Influence of material selection on energy demand in residential houses

Agya Utama
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkuts University of Technology Thon uri, !angkok, Thailand

Abstract
Utili"ing local materials for im#roving the energy demand in the single landed houses in Semarang is very #romising, since it also entails less cost during #roduction and trans#ortation$ Many #ossi le scenarios have een develo#ed to meet these criteria, such as% im#roving craftsmanshi# &including air leakage #revention y adding ru er or sealant in all #ossi le ga#s, using dou le 'alls 'ith cavity, dou le 'alls 'ith am oo in et'een

and introducing less trans#arent glass The study also revealed the !reak Event (oint &!E() in energy and cost, the energy !E( y calculating the initial em odied energy u# to construction 'ith the reduction of the electricity consum#tion and cost !E( y calculating the initial investment 'ith the monthly electricity saving$ !oth !E( is calculated ased on the !ASE*+,E scenarios$

Key'ords- .esidential uilding% Em odied energy% cost !E(% energy !E(% !uilding envelo#es material

1.

Introduction The electricity consum#tion in +ndonesia is /01 generated for residential houses 234 as the

figure in the 'orld that 506/01 #rimary energy used in uildings274, in the US 581 electricity demand is generated for uildings 254$ +n terms of cost, uilding envelo#es contri ute the ma9or #ercentage of material used in the residential uilding, 'alls contri uting /:1 and roofs 3:1 2/4, and are the second heaviest 'ith 3/63;1 of total uilding 'eight &after <01 for foundation and structure Error- .eference source not found254)$ =or the overall energy usage during the life cycle of the uilding, the o#eration #hase constitutes more than <01 of the demand$ Thus, the energy use during the occu#ation #hase needs to e analy"ed$ >eat gains through uilding envelo#es contri ute a##ro?imately 806:0 #ercent of the total heat gain in the uilding 2/4$ Economic develo#ment and #o#ulation gro'th have created a high demand for housing com#ounds &some ig cities develo# high6rise a#artments as an alternative to co#e 'ith e?#ansion to the rural areas) and traffic #ro lems$ Some cities 'ill not ra#idly co#e 'ith traffic and land availa ility #ro lems, ho'ever sooner or later they 'ill face #ro lems similar to metro#olitan cities$ The single
@

Aorres#onding author$ E-mail address- agyaBkgsee$kmutt$ac$th

landed houses are still far more attractive com#ared to the high6rise a#artments in these cities$ Semarang is a good e?am#le of this kind of city, the ra#id #o#ulation gro'th as 'ell as ur ani"ation creates #ro lems for the government in #roviding adeCuate shelter for its citi"ens$ =or decades, it is the #rivate sector that has come to #rovide alternative residential com#ounds$ Semarang &SMG) 'ith a total #o#ulation of a out 3$58 million 284 has different characteristics in terms of ur an residential uildings com#ared to Jakarta &JKT) 'hich is a metro#olitan city$ The trend of residential uildings in JKT is more to'ards high6rise houses &a#artments, condominiums, etc$) rather than landed houses$ The ty#ical houses in Semarang are single houses o'ned and develo#ed y #rivate com#anies, follo'ed y government o'ned single housing &(erumnas)$ !ased on local munici#ality facts and figures, #resently there are 33/ single housing com#ounds o'ned and develo#ed y #rivate com#anies or government, 'ith the num er of households varying from 78 units u# to 8000 units #er com#ound$ (revious studies have sho'n that uildings last longer com#ared to uilding materials and eCui#ment% the data reCuired for analysis of life cycle energy and cost are numerous and analysis 'ould e tedious and time consuming$ Therefore it is not #ractical for a designer to #redict the effect of a certain design decision over its lifetime 2:42;4$ >ence, it is im#ortant to assess the #arts of the uilding 'hich have the iggest influence to its life cycle and give various design o#tions and strategies for ty#ical uildings ased on #erformance over their entire lifetime$ There is only a limited amount of research literature on energy efficiency in residential uildings &landed and high6rise a#artment) in hot and humid climates- most of the literature has focused on the comfort conditions for occu#ants 'hile the ma9ority of the studies are done in a#artments rather than single landed houses 2<4$ Also, most of the studies focus on #articular envelo#e com#onents to'ards energy effects and human comfort 'ithout considering the em odied energy, for e?am#le, energyDefficient envelo#e 2<4, 'all insulation thickness and #ositions &!o9ic et al in 2<4), ventilation strategies 2E4, or heating and cooling energy y the utili"ation of #assive design 2304$ This study focuses on single landed houses &commonly used in develo#ing countries) and considers not only human comfort and energy im#act of the selected materials ut also considers em odied energy during ra' material e?traction, trans#ortation, #roduction and construction and es#ecially utili"ation of materials availa le in the local market$ +t also com#ares cost efficiency and is an easy guide for uilding stakeholders in selecting a##ro#riate materials for enclosure and lo'er im#act to the

