used New Criticism to evaluate Hamlet in order to rev eal its problems on a text perspective. Eliot's goal was to recruit Contemporary Literature Scholars to study the text of Hamlet without any knowledge of Shakes peare or Hamlet's performance. Eliot used a lot of stories and scholarly sources that demonstrated how Shakespeare was just a great borrower and not a great wri ter. Studying the text on its own would be the only way to objectively analyze H amlet. Nevertheless, plays, like Hamlet, are not written to be read, they are wr itten to be performed. An audience is more likely to see the performance of Haml et than the text itself because they are more familiar with the performance aspe

cts of Hamlet and not the text.

A Midsummer Night s Dream is a traditional Shakespearian play in that it is set ov er five acts and features a large number of various plot twists and characters w ith various goals. As there are so much is going on in the play, it can be usefu l to have a clear idea of who each character is and what happens in the text. Se e below for a full a plot summary. Act 1 Scene 1 In the Athenian court

The play opens with Thesus and Hippolyta discussing their impending wedding and Thesus orders Philostrate to stir up some talent to perform on the day. Thesus is then approached by Egeus who asks him to force his daughter Hermia to marry Deme trius. Both Hermia and Lysander plead with the Duke but it is to no avail as he Hermia to marry against her will or else face death or become celibate for life. Lysander and Hermia are plotting to run away together when Helena interrupts the m. Hermia tells Helena of her plan to flee into the woods, leaving the latter in a quandary as to whether she tells Demetrius or not. Deciding that she must tel l him out of love, knowing he will follow the lovers to the woods to stop them. Scene 2 Athens

The Mechanicals meet for the first time to rehearse a play for Thesus and Hippol ya s wedding, The most lamentable comedy and most cruel death of Pyramus and Thisby . Peter Quince is head of the company and begins to divvy out the roles however h e is constantly interrupted by the over zealous Bottom. Despite being cast in th e lead role of Pyramus, Bottom wants to also play the other lead role of Thisby as well as the fearsome Lion. After all the parts have been given out and Bottom has accepted his one and only role, an exhausted Quince decides that their next rehearsal will be in the woods. Act 2 Scene 1 The Woods

Puck is engaging in flirtation with a fairy when their master and mistress, Ober on and Titania, arrive in the midst of a blazing row. The pair are near Athens t o attend Thesus and Hippolyta s wedding and argue about how they have both made lo ve to the respective partners of the engaged couple. The row quickly turns to th e abduction of a child; Oberon accuses Oberon of taking their Indian Changeling for himself and vice versa. As Titania leaves in a huff, Oberon tells Puck to fi nd a plant he once used in a love spell and use it on Titania. Oberon plans to t aunt Titania by making her fall in love with a comedy animal before once again d irecting her affections onto himself. At this point Demetrius, pursued by Helena enter the woods. Demetrius is searching for Hermia and casting Helena s affection s aside. As he leaves Helena alone and distraught, Oberon decides that Puck shou ld use the love potion on Demetrius whilst he finds Titania himself. Scene 2 Another part of the woods

Oberon finds Titania s hide out and waits for her to fall asleep before squeezing the love potion on her eyelids. Oberon hopes she will wake up to fall in love wi th some wild animal. Shortly after, Puck finds Lysander and Hermia having a love rs tiff and subsequently mistakes Lysander for Demetrius, placing the love potio n on his eyes instead. When Lysander wakes the first thing he sees is Helena and he therefore falls desperately in love with her.

Act 3 Scene 1 The Woods

Titania lies sleeping as the mechanicals rehearse Pryamus and Thisby. Puck spies the mechanicals near the sleeping Titania and decides to play a trick on Bottom by giving him the head of an Ass. The mechanicals see Bottom in his new, deform ed state they run away from him in fear. On awaking, Titania sees Bottom and fal ls desperately in love with him, orders her fairy servants to treat him like a k ing and later she takes him to bed. Scene 2 Another part of the woods

