Biology Review 5.4 and 5.

5.4 Evolution
5.4.1 Define evolution. Evolution is the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population. Darwinist theory of evolution. Cumulative because moret than one heritable characteristic must change in a population for us to state that evolution has occured. Heritable because these characteristics are passed on, and over the generations we can say evolution has occured. 5.4.2 Evidence for evolution 1. Fossil Records : show that species continually evolve. Older rock layers contain fossils of simpler org.s and species that no longer exist; Younger rock layers contain fossils more similar to species alive today Imperfect record of evolution. 2. Selective Breeding and Artificial Selection : Is evidence of evolution occuring through an artificial process of selection. E.g. Breeds of plants, pets, animals for food production. Repeated cross-breeding of animals with desired features (e.g. dachshund, grehound, Angus cattle). Comparison with wild strands of species. 3. Comparative Anatomy : the study of the anatomies of presently alive organisms can show evolutionary links between different species. Homologous structures have the same origin but different functions. These show evolutionary links between different species. E.g. the pentadactyl limb (extremity of 5 digits) in species of 4 different classes of terrestrial vertebrates, i.e. frog (amphibian), lizard (reptile), birds, bat, whale human (mammals). v.s. Analogous structures have same function but different origins. Fundamental structural differences suggest that species do not have common ancestry (e.g. wings in birds, butterfly) 5.4.3-7 Reasons and Methods of Natural Selection 5.4.3 Observation: Populations tend to produce more offspring than their environment can support BUT population size tends to remain +/- constant. (i.e. exponential/plateau phases) 5.4.4 Deduction: Not all offspring survives to reach a mature age; overproduction of offspring must lead to a struggle for survival and a competition for resources. o Overproduction of offspring can be seen as evolutionary strategy: e.g. huge production of eggs, sperm or spores (more than can be fertilized) increases possibility that at least some will be fertilized, thus passing on the genetic legacy of parents and species.

5.4.5 Members of species that reproduce sexually shows variation. 5.4.6 Due to random combination of chromosomes in gametes (random alligment of bivalens in metaphase I), random fertilization of gametes and random crossing over of genes during meiosis or mutations later. 5.4.7 Within a genetically varied population, individuals with favorable heritable characteristics (i.e. that make them better adapted to their environment) are more likely to survive and reproduce, therefore passing on their genetic info to future generations and eventually leading to a change in the characteristics of the population. This is how natural selection leads to evolution. o E.g. sweet smell of flowers attracts birds and bees that spread pollen (better adapted, presumably casual, characteristic spread to whole species over time)

5.4.8 Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria. 1. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is common phenomenon by which bacteria develop a genetically determined resistance to administered antibiotics. Antibiotics administered to patient change environment within which bacterias live. Antibiotics destroy most bacteria, those with resistant genes survive and reproduce through binary fission. New population is resistant to previous antibiotic. Stronger antibiotic is administered, kills most bacteria,those with this new resistant gene survive. cycle repeats itself. Rpeated use of different antibiotics leads to multiple resistances building up in bacterial population (super-bacteria!) 2. The Peppered Moth (Biston betularia) species changed characteristics in response to exhaust fumes in the 19th century industrial revolution in Britain. Earlier, only 2% of peppered moths were dark-colored and about 98% were lightcolored. Fumes darkened trees of British countryside, this changed the environment of the peppered moth, making the darker moth strand to be better adapted for camouflage on trees (i.e. less predation) More light moths died, while dark moths passed on their genetic information to future generations, they became the only type of peppered moth left. Other examples?

5.5 Classification
5.5.1 Outline the binomial system of nomenclature for species designed by Carolus Linnaeus in 18th century. Genus species. E.g. Pantera leo, Pantera tigris. Inter-lingual communication vs. arbitrary divisions and precendece of latin language. 5.5.2 List seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa Science of classification is taxonomy, sorts all species into a each level of taxa. KPCOFGS: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. Acronyms?