environment, lo' em odied energy and also etter influence in terms of reducing the electricity consum#tion on cooling loads$ The #ur#ose of this article is to assess the est scenarios ased on +ndonesian climate and occu#ant ehaviour for uilding envelo#es y utili"ing local materials availa le in the market, in relation to the em odied energy and energy demand during use #hase also including cost im#lications for single landed houses in Semarang$ The com#arison 'ill focus on scenarios for #ossi le reduction of heat gain through the uilding envelo#e using local materials availa le in the market$ Since some #ossi le scenarios for reducing energy during use #hase are already eing im#lemented in some countries, such as adding lo' U6value insulation to the 'alls, additional #hotovoltaic for facades, and #assive cooling systems etc$, it seems unlikely that modern design solving #oint of vie' a ove can e im#lemented easily due to lack of availa ility of materials, high cost, lack of kno'6ho', or technical difficulties &lo' Cuality, unskilled la our, etc)$ The model scenarios 'ill e com#ared to the ty#ical houses used in +ndonesian middle class residential com#ounds 'hich are used as aseline &this 'ill e further e?#lained in 7$7)$ The methodology develo#ed 'ill evaluate the #ossi le scenarios vis6F6vis the efficiency of electricity consum#tion & y AA) y ad9usting the material envelo#es &e?cluding the uilding form and sha#e) using local materials availa le in the market, 'hich have not een assessed in the studies so far in +ndonesia$ +t could e a useful tool for designers 'ho may 'ish to consider more design o#tions$ Therefore the designer can evaluate a design ased on em odied energy, reduction of AA electricity consum#tion, and cost com#arison$ (ossi le scenarios include im#roving the uilding craftsmanshi# during construction and introducing additional air arriers therefore reducing leakage et'een "ones and the e?ternal environment to the conditioned "ones, dou le layer 'alls y means of ricks, e?ternal layers and gy#sum oard for inner layer &'ith air ga# in et'een), a##lying locally a undant ra' material & agasse) as main constituent of non6firing ricks, reducing 'indo's to 'alls ratio &GG.) from regular GG. &'ithin the acce#ta le natural lighting), re#lacing regular 'indo' glass 'ith less trans#arent glass and adding the am oo sheet in dou le layer 'alls$ These scenarios 'ill e simulated ased on the room ehaviour of Semarang single landed houses for AA utili"ation, and 'ill also calculate the infiltration et'een "ones &three "ones) and influence of the e?ternal "ones$ >o'ever the

simulation 'ill ignore the influence of internal sensi le and latent heat &such as from a##liances and human heat)$ This study 'ill focus on the cooling load associated 'ith its enclosure influence to the #erimeter "ones as most of the air conditioned "ones in single landed houses are located in this "one$ The #erimeter "one, or #erimeter load, is the com#onent of the sensi le heat load, 'hich is calculated under the condition that the internal heat generation is "ero 2334$ 2. Methodology

*and develo#er Scenarios y utili"ing availa le local material for uilding envelo#es and its associate availa le in the market

Iesigner

Simulations

Aontractors

>ouses

Users ehaviour

Figure 1 Stages diagram on stakeholder influences on the study

2.1. Embodied energy Em odied energy in a #roduct com#rises the energy used to e?tract, trans#ort and refine the ra' materials and then to manufacture the com#onents and assem le the #roduct Error- .eference source not found$ The energy consumed directly at each #hase of material #roduction is clearly defina le and measura le% this #a#er assesses the direct energy consumed y residential enclosure uilding materials$ (rocess analysis has een used to assess the energy consumed during ra' material e?traction, and material #roduction u# to the construction #rocess, including energy consumed during its trans#ortation$ Though the study site for the uildings is the city of Semarang, the data collection for the enclosure materials has een conducted throughout Java as not all the material is manufactured locally$ Most of the data used for em odied energy assessment in this study is o tained from the authorsH #revious study 2374 and some from other sources such as am oo from 2354 and agasse ricks from 23/4238423:4$

The materials selected for scenarios in this study are ased on the ty#ical materials availa le in the local market &clay ricks, gy#sum oard, am oo sheet and clear glass), and materials 'hich are not yet availa le on the market ut #otentially availa le as the natural resources and recycled material are very a undant &for instance agasse)$ *ocal materials 'ill e the strong focus for selecting scenarios in this #a#er, as im#orted material and inter regional material consume more energy than local material$ The em odied energy and initial cost 'ill e considered only for the selected "one &room) 'hich the air conditioned are utili"ed$ So the other "one materials remain the same as the aseline case$ 2.2. Case study (baseline) Middle class residential houses 'ere used in this study as aseline% the ty#ical materials that are currently used have een chosen along 'ith ty#ical floor area and occu#ancy rate$ The studied houses are #redominantly made from clay ased material, y means of having e?ternal 'alls that use clay ricks as the main material, and roof enclosure made from clay tiles$ Jther studied houses use cement ase as the core material, such as concrete locks for 'alls and concrete roof$ !oth ty#es of houses have the average air conditioning ty#e and #o'er &General rand from Ja#an 'ith ;000 !tuKh ca#acity and coefficient of #erformance 5$7) and similar occu#ant ehaviour &/ #eo#le- 7 adults and 7 children)$ The data 'as gathered in Semarang using o#en intervie' and Cuestionnaire from 58 households &mainly rick material) 'ith a floor area ranging from 806:8 sCuare meters$ The households have t'o ed rooms &one of 'hich is air6conditioned) and are considered as middle class homes 'ith a monthly average family income et'een five to ten million .u#iah &USI 88063300)$

8.82 2.80 3.80

2.80

AIR CONDITIONED AREA

2.80 0.68 6.00

3.10

9.50

*+L+,G .JJM

Figure 2 Typical floor plan and perspective for typical single landed house !" m2 floor areas#