Puck tells Oberon that Titania has fallen in love with an ass, which his master finds greatly amusing. Hermia and Demetrius walk by arguing and Puck reveals tha t he has made a mix up with the love potion. Oberon is enraged and sends Puck of f to put the love potion on Demetrius eyes as originally intended. After carrying out his masters orders, it becomes clear that both Demetrius and Lysander are desperately in love with Helena, much to both her and Hermia s confus ion. Demetrius and Lysander fight for Helena s affections and both girls are left disgruntled. Oberon returns to see Puck s handiwork and is once again enraged at h is handiwork. Oberon gives Puck a remedy for Lysander so each man will be in lov e with the right woman. As the foursome sleep, Puck squeezes the remedy onto Lys ander s eyes. Act 4 Scene 1- In the same part of the wood as the lovers lay sleeping Titania frolics with the fairies and flirts with Bottom, who cannot believe his luck. As the pair fall asleep, Puck and Oberon enter and place the same remedy o n her eyes as Lysander s which results in her becoming immediately disgusted with Bottom. A dazed and confused Titania, rekindles her affections with Oberon and l eaves the forest with him. As the fairies exit, the Athenian royalty enter looking for the escaped lovers. They discover the sleeping foursome who shortly wakes up to an interrogation fro m the elders. Demetrius explains he no longer loves Hermia and is now deeply in love with Helena, much to Egeus s dismay. Eventually the situation is ironed out a nd it is agreed by all that each lover may be with whoever they wish. As all the lovers exit, Bottom wakes up believing he has had a wild dream in whi ch he was an Ass. Bottom remembers his duties in the play and leaves to find the rest of his troupe. Scene 2 Athens

The Mechanicals meet to rehearse and are worried about where Bottom has gone. Bo ttom has returns and the troupe is reunited. The group prepare to perform Pyramu s and Thisby at the royal wedding. Act 5 Scene 1 Athenian Court

In the aftermath of a triple whammy of weddings between Hippolyta, Thesus and al l the respective lovers, the Mechanicals arrive to perform their much anticipate d production of The most lamentable comedy and most cruel death of Pyramus and Th isby. The production is whimsical, ridiculous and is largely met with a mixed rec eption. After the performances the courtiers dance before going to bed.

As the party dissolves and the revelers return home, the fairies show themselves . As Oberon and Titania leave, very much reunited, Puck delivers a final monolog ue.

Themes in the story Love David Bevington argues that the play represents the dark side of love. He writes that the fairies make light of love by mistaking the lovers and by applying a l ove potion to Titania's eyes, forcing her to fall in love with an ass.[7] In the forest, both couples are beset by problems. Hermia and Lysander are both met by Puck, who provides some comic relief in the play by confounding the four lovers in the forest. However, the play also alludes to serious themes. At the end of the play, Hippolyta and Theseus, happily married, watch the play about the unfor tunate lovers, Pyramus and Thisbe, and are able to enjoy and laugh at it.[8] Hel ena and Demetrius are both oblivious to the dark side of their love, totally una ware of what may have come of the events in the forest. Problem with time There is a dispute over the scenario of the play as it is cited at first by Thes eus that "four happy days bring in another moon".[2] The wood episode then takes place at a night of no moon, but Lysander asserts that there will be so much li ght in the very night they will escape that dew on the grass will be shining[9] like liquid pearls. Also, in the next scene, Quince states that they will rehear se in moonlight,[10] which creates a real confusion. It is possible that the Moo n set during the night allowing Lysander to escape in the moonlight and for the actors to rehearse, then for the wood episode to occur without moonlight. Theseu s's statement can also be interpreted to mean "four days until the next month". Loss of individual identity Maurice Hunt, Chair of the English Department at Baylor University, writes of th e blurring of the identities of fantasy and reality in the play that make possib le "that pleasing, narcotic dreaminess associated with the fairies of the play". [11] By emphasising this theme even in the setting of the play, Shakespeare prep ares the reader's mind to accept the fantastic reality of the fairy world and it s happenings. This also seems to be the axis around which the plot conflicts in the play occur. Hunt suggests that it is the breaking down of individual identit ies that leads to the central conflict in the story.[11] It is the brawl between Oberon and Titania, based on a lack of recognition for the other in the relatio nship, that drives the rest of the drama in the story and makes it dangerous for any of the other lovers to come together due to the disturbance of Nature cause d by a fairy dispute.[11] Similarly, this failure to identify and make distincti on is what leads Puck to mistake one set of lovers for another in the forest and place the juice of the flower on Lysander's eyes instead of Demetrius'. Victor Kiernan, a Marxist scholar and historian, writes that it is for the great er sake of love that this loss of identity takes place and that individual chara cters are made to suffer accordingly: "It was the more extravagant cult of love that struck sensible people as irrational, and likely to have dubious effects on its acolytes".[12] He believes that identities in the play are not so much lost as they are blended together to create a type of haze through which distinction becomes nearly impossible. It is driven by a desire for new and more practical ties between characters as a means of coping with the strange world within the f orest, even in relationships as diverse and seemingly unrealistic as the brief l ove between Titania and Bottom the Ass: "It was the tidal force of this social n eed that lent energy to relationships".[13] David Marshall, an aesthetics scholar and English Professor at the University of

