Thermodynamics I

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Introduction Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics Energy, Energy Transfer, and General Energy Analysis Properties of Pure Substances Energy Analysis of Closed Systems Energy and Mass Analysis of Control Volumes The Second Law of Thermodynamics Entropy Steam Power Cycle Applications Examples

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Overview Energy Transfer by

Heat, Work, Mass

2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6

Forms of Energy Energy Transfer by Heat Energy Transfer by Work Mechanical Forms of Work First Law of Thermodynamics Energy Conversion Efficiencies

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Energy Conservation
A fan running in a well-sealed and well-insulated room will raise the temperature of air in the room.

A refrigerator operating with its door open in a wellsealed and wellinsulated room

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer

Heat Transfer Q Temperature driven transient energy transfer along the boundaries of a system. Work W Any other transient energy transfer at the boundaries of a system. Mass Flow For open systems the mass entering a system has energy and will increases the energy of the system. Likewise, the mass leaving the system will decrease the energy of that system.

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Energy of a System
Energy exists in forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear. Sum of all energies of a system: Total Energy

E = (energies)
Total Energy per unit mass of a system

E e= m

( J / kg )

Total Energy = macroscopic energy + microscopic energy

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Macroscopic and Total Energy

Kinetic Energy KE:

my y = KE = (J ) ke ( J / kg ) 2 2
Potential Energy PE:

PE = mgz ( J )
Total Energy E:

pe = gz ( J / kg )

my 2 E= U + KE + PE = U+ + mgz ( J ) 2 y2 e =u + ke + pe =u + + gz ( J / kg ) 2
Thermodynamics 1 Chapter 2 6

Microscopic or Internal Energy

Microscopic Energy is related to the molecular structure pf a system and the degree of activity on that level. The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is termed the internal energy U. Thermal Energy

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Volume, Mass and Energy Flow Rates

y y

Volume Flow Rate: = y A [m3 /s ] V

avg c

Mass Flow Rate: y A [kg /s ] = = m V avg c Energy Flow Rate: = me [kJ /s or kw] E
Thermodynamics 1 Chapter 2 8

Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine. Associated with fluids, insignificant heat transfer, essentially isothermal. Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.
y

Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass = flow energy + kinetic energy + potential energy
y

Rate of mechanical energy of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass
y y

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

y
Thermodynamics 1

y
Chapter 2 9

ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

Heat Q [kJ]: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as it crosses the system boundary.

Thermodynamics 1

Temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer. The larger the temperature difference, the higher is the rate of heat transfer.
Chapter 2 10

ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

Heat transfer per unit mass Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate is constant Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate changes with time

During an adiabatic process, a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

Q= U = mc(T2 T1 )
Thermodynamics 1

Amount of heat transfer to heat up a body with mass m and specific heat capacity c from T1 to T2.
Chapter 2 11

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.

T Qcond = kA x
Convection: The transfer of energy between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.

conv = h A (Ts Tf ) Q
Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or photons).
4 rad = A Ts4 Tsurr Q
Thermodynamics 1

h
Chapter 2 12

ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

Work W [kJ]: A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions.
Work done per unit mass

Electrical work Boundary work: Gravitational work: Acceleration work: Shaft work: Spring work:

W= VI t [kJ] e Wb = PdV [kJ]

1 2

Wg = mg ( z2 -z1 ) [kJ]
2 2 Wa = m( y2 -y1 ) [kJ]

Wsh = 2 n [kJ]
2 2 Wspring = 1 2 k ( x2 -x1 ) [kJ]

Work for elastic bar:

Power is the work done per unit time (kW)
Thermodynamics 1

Wbar = n Adx [kJ]

1

Work for liquid film:

Chapter 2

W film = S dA [kJ]
1
13

Heat vs. Work

Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as well as the end states).

Properties are point functions have exact differentials (d ).

Properties are point functions; but heat and work are path functions (their magnitudes depend on the path followed). Path functions have inexact differentials ( )

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

14

 Energy can change from one form to the other. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

First Law of Thermodynamics Conservation of Energy Total Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms. The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to the amount of heat transferred to it. 15

For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system and the details of the process fundamental principle First Law of Thermodynamics. Value of work depends on end states only must correspond to a change if a property of system Total Energy.
Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.

Ein Eout = Esystem

The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
Thermodynamics 1 Chapter 2 16

Energy Balance
The energy change of a system during a process is equal to the net work and heat transfer between the system and its surroundings. The work (boundary) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system. The work (electrical) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system.
Thermodynamics 1 Chapter 2 17

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W.

Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and potential energy changes

Thermodynamics 1

Chapter 2

18

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

>Heat Transfer< >Work Transfer<

>Mass flow<

The energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow as well as heat and work interactions.
Thermodynamics 1 Chapter 2

A closed system involves only heat transfer and work.

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EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is accomplished.

desired output efficiency = required input

Chapter 2

Pump efficiency Generator efficiency Pump-Motor overall efficiency Turbine-Generator overall efficiency

The overall efficiency of a turbinegenerator is the product of the efficiency of the turbine and the efficiency of the generator, and represents the fraction of the mechanical energy of the fluid converted to electric energy.
Thermodynamics 1 Chapter 2 21