The ty#ical house in this study &see figure 7) has an air6conditioned area of a##ro?imately 30 m7 from a total of 8/$8 m7, and one com ined living roomKkitchen$ The 'all is mainly clay rick covered y 30 mm #laster oard on oth sides$ The ceiling is made from local 5mm gy#sum, 'ith roof and 'indo'Kdoor frames made from 'ood$ The house used as aseline for this case study &clay ased house) is chosen as the result of a #revious study revealing that a clay ased house has etter #erformance in its life cycle &/0 years) com#ared to other common ty#e &cement ased)% hence im#rovement o#tions are sought for this ty#e$ The aseline 'ill e com#ared 'ith the #ossi le scenarios of reducing electricity demand associated 'ith cooling load$ The aseline also takes into consideration some standard materials, such as structure column &made from concrete and steel reinforcement), roof frame &made from 'ood frame

classification t'o), gy#sum ceiling, concrete sla s 'ith ceramics tiles on ground, 'indo's and doors 'ooden frame, occu#ant ehaviour and 'eather conditions$ The data collected in the selected house and utili"ation ehaviour 'ill e used as in#ut in EAJTEAT, a dynamic uilding analysis soft'are used to simulate the cooling load$ EAJTEAT 'ill simulate ased on data such as average tem#erature setting, occu#ants, material for enclosure, humidity, AA efficiency, AA utili"ation ehaviour, "one infiltration, e?ternal infiltration, air s#eed, and internal heat &a##liances and human) 23;423<4$ The simulation 'ill e carried out on an annual asis as most of the months are hot and humid and a fe' months &/68 months) 'et and rainy$ EAJTEAT #rovides information of heat gainKloss through o#aCue #ortions of the enclosure, and natural ventilation in 5I 23E4$ 2.3. Baseline and scenarios =igure 5 sho's the ty#ical rick configurations used for 'alls of single landed houses in +ndonesia$

(air ricks

half #air ricks

Cuarter #air ricks

Figure $ Typical bricks layer arrangements for masonry

These ty#ical rick layer assem lies 'ill e used in the scenarios, for e?am#le, Iou le Galls 'ith cavity &IGg) uses half #air ricks for e?ternal and gy#sum oard in the inner layer, and Iou le Galls 'ith am oo sheet &IG ) uses #air ricks on the ottom follo'ed y Cuarter ricks uilt along vertically to the to#, etc$

<

O U T S ID E

#laster

M #air ricks

#laster

Figure " %ross section of layers from typical Indonesian single landed &alls

=igure / sho's the ty#ical cross6section of 'alls in single landed houses in +ndonesia$ The layers consist of 780*?330G?80T mm ricks covered y mortar #laster on oth sides$ !rick density in the model is E80 kgKm5$ Mortar #laster thickness is 30mm% therefore the total thickness is 350 mm$ +n this study the uilding enclosure material availa le in the local market have een used to o tain a lo' em odied energy as 'ell as the most feasi le cost associated 'ith reasona le energy reduction during use #hase in ty#ical single landed household ehaviour under local 'eather and climate conditions$ The scenarios 'ill e categori"ed into three #oints of vie' regarding res#onsi ilities &land develo#erKcontractors, designer, and a #oint of vie' com ining the #revious t'o)$

IN S ID E

Table 1 Thermal properties of enclosure materials for baseline case and selected scenarios
U6value Ty#e of model and material 2GKm7$K4 2overall4 GA**S !aseline light'eight ricks Iou le 'alls gy#sum &IGg) light'eight ricks air ga# gy#sum Iou le 'alls am oo &IG ) light'eight ricks am oo sheets !agasse ricks &G! ) (laster Gindo' G*ASS Alear glass standard &E71 8$// trans#arency) Glass ;01 trans#arency Iou le gla"ing 8$// 7$;3 : : : 7500 7500 7500 3$0/: 3$0/: 3$0/: <5:$< <5:$< <5:$< 0$E7 0$; 0$E7 7$;7 7 0$;; 5$8 330 70 330 30 E80 E80 3:00 3780 0$7; 0$053 0$;:8 0$/53 </0 70E8 3000 30<< none none none 3$37 / 330 80 30 E80 3$5 3300 0$7; 8$8: 0$:8 </0 300/ </0 none none none 3$8< 5 330 E80 0$7; </0 none Time lag Gidth 2hours4 2overall4 2mm4 2kgKm54 2GKm$K4 2JKkg$K4 20634 Iensity tivity heat #arency Aonduc6 S#ecific Trans6

7$5$3$ *and develo#erKcontractorsH influence Scenario Crf; Using the aseline case to im#rove the craftsmanshi# et'een ga#s, therefore minimi"ing air6flo' across the ga#s$ Air movement occurs from the air leakage due #rimarily to the #ressure difference of air across the o#ening 2704$ Jften lo' Cuality craftsmanshi# occurs in +ndonesian housing% the use of lo' Cuality materials, elo' standard rick6laying, lo' Cuality finishing, and so on$ Therefore some cases occur such as leaks et'een 9oints, uneven 'indo'Kdoor frames, and ig ga#s et'een 'indo'sKdoors and the frame, sometimes resulting in the 'indo'sKdoorsH ina ility to e #ro#erly closed$

30

Ty#ical such o#enings in Thailand, as studied y Ahirarattananon 2704, include leakage et'een frame and 'all 7$7N306/ m7, et'een door and frame EN306/ m7, et'een 'indo' frame and 'all 3$5/N306/ m7, and et'een 'indo' and frame /$7N306/ m7$ There can also e leakage via ceiling <$:N3065 m7 &on ceiling and 'all fi?tures, and et'een ceilings)$ The ty#ical leakage area is more or less the same as in the +ndonesian case$ The aseline airflo' caused y leakage is assumed to e 0$/8 *$sKm7 or 0$8 AA> &Air Ahanges #er >our), 'hich is higher than ty#ical houses in S'eden &0$58 l$sKm7 or 0$/ AA>) 2734$ .educing the #ossi le igger ga#s 'ill reduce air movement &es#ecially to e?ternal environment and lo'er #ressure "ones), ho'ever etter craftsmanshi# is not enough to com#letely eliminate leakage$ =urther reduction of the flo' can e achieved y introducing additional air arriers for 'indo's, doors, and ga#s et'een 'ood, sheet, gy#sum, #anels etc$ Air arriers are also ca#a le of resisting 'ind loads, #ositive #ressure and suction 284$ >o'ever ga#s 'ill still continue to occur through differential movement, degradation of com#onents, material shrinkage or e?#ansion &due to 'eather) as the uilding ages, and therefore good Cuality material should e introduced$ Moreover the air arrier material should also e easily availa le in the market$ Some 'ater arrier materials such as airtight dry'all a##roach &AIA), s#ray #olyethylene foam, or any other advance air arrier materials are availa le in the glo al market, ut not in the local market$ Some o#tions availa le locally are sealants, ru er ta#es and as#halt$