California Santa Barbara, takes this theme to an even further conclusion,[citat ion needed] pointing out that the loss of identity is especially played out in t he description of the mechanicals and their assumption of other identities. In d escribing the occupations of the acting troupe, he writes "Two construct or put together, two mend and repair, one weaves and one sews. All join together what i s apart or mend what has been rent, broken, or sundered". In Marshall's opinion, this loss of individual identity not only blurs specificities, it creates new i dentities found in community, which Marshall points out may lead to some underst anding of Shakespeare's opinions on love and marriage. Further, the mechanicals understand this theme as they take on their individual parts for a corporate per formance of Pyramus and Thisbe. Marshall remarks that "To be an actor is to doub le and divide oneself, to discover oneself in two parts: both oneself and not on eself, both the part and not the part". He claims that the mechanicals understan d this and that each character, particularly among the lovers, has a sense of la ying down individual identity for the greater benefit of the group or pairing. I t seems that a desire to lose one's individuality and find identity in the love of another is what quietly moves the events of A Midsummer Night's Dream. It is the primary sense of motivation and is even reflected in the scenery and mood of the story. Ambiguous sexuality In his essay "Preposterous Pleasures: Queer Theories and A Midsummer Night's Dre am", Douglas E. Green explores possible interpretations of alternative sexuality that he finds within the text of the play, in juxtaposition to the proscribed s ocial mores of the culture at the time the play was written. He writes that his essay "does not (seek to) rewrite A Midsummer Night's Dream as a gay play but ra ther explores some of its 'homoerotic significations' ... moments of 'queer' dis ruption and eruption in this Shakespearean comedy".[14] Green states that he doe s not consider Shakespeare to have been a "sexual radical", but that the play re presented a "topsy-turvy world" or "temporary holiday" that mediates or negotiat es the "discontents of civilisation", which while resolved neatly in the story's conclusion, do not resolve so neatly in real life.[15] Green writes that the "s odomitical elements", "homoeroticism", "lesbianism", and even "compulsory hetero sexuality" in the story must be considered in the context of the "culture of ear ly modern England" as a commentary on the "aesthetic rigidities of comic form an d political ideologies of the prevailing order". Aspects of ambiguous sexuality and gender conflict in the story are also addressed in essays by Shirley Garner[ 16] and William W.E. Slights[17] albeit all the characters are played by males. Feminism Male dominance is one thematic element found in A Midsummer Night's Dream. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Lysander and Hermia escape into the woods for a night w here they do not fall under the laws of Theseus or Egeus. Upon their arrival in Athens, the couples are married. Marriage is seen as the ultimate social achieve ment for women while men can go on to do many other great things and gain societ al recognition.[18] In his article "The Imperial Votaress", Louis Montrose draws attention to male and female gender roles and norms present in the comedy in co nnection with Elizabethan culture. In reference to the triple wedding, he says, "The festive conclusion in A Midsummer Night's Dream depends upon the success of a process by which the feminine pride and power manifested in Amazon warriors, possessive mothers, unruly wives, and wilful daughters are brought under the con trol of lords and husbands."[19] He says that the consummation of marriage is ho w power over a woman changes hands from father to husband. A connection between flowers and sexuality is drawn. The juice employed by Oberon can be seen as symb olising menstrual blood as well as the sexual blood shed by virgins. While blood as a result of menstruation is representative of a woman's power, blood as a re sult of a first sexual encounter represents man's power over women.[20] There are points in the play, however, when there is an absence of patriarchal c ontrol. In his book Power on Display, Leonard Tennenhouse says the problem in A

Midsummer Night's Dream is the problem of "authority gone archaic".[21] The Athe nian law requiring a daughter to die if she does not do her father's will is out dated. Tennenhouse contrasts the patriarchal rule of Theseus in Athens with that of Oberon in the carnivalistic Faerie world. The disorder in the land of the fa iries completely opposes the world of Athens. He states that during times of car nival and festival, male power is broken down. For example, what happens to the four lovers in the woods as well as Bottom's dream represents chaos that contras ts with Theseus' political order. However, Theseus does not punish the lovers fo r their disobedience. According to Tennenhouse, by forgiving the lovers, he has made a distinction between the law of the patriarch (Egeus) and that of the mona rch (Theseus), creating two different voices of authority. This distinction can be compared to the time of Elizabeth I in which monarchs were seen as having two bodies: the body natural and the body politic. Elizabeth's succession itself re presented both the voice of a patriarch as well as the voice of a monarch: (1) h er father's will which stated that the crown should pass to her and (2) the fact that she was the daughter of a king.[22] The challenge to patriarchal rule in A Midsummer Night's Dream mirrors exactly what was occurring in the age of Elizab eth I.