The Five Kingdoms: 1. Prokaryote (Eubacteria and Archeabacteria) Prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. Reproduce asexually through binary fission E.g. E. Coli and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. 2. Fungi Heterotrophic organisms, with chitin cell walls. Reproduce asexually through spores. E.g. Boletus edulis (fungo porcino) and Saccharomyces cerevisae (bakers and brewers yeast) 3. Plantae Eukaryotic organisms, with cellulose cell walls etc. Reproduce sexually or asexually (see later) E.g. Rosa canina and Pinus pinea 4. Animalia Eukaryotic, heterotrophs. Reproduce sexually through gamete production. E.g. Pantera leo and Suricata suricatta 5. Protoctista Odds and ends kingdom defined by exclusion, eukaryotic, autotroph or heterotroph, mainly aquatic unicellular organisms. From Gk. Protos (very first) ktistos (to establish). Note! Algea are all photosynthetic protoctista. E.g. algea, protists 5.5.2 Two Examples of taxonomy. 1. Rosa canina: Plantae (K), Magnoliophyta=Angiospermophyta (D), Magnoliopsida (C), Rosales (O), Rosaceae (F), Rosa (G), canina (S) 2. Lion: Animalia (K), Chordata (P), Mammalia (C), Carnivora (O), Felidae (F), Pantera (G), leo (S)

5.5.3 Distinguish between the following phyla of plants using simple external recognition features:

1. Bryophyta: e.g. mosses Vegetative chars: non-vascular plants. They are very close to the ground, no root system but absorb through rhizoids (root-like), through capillary action/osmosis. Reproductive chars: asexual, through spores produced in capsule at end of stalk, trasported in air/rainwater. 2. Filicinophyta: e.g. ferns Vegetative chars: vascular plants with root system (xylem and phloem transport cells), leaves (often pinnate), short non-woody stems. Reproductive chars: through spores produces in sporangia on underside of leaf, trasported in air/rainwater. 3. Coniferophyta: e.g. coniferous evergreens (cedar, juniper, fir, pine) Vegetative chars: vascular plants with root system, shrubs or trees with roots, woody branches, needles with thick waxy cuticle as leaves. Reproductive chars: gametes in seeds that develop from ovules in female cones, ferlized by pollen in male cones. 4. Angiospermophyta: (a.k.a. Magnoliophyta) e.g. all flowering and fruit-bearing plants Vegetative chars: vascular plants with roots, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits. Reproductive chars: gametes in seeds that develop from ovules in ovaries (in flower) pollen produced on stigma. Seeds and pollen transported by birds/bees/mammals for cross-pollination. Major Classes: Monocot or Dicot (# of germogli). 5.5.4 Distinguish between the following phyla of animals using simple external recognition features: 1. Porifera, e.g. sponges Porous bodies, asymmetric, sessile (attached to suface),mostly marine. Feed on plankton absorbed through pores. No mouth or anus. Simple digestive system 2. Cnidaria, e.g. jellyfish, corals, sea anaemonies. Mostly marine, radial symmetry of bodies, tentacles with stinging cells for paralysing prey (hematoplasts). Can be motile (medusa) or sessile (hiroid). Body cavity is gut with single opening for ingestion/excretion. 3. Plathyhelminthes e.g. tapeworm, flukeworm, flatworm. Flat, thin unsegmented worm, bilaterally symmetric, rudimentary head. Can be free-living or parassitic. Can be hermaphrodytes. Single opening ingestion/egestion.

4. Annelida, e.g. Earthworms, leeches. Segmented worms, bilaterally symmetric. Internal cavity filled with fluid, 2 digestive openings (mouth+anus).

5. Mollusca e.g. slugs, snails, squid, octopus, mussels. Soft flexible bodies with little or no segmentation, clear head/feet/tentacles. Can have skeletal shell secreted by tissue layer Sharp tongue for feeding, 2 digestive openings. 6. Arthropoda e.g. crabs, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, insected. Bilateral symmetry, segmented bodies with external skeleton (chitin based), jointed limbs, simple circulatory and nervous system. Very numerous phylum with large subdivisions. Insects are most numerous (head/thorax/abdomen).

5.5.5 Design or complete a dichotomous key.