!y introducing high Cuality craftsmanshi#, and introducing air arriers, the #ossi le ga#s and o#enings &es#ecially during the hot season) 'ill e reduced y as much as 801 of the AA>$ The aseline AA> 'as 0$8 for the ty#ical +ndonesian landed house$ +f the craftsmanshi# is im#roved and air arriers introduced, the AA> can e reduced to 0$78 AA> &O0$7 *$sKm7), and from 0$78 AA> for am ient air infiltration to 0$3 AA> &0$3 *$sKm7)$ This 'ill entail some additional cost due to the #urchasing of 'ind arrier materials, as 'ell as additional e?#enses for la our as 'orking hours 'ill increase$ 7$5$7$ IesignersH influence Scenario D g% Using dou le layer 'alls 'ith cavity and gy#sum, half #air rick layers & !asangan setenga" bata)# a common #ractice for constructing ricks masonry for houses) as e?ternal layers and gy#sum #laster oard at the inner layer, and an air ga# 'ith 'ooden frame &to 'hich the gy#sum is attached) in et'een$ The cross section of the 'all, as seen in =igure 8 elo', sho's the structure of

33

the 'all$ The material #ro#erties, as seen in , sho' the total U6value to e lo'er than a ty#ical 'all structure$ Moreover an initial cost for gy#sum 'ill e necessary, as 'ell as the cost of the 'ood frame as a su##orting structure for the gy#sum$ Since the construction #rocess is done y human la our, em odied energy during assem ly as 'ell as initial cost for construction machinery 'ill not e included$ >o'ever the cost for the la our 'ill e taken into account$

O U T S ID E

#laster

M #air ricks

air ga#s

gy#sum

Figure ! %ross section of double layer &alls &ith cavity

As seen in the time lag for this scenario is longer &/ hours) com#ared to 5 hours for the ty#ical 'all & aseline), due to the introduction of gy#sum in the inner layer$ This may cause heat gains at 33$00 to reach the conditioned "ones 'hereas for the ty#ical 'all 'hen the delay is 5 hours, only heat gains at 37$00 'ill influence the cooling load at the conditioned "one$ >o'ever the overall U6 value of this scenario is lo'er than the ty#ical 'all, therefore the cooling load reCuirements should e lo'er$

Scenario D b% Using dou le layer rick 'all filled 'ith am oo, and a com ination et'een one #air rick layers &!asangan satu bata) and Cuarter #air ricks &see =igure 5)$ The #air ricks are used for structuralKstrength #ur#oses, and the Cuarter ricks are used for creating the Pdou le 'all 'ithin 'hich the am oo sheets can e #laced &as seen in the =igure : elo')$

37

IN S I D E

O U T S ID E

#laster R ricks

am oo sheets

R #air ricks #laster

Figure ' %ross section of double &all &ith bamboo sheet in the middle

Scenario

Bb% Using ricks made from agasse cross section as seen in =igure ;$ !agasse is

a undantly availa le as residue from sugar mills in Asian countries 23/4238423:4 use of 'hich reduces emissions since most of this material 'ill go to landfill or e urnt$ !agasseKsugar cane ash ricks have thermal #ro#erties such as conductivity of a out 0$;:83 GKm$K at density 3:00 kgKm 5 23/423:4 2384$ The s#ecific heat is higher than regular ricks 23/4, suggesting #otential to re#lace regular clay ased ricks$ This material also has a minimum tensile strength of /0680 kgKcm 5 'hich is sufficient for structural 'alls &the average +ndonesian ricks are 50 kgKcm 5) 23/42384$ Another interesting characteristic of this material is its lo' em odied energy &38E; MJKm 5) 23/4 in com#arison to the regular ricks &8:3/ MJKm5), as it does not reCuire a firing #rocess ecause the main material consists of /06801 clay and Q301 cement and the remaining /01 is agasse or sugar cane ash$ The energy outlay during trans#ortation should also e taken into account$ This information is not availa le in the reference #a#ers, ho'ever to reduce energy during trans#ortation the #roduction of agasseKsugar cane ash ricks should e located near the sugar mill factory$ >o'ever choosing uilding materials ased only on lo' em odied energy levels 'ould not e sufficient since uilding materials 'ill also have a significant im#act on the cooling load during the use #hase$ These effects are included in the calculation$

35

IN S I D E

O U T S ID E

#laster

M #air agasse ricks

#laster

Figure ( %ross section of &all from bagasse bricks

Scenario $%&; Using single tint glass &;01 trans#arency) is an o#tion to re#lace standard clear glass, as it has the same thermal #ro#erties e?ce#t a lo'er trans#arency 'hich 'ill reduce heat transfer to the conditioned "one$ Moreover this ty#e of glass is availa le a undantly in the local market &commonly : mm and < mm)$ The #rice is around 3E8,000 .u#iahKm7 &73$/5 USIKm7), an increase of :8,000 .u#iahKm7 &;$3/ USIKm7) com#ared to regular clear glass$ The scenario 'ill use : mm thick less trans#arent glass and simulate the energy reduction on an average monthly asis$ Moreover the em odied energy of tint glass is 3$<: MJKkg higher than clear glass$

Scenario D$; Using dou le gla"ing$ This is similar to scenario G;0, 'ith the addition of a second layer of glass to the ase case$ !oth sheets of glass are : mm thick 'ith an air ga# in et'een &non6 vacuumed)$ >o'ever the additional glass layer inside may cause condensation, therefore a s#ecial design needs to e introduced, such as creating an o#ening to the inner layer glass allo'ing the ga# to e cleaned, and also allo'ing air circulation in the ga# &reducing the likelihood of tra##ed humidity)$ The material costs as 'ell as em odied energy 'ould e dou le that of the aseline$ The o#tion of dou le lo' E6value vacuumed glass in +ndonesia is unlikely to e used as it is difficult to find in the market and, 'hen availa le, only at a relatively high cost$

Scenario

'; .educing Gindo' to Gall .atio% the ty#ical single landed houses in Semarang have a

GG. of 0$/8 y using t'o large glass 'indo's$ .emoving one 'indo' 'ill then lo'er the GG. to 0$77, and has #otential also to reduce the heat gain$ The change in em odied energy reduction com#ared to the aseline resulting from the removal of one 'indo' frame and its glass and its

3/

IN S ID E

re#lacement y 'all area &more ricks and mortar 'ill e used) is also considered in this scenario$ The 'ood frame 'ill reduced y 8 meter &as the frame dimension is 0$08 y 0$0; meter) therefore 0$<7 MJ 'ill e reduced$ The em odied energy from 'indo' glass 'ill reduce y 78< MJ &3$8 m7 less 'indo's area)$ >o'ever the rick 'all area 'ill increase as the ricks and mortar 'ill re#lace the missing 'indo' area &an additional E7: MJ)$ 7$5$5$ Aom ined o#tion Scenario C()B% Using a com ination of the most energy conserving scenarios &either contractor or designer influence)$ +t is necessary to com#are 'hether a com ination of scenarios is via le in terms of installation costs, or 'hether initial costs are too high thus making the o#tion im#ossi le for the o'nerKdevelo#er to im#lement$ The com ination 'ould e that of dou le 'alls 'ith cavity and gy#sum, lo'ering GG. &from 0$/8 to 0$77), installing dou le glass 'ith ;01 trans#arency and introducing air arrier and im#roving craftsmanshi#$ All the scenarios a ove 'ill meet the criteria of human comfort outlined in the human comfort diagram 2734, the .elative >umidity &.>) for the comfort "one is et'een /06:01 'ith a tem#erature range of 3<67:SA$ This comfort "one 'ill e used as in#ut in the simulations$ The aseline room tem#erature thermostat, #rovided y the AA system, is set at 7/SA and :01 .>$ $. $.1 )esults and *iscussion +mbodied energy, cost saving and energy saving The aseline model is ased on real measurements as sho'n y normal energy demand, initial cost and em odied energy in the ty#ical clay rick single landed houses in +ndonesia$ The ty#ical energy demand on the ty#ical enclosure materials for the aseline case is re#resented as "ero &TU0,

38

VU0) in =igure < and =igure E$

additional em bodied energy [MJ] WBb "3000.00# average energy saving per month [kWh] "2000.00# "1000.00# 10 5 0.00 1000.00 G70 2000.00 3000.00 !000.00 5000.00

BASELINE
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 !0 !5 50 Crf DWg DWb G70 DG WWR COMB COMB BASELINE WBb DWg DWb Crf WWR DG

Figure - +mbodied +nergy .radient *iagram

3:

The gradient diagram a ove &=igure <) sho's the average energy saving #er month for the scenarios on the * a+is and additional em odied energy for each scenario &added or reduced) including em odied energy during construction &, a+is)$ The diagram is divided into four areas$ The first -one is the most energy saving #er month as 'ell as the least initial em odied energy$ The second -one sho's high energy saving ut 'ith high em odied energy$ The high em odied energy is caused y high energy consum#tion during the #roduction #hase and initial energy consumed during construction and trans#ortation$ The t"ird -one sho's the least energy reduction and also the least em odied energy$ The fourt" -one sho's the 'orst alternative scenarios 'ith no significant reduction of energy use and the initial em odied energy is also large$ The Glass ;01 trans#arent &G;0) has little additional em odied energy com#ared to clear glass 'indo's &a##ro?imately 7E MJKm7)$ These figures are similar for dou le 'alls 'ith am oo since no additional rick layer is introduced &see =igure 5)% in fact the em odied energy is less as each sCuare meter of rick masonry only consists of /< ricks instead of the :0 of regular ricks$ .educing Gindo's to Galls .atio &GG.) consumes "ero additional em odied energy for glass and frame, since the reCuired Cuantity of glass and 'ooden frame is reduced$ >o'ever the initial em odied energy for GG. still sho's an increase as the glass 'ill e re#laced y ricks, for 'hich the initial em odied energy is, a##ro?imately an additional ::; MJ$ Another conseCuence of reducing the GG. is less natural daylight$ This may increase the electricity used for lighting, ut ecause of its negligi le influence, this im#act is not included in the study$ Iou le Gla"ing &IG) seems to have less energy reduction and noticea ly higher em odied energy &in com#arison to the aseline)$ IG is #laced at gradient 5 for this alternative scenario$ >o'ever it is close to gradient / ecause the em odied energy is dou le that of the aseline and the #otential energy reduction is not significant &<$/; kGhKmonth)$ =or some reason these glass scenarios can e avoided as an alternative, since the initial em odied energy is significant enough for the 'hole life cycle of the uilding, e?ce#t the #ossi le to reduce its trans#arency &Q ;01) and increase its thickness$ =or instance, the G;0 and IG can e the <mm or even thicker instead of :mm$ This 'ill sho' a reduction of 0$7 kGhKmonth for <mm thick G;0, and 0$3 kGhKmonth for <mm thick IG$ IGc &Iou le 'all 'ith cavity) has high energy reduction ut also high em odied energy$ This is ecause of the introduction of a gy#sum layer for the 'hole inner 'all 7,/;; MJ additionally only for adding gy#sum oard and 7/$; MJ for its reinforced frame$ Iou le 'alls filled 'ith am oo

3;

sheet &IG ) 'ill reduce electricity consum#tion y <$8/ kGhKmonth com#ared to the aseline$ Moreover, the initial em odied energy of the ricks is not significant ecause the num er of the ricks does not increase significantly & y introducing a com ination of one #air and Cuarter #air rick layers to cover the ga# 'ithout adding any additional rick layers)$ The additional initial em odied energy only comes from am oo- 800 MJ is needed to #roduce 3 m5 of am oo in develo#ing countries 2354$

additional extra initial cost [USD]

WBb "60.00# average energy saving per month [kWh] "!0.00# "20.00# 10 5 0.00 20.00 G70 Crf DG !0.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00

BASELINE
5 WWR 10 15 20 25 30 35 !0 !5 50 Crf DWg DWb G70

DWb

DWg

COMB DG WWR COMB BASELINE WBb

Figure / Initial %ost gradient diagram

The gradient diagram in =igure E sho's the energy reduction during the o#eration #hase versus the additional cost &material as 'ell as construction cost) invested for each scenario$ The first -one is the most energy saving #er month as 'ell as the least initial investment cost$ The second -one sho's high energy saving ut 'ith higher initial investment$ The t"ird -one sho's the least energy reduction &even no reduction or more electricity consum#tion) and also the least initial cost$ Most of the alternative scenarios are located in this gradient as a conseCuence of little effort #roducing minimal results$ The fourt" -one sho's the 'orst alternative scenarios 'ith no significant reduction of energy use &similar 'ith third "one), and the initial investments are huge$

3<

The craftsmanshi# &including additional ru

erKsealant insulation) and reductions of GG.

are oth on the same gradient &5)$ This means these scenarios have less significance in terms of reducing electricity during the use #hase &less than 30 kGhKmonth) and have more initial investment cost &more than 30 USI)$ Ahanging from clear glass to ;01 trans#arency glass increases the initial investment to almost :0 USI and only reduces electricity consum#tion y 0$5/ kGhKmonth$ Moreover dou le gla"ing is similar ut has etter electricity reduction #er month &<$/; kGh)$ The est electricity reduction is sho'n y IGg or dou le 'alls 'ith cavity and gy#sum &50$5: kGhKmonth)$ >o'ever this alternative has an effect on the #rice as the initial cost reaches ;:$30 USI &gradient 7)$ The least investment cost, 'hile achieving Cuite significant electricity reduction &W 70 kGhKmonth reduction from that of the aseline), is that of dou le 'alls 'ith am oo &IG )$ +ntroducing am oo sheets in the middle of Iou le 'alls results in a reduction of 70$80 kGhKmonth- a good e?am#le of reducing electricity use 'hile kee#ing a lo' initial investment cost &73$;: USI)$ $.2 0reak even point 0+1# Aom#ared to the aseline, most of the model scenarios are located in gradient three for em odied energy and initial cost, or in other 'ords most of the #ossi le model scenarios 'ill not deviate much from the aseline &0,0)$ Moreover some scenarios have high energy saving together 'ith a high initial investment for e?am#le the Iou le 'all 'ith cavity and gy#sum 6IGg6 and com ined scenario 6AJM!6$ To have a etter idea of the relative gain in energy, the study also com#ares the #ossi le energy reak even #oint of the various scenarios$ This ratio sho's the energy #ay ack or time taken for the initially increased em odied energy to e recovered y the electricity savings from reduced cooling$ A similar calculation has also een done in terms of cost and the results for oth are #resented in Ta le 7, the ta le re#resents the cost !E( scenarios for the initial cost of the material divided y the #otential reduction of energy #er month$ The energy saving &kGhKmonth) is multi#lied y the average electricity cost for a medium house 'ith a 7700 G electricity ca#acity installed &.# 5E0KK'h or 0$0/5 USIKkGh)$ The Aost !E( for G;0 scenario sho's that more than ;8 years are reCuired to reach the reak even #oint, due to very lo' energy saving 0$5/ kGhKmonth &0$03 USIKmonth) and relatively high initial cost for investment &35$03 USI)$ This o#tion in terms of cost is not economically feasi le, therefore these can e neglected y some designers$ The est !E( in terms of introducing additional material is IG &7/$; months or 7 years, as seen in the figure a ove) since it has a very lo' initial

3E

investment cost and large reduction of electricity consum#tion &73$;: USI and 0$<< USIKmonth res#ectively)$ GG. in this case sho's an initial cost that is 30$5 USI chea#er, a monthly saving of around 0$53 USIKmonth com#ared to the aseline, meaning this o#tion is already saving money even efore it is used
Table 2 0reak even point 0+1# for selected scenarios compared to the baseline
!E( 2years4 Energy Aost 3$7: 0$;0 0$35 1.%3 3$E3 3$05 0$;; 0$:; 5$;< /$<; 7$0: %./0 ;8$/E 33$/E 67$;5 /$3E

Scenarios Araftsmanshi# and air arrier Iou le Gall cavity X gy#sum Iou le Gall am oo Bagasse bric.s Glass ;01 trans#arency Iou le glass GG. reduction Aom ined o#tion

+nitial Arf IGg IG Bb G;0 IG GG. AJM!

As seen in the gradient gra#hs &=igure < and =igure E) the IGg has a lo' em odied energy as 'ell as high monthly energy saving$ >o'ever, the energy !E( sho's that IGg has longer !E( than IG and com ined o#tion$ The lo' energy !E( for IG is due to the lo' em odied energy installed 53:$<0 MJ and the effect on the energy reduction &70$80 kGhKmonth) is significant com#ared to IGg &7803$:/ MJ and 50$5: kGhKmonth res#ectively)$ The figures also occur due to the lo'er em odied energy for am oo com#ared to gy#sum- 53: MJ to 7/;; MJ res#ectively$ G;0 has the largest energy and cost !E( due to high em odied energy consumed as 'ell as very small monthly electricity reduction$ The GG. moreover sho's that the initial em odied energy is ::;$35 MJ higher than the aseline, including the energy consumed during construction$ !agasse ricks &G! ) is a s#ecial case 'here the em odied energy from the su stitution is lo'er than the ase case and so is the cost$ >o'ever, the energy consum#tion during the o#eration #hase is higher than the ase case and hence, so is the cost$ Thus, in this case, the there is an initial gain of em odied energy and cost 'hich is offset y the increased energy use and cost during o#eration #hase$ This case is es#ecially interesting ecause it is currently eing #romoted in +ndonesia due to the lo' initial cost consideration$ >o'ever, the Ta le 7 sho's that the initial cost enefit is already offset in < years after 'hich a higher #rice is #aid for electricity$

70

".

%onclusion and discussion The use of local material to reduce the energy e?#enditure during the use #hase is a 'ise

decision since it 'ill also reduce the initial em odied energy as 'ell as cost, es#ecially trans#ortation cost$ *o' energy housing is not al'ays a out using high tech material or technology, ut kno'ing the local material and its characteristics, 'hich can lead us to a #ossi le life cycle energy saving for the house through reducing cooling loads$ =rom all scenarios, reducing the 'indo' to 'all ratio has the lo'est em odied energy and is reasona le enough in terms of energy reduction com#ared to the aseline$ Moreover the figures for oth Energy and Aost !reak Even (oint sho' that lo' GG. & ut still maintaining the #otential of daylighting) 'ill reduce electricity consum#tion caused y cooling loads Cuite significantly and have negative !E(, as it does not need any additional material to im#lement &rather is has a lo'er material reCuirement resulting in reduced cost and reduced em odied energy)$ >o'ever some households seem to neglect the o#tion to have lo' electricity consum#tion, as the electricity #rice is considera ly lo' &O5E0 .u#iahKkGh or 0$0/5 USIKkGh) ecause of the su sidy from the government Error- .eference source not found$ To achieve #u lic a'areness of lo' electricity consum#tion y ad9usting or retrofitting its envelo#es, full su##ort of the government is needed &either y #ush factors or #ull factors), such as increasing the #rice of electricity in certain areas to avoid an im#act on lo'er income families$ =or instance, the energy consum#tion for households 'ith a 7700 G ca#acity installed &mostly used y middle class families) could have a lo'er su sidy com#ared to those 'ho have E00 G installed &#ush factor)$ Another 'ay is develo#ing uilding code 'hich encourages only material 'ith thermal #ro#erty values that are eneficial to the hot and humid climate, therefore reducing heat gains$ +f the government increased the electricity #rice #er kGh y 781 &0$03 USI) the cost !E( figures 'ould sho' etter results &as seen in the ta le elo')$ The cost !E( 'ould e on average 701 faster if the electricity ill 'as increased y 781$

73

Table $ Scenarios as if the electricity bill is increased Aost !E( 2years4 Scenarios current Arf IGg IG G G;0 IG GG. AJM! 5$;< /$<; 7$0: ;$</ ;8$/E 33$/E &7$;5) /$3E increasing 301 5$// /$/5 3$<< ;$35 :<$:5 30$/8 &7$/<) 5$<3 781 5$05 5$E0 3$:8 :$7< :0$5E E$3E &7$3E) 5$58

Iou le 'all 'ith am oo is #romising as it has lo' em odied energy as 'ell as lo' cost$ +n +ndonesia am oo &as a native #lant) is a undant and easy to gro', therefore the #rice is reasona ly lo', and 'ith no com#licated #roduction #rocess reducing the initial em odied energy &e?ce#t for trans#ortation)$ +n the case of Semarang, the city is surrounded y rural areas 'hich are a source of am oo$ >o'ever the cost of am oo can increase in line 'ith high demand$ Since am oo is not ulk farmed, ut harvested from its natural ha itat, future #rice increases are inevita le$ Therefore it is necessary for the government and #rivate sector to industriali"e the am oo #lantations in the near future$ !ased on the strong resistance of am oo to shear load and #ressure 2354, 'alls filled 'ith am oo can also survive earthCuakes 'hich are common in +ndonesia due to its location et'een the Eurasian and Australian #lates$ Iou le 'alls 'ith cavity are eing used in case studies in many countries, and can e im#lemented in Semarang$ >o'ever, gy#sum is not relatively chea# and is therefore located in the second area of the diagram gradient$ Even so the energy saving #er month is considera ly lo', even in com#arison to Iou le 'alls 'ith am oo$ The initial em odied energy is high com#ared to other alternative scenarios$ This is ecause the gy#sum #roduction #rocess is energy intensive$ !y utili"ing the agasse, or sugar mill 'aste such as ash, as uilding materials 'ill increase the eco6friendly value of the material, and definitely reduce its em odied energy if the #rocess has lo'er energy content &such as firing)$ The use of 'aste material, in this case ricks made from agasse andKor sugar mill ash, that avoids the firing #rocess not only reduces em odied energy &see =igure <) ut also reduces #otential degradation of the natural resources, in this case the good Cuality of clay soil 'hich is also commonly used for #addy fields$ Avoiding the firing #rocess also reduces fuel consum#tion- the traditional firing #rocess for clay ricks mainly uses 'ood chi#, rice husk and 'ood

77

as these materials are very limited and in some cases are e?#ensive$ >o'ever lo' energy and environmentally friendly material 'ill not al'ays e the est o#tion for the life cycle of the uilding$ As seen in Ta le 7 the energy !E( of the model lasts more than 70 months meaning the lo' em odied energy 'ill e #aid off y the higher electricity consum#tion during its utili"ation, and after that this material 'ill not gain any enefits$ Therefore this o#tion should e neglected$ The most rational 'ay to choose the est model & y additional materials, and not reducing GG.) is to com#are 'hich gradient they are and then com#are their !E( &energy and cost)$ !y doing this, it is found that IGg, IG and AJM! are the three o#tions located in gradient or "one 3 and 7 'hich have reasona ly lo' em odied energy and a high #otential of electricity reduction com#ared to the !ASE*+,E$ Moreover, if 'e look at the !E( ta le it sho's that IG &Iou le 'all 'ith am oo sheets) has a out 3$: months for Energy !E( and need around 78 months for the Aost !E($ These values are relatively lo' com#ared to IGg 'hich has an Energy !E( more than five times higher, and is more than dou le in terms of Aost !E($ !y locating the scenarios on the gradient diagram 'e can find the est #ossi le enclosure design in terms of choosing material at a #oint 'here costs are not too high and the initial em odied energy is also relatively lo'$ The #ossi le scenarios 'ill not only consider the local material availa le in the market, ut the designer can choose any materials availa le in the glo al market and locate on the gradient and e?#and its T and V a?is to any num er de#ending on the ma?imum and minimum scenarios values$ The idea is that the designers, y locating their o#tions into this gradient and then com#aring the Energy !E( and Aost !E(, 'ill get a etter overvie' of the o#tion they have chosen 'ithout calculating the 'hole life cycle energy or life cycle cost$ This should e done as a first screening of the uilding envelo#e materials$ !. 234 )eferences G$G$ (ur'anto, et al# +ndonesia energy and outlook and statistic 700:, (engka9ian Energy Universitas +ndonesia, University of +ndonesia, 700:$ 274 U,E(6S!A+, !uildings and climate change% status, challenge and o##ortunities, U,E( #u lication, (aris, =rance, 700;$ 254 S$ !lanchard, ($ .e##e, *ife cycle analysis of a residential home in Michigan, University of Michigan and ,ational (ollution (revention Aenter USA, Jcto er 3EE<$ 2/4 ($ Ti'ari, J$ (arikh, Aost of AJ7 reduction in uilding construction, Energy 70 &3EE/) 85368/;$

75

284 2:4

+ndonesian Statistical !ureau &!(S), Semarang #o#ulation, Jakarta, +ndonesia, 700:$ ,$ Mithraratne, and !$ Lale, *ife cycle analysis model for ,e' Yealand house, !uilding and Environment 5E &700/) /<56/E7$

2;4

K$ Adal erth, Energy use during the life cycle of uildings- a method, !uilding and Environment, 57 &/) &3EE;) 53;6570$

2<4

A$K$ Aheung, .$J$ =uller, M$!$ *uther, Energy6efficient envelo#e design for high6rise a#artment, Energy and !uildings, 5; &7008) 5;6/<$

2E4

G$ *i#ing, and G$,$ >ien, The im#acts of ventilation strategies and faZade on indoor thermal environment for naturally ventilated residential uildings in Singa#ore, !uilding and Environment, /7 &700;) /00:6/038$

2304 I$A$ *u?moore, M$T$.$ Jayasinghe, M$ Mahendra, Mitigating tem#erature increase in high lot density su 6tro#ical residential develo#ment, Energy and !uildings, 5; &37) &7008) 37376377/$ 2334 T$ >irano, S$ Kato, S$ Murakami, T$ +kaga, V$ Shiraishi, >$ Uehara, A study on a #orous residential uilding model in hot and humid regions #art 76 reducing the cooling load y com#onent6scale voids and the AJ7 emission reduction effect of the uilding model, !uilding and Environment /3 &700:) 556//$ 2374 A$ Utama, and S$>$ Ghee'ala, *ife cycle energy of single landed houses in +ndonesia, Energy and !uildings, &acce#ted)$ 2354 A$ Janssen, !am oo in uilding structures, (hI Thesis, University of Eindhoven, the ,etherlands, 3E<3$ 23/4 L$T$ ,oer'asito, Energy efficiency ricks, from agasse 2in !ahasa4, Iimensi Teknik Arsitektur (etra University, +ndonesia, 57 &3) &700/) 8;6:7$ 2384 J$ Khedari, ($ Gatsanasatha#orn, J$ >irunla h, Ievelo#ment of fi re6 ased soil6cement lock 'ith lo' thermal conductivity, Aement and Aoncrete Aom#osites, 7;&3) &7008) 333633:$ 23:4 *$K$ Aggar'al, !agasse6reinforced cement com#osites, Aement and Aoncrete Aom#osites, 3; &3EE8) 30;6337$ 23;4 A$ Marsh, =$ Al6Jraier, A com#arative analysis using multi#le thermal analysis tools, in(roceeding of the +nternational Aonference on (assive and *o' Energy Aooling 5<8 for the !uilt Environment, Santorini, Greece, 7008$

7/

23<4 A$ .o ert, and A$ Marsh, EAJTEAT- Environmental (rediction in Architectural Education, Aardiff University, Gales, 7008$ 23E4 .$ Keleher, (arametric IaylightingKEnergy Modelling Soft'are, Memorandum, A.A>+TEAT, 700:$ 2704 S$ Ahirarattananon, !uilding for energy efficiency, School of Environment .esources and Ievelo#ment, A+T, Thailand, 7008$ 2734 J$=$ Karlson, !$ Moshfegh, A com#rehensive investigation of a lo'6energy uilding in S'eden$ .ene'a le Energy, 57 &700:) 3<5063</3$ 2774 !$ Givoni, (assive and lo' energy cooling of uildings, John Giley X Sons, +nc, Aanada, 3EE/